Boilers: Basic Principles and Types

Boilers: Basic Principles and Types AOBBPT0-0811CEN

CONTENTS

Introduction ........................................................... 3
Unit Objectives .............................................................. 4
Principles of Operation ................................................ 5
Steam Production and Combustion ............................................ 5
Basic Boiler Operating Principles............................................... 5
Challenge Questions ............................................................. 7
Heat Transfer ................................................................ 8
Types of Heat Transfer ............................................................ 8
Heat Transfer in A Boiler......................................................... 9
Heat Transfer Problems......................................................... 10
Challenge Questions ............................................................ 11
Boiler Types ........................................................... 12
Fire Tube Boilers ................................................................ 12
Water Tube Boilers .............................................................. 13
Challenge Questions ............................................................ 14
Answers to Challenge Questions .......................................... 15
Glossary................................................................. 16

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Boilers: Basic Principles and Types AOBBPT0-0811CEN

INTRODUCTION

Industrial plants rely on steam for heating and other processes, and boilers
are commonly used to provide this steam. This course examines the basic principles
of boiler operation and the basic concepts of heat transfer. The major types of
boilers used in industrial facilities are also described.

The Boilers: Basic Principles and types handbook is designed as a reference tool
that you can use to refresh your understanding of basic boiler principles. A glossary
of key terms is included at the back of the handbook.

Boilers: Basic Principles and types is divided into three sections:

• Principles of Operation
• Heat Transfer
• Boiler Types

Principles of operation describes the basic requirements for steam production and
the basic requirements for combustion. It also explains in general terms how a boiler
produces steam.

Heat transfer explains what heat transfer is and describes the three main types of
heat transfer. It also identifies problems that can interfere with proper heat
transfer and describes their effects on boiler operation.

Boiler types describes how water, combustion gases, and steam flow through fire
tube boilers and water tube boilers.

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Boilers: Basic Principles and Types AOBBPT0-0811CEN

OBJECTIVES

Principles of Operation
 State the basic requirements for steam production.
 State the basic requirements for combustion.
 Explain in general terms how a boiler produces steam.

Heat Transfer
 Describe what heat transfer is.
 State three ways in which heat transfer can occur in a typical boiler.
 Identify problems that can interfere with proper heat transfer and describe the
effect of each on boiler operation.

Boiler Types
 Name two basic types of boilers.
 Describe the basic differences between fire tube boilers and water tube boilers.
 Describe how water, combustion gases, and steam flow through fire tube boilers.
 Describe how water, combustion gases, and steam flow through water tube
boilers.

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Boilers: Basic Principles and Types AOBBPT0-0811CEN

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Overview
This topic introduces the key principles of operation related to industrial boilers. The
basic requirements for steam production and the basic requirements for
combustion are identified, and a general explanation is given of how a boiler
produces steam.

Steam Production and Combustion

Boiler Function
The function of a boiler is to produce steam. Steam is produced by heating water
to its boiling point. When water reaches its boiling point, it changes from a liquid to a
vapor. This vapor is known as steam.

Requirements for Steam Production

The two requirements for steam production are water and heat.

To generate the heat needed for steam production, boilers rely on the process of
combustion. In other words, a boiler burns fuel to provide the required heat.

Requirements for Combustion

In simple terms, there are four requirements for combustion: fuel, air, heat, and the
creation of a chemical reaction. For fuel, most boilers burn oil, natural gas, or coal.
Air contains the oxygen that is needed for combustion. Heat is required to raise the
temperature of the fuel/air mixture to a point at which a chemical reaction, or ignition,
takes place. If any of the four requirements is missing, combustion will not occur.

Basic Boiler Operating Principles

Basic Boiler Design

Boilers are designed to allow the requirements for steam production and the re-
quirements for combustion to come together. The way that this is done can be
shown using a simplified boiler that consists of a container, or shell, with water in it. The
water is one of the requirements for steam. The boiler also has a pipe to provide
a continuous supply of fuel to the combustion area, that is, the area beneath the
shell. Heat from a flame satisfies the second requirement for steam production. As
the shell heats up, heat is transferred from the shell to the water and the water
boils, producing steam.

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Boilers: Basic Principles and Types AOBBPT0-0811CEN

Figure 1

Limitations
A boiler modeled on the preceding example will not work for industrial applications.
One reason is that the shell is open to the atmosphere, so there is no way to collect
the steam. In addition, as the water boils to steam, there is no way to replenish it.
Without water, the shell could overheat and be damaged.

Additions to the Basic Boiler

To make the example boiler more suitable for industrial applications, the shell is
covered to prevent steam from escaping. A steam outlet line is added to collect the
steam and route it to where it can be used. A feed waterline is added to provide
a continuous supply of water to replace the water that is changed to steam.

Figure 2

With these additions, the boiler can heat water, produce steam, and route the steam
out of the shell to where it can be used. However, this design is still not as
efficient as it could be because much of the heat in the combustion area
escapes to the atmosphere. This heat is wasted because it does not go toward the
production of steam.

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Adding an insulated casing minimizes the heat loss. A fan is added to supply air for
combustion, and an outlet is added to remove combustion gases.

Figure 3

Principles of Operation—Challenge Questions

1. What is found in air that is necessary for combustion?
a. Hydrogen
b. Fuel
c. Water vapor
d. Oxygen

2. Boilers are designed to allow the requirements for production

and to come together.

3. Which type of fuel is NOT commonly burned in plant boilers?

a. Oil
b. Propane
c. Natural gas
d. Coal
Please refer to the end of the handbook for answers.

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HEAT TRANSFER

Overview
Heat transfer is a natural process that occurs any time there is a difference in tem-
perature. Heat naturally transfers from a hotter object to a colder object. This topic
describes different types of heat transfer, explains how heat transfer can occur in a
boiler, and identifies heat transfer problems that can occur in a boiler.

Types of Heat Transfer

Basically, heat transfer occurs in three ways: by radiation, by convection, and by

conduction.

Radiation
Radiation is a process in which heat is transferred through electromagnetic
waves.

All matter gives off some radiant energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
The best example is probably the sun, which gives off vast amounts of radiant
energy. As the sun’s radiant energy travels through space, some of the
electromagnetic waves contact the earth. Some of these waves are reflected back
into space, but others are absorbed by the earth.

Only the waves that travel in a direct line of sight between the earth and the sun
come into contact with the earth. The energy contained in the waves is absorbed by
the earth as heat that warms the earth. The amount of heat transferred depends on the
number of electromagnetic waves absorbed.

Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat within a fluid, that is, a liquid or a gas. It is
caused by a mixing action with in the fluid.

As an example, a beaker filled with water can be placed on a hot plate and
heated. As the bottom of the beaker heats up, the temperature of the water closest to
the bottom increases. As the temperature increases, the water becomes lighter, or
less dense, so it flows upward.

Natural Convection
The warmer water mixes with the cooler water near the top of the beaker, and
heat transfer occurs. This type of heat transfer is known as free, or natural,
convection because the movement of the fluid occurs naturally.

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Forced Convection
Convection heat transfer that is produced mechanically is called forced convection.
Many buildings have forced convection heating systems. These systems use fans to
force warm air in to rooms. The warm air then mixes with the cooler air in the
room, and convection heat transfer occurs.

Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat through a solid object, or between two objects,
as a result of physical contact. For example, if one end of a steel rod is heated, the
opposite end of the rod will heat up, as well. The heat transfer from one end of the
rod to the other is due to conduction.

Heat Transfer in a Boiler

Types of Heat Transfer

Radiation, convection, and conduction are all involved in transferring heat from
burning fuel to the water in a boiler.

Example
Heat transfer in a boiler can be explained using a water tube boiler. The example
boiler has a series of tubes and two drums, which distribute water to the tubes. The
tubes form a wall around the combustion area, where the heat is generated.

Figure 4

When fuel burns in a boiler, radiant energy in the form of electromagnetic waves
is produced. These waves travel through the combustion area. The waves in a direct
line of sight with the tubes make contact with the outer tube surfaces, and the tubes
absorb heat. This is heat transfer by radiation.

The burning fuel also produces combustion gases. As these hot gases pass through
the boiler, they transfer heat to the tubes, as well. This is convection heat transfer.

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As the outer surfaces of the tubes absorb heat, conduction heat transfer occurs.
Heat is transferred from the outer surface to the cooler inner surface. Then, heat is
transferred from the inner surface to the water flowing through the tube.

Convection heat transfer also occurs as the warmer water mixes with cooler
water. When enough heat has been transferred to raise the water temperature to
the boiling point, steam is produced.

Heat Transfer Problems

When a boiler is working properly, the heat produced by the burning fuel will be
readily transferred to the water in the tubes. However, there are problems that can
interfere with heat transfer.

Scale
One problem is a condition called scale. Scale is the buildup of solid impurities on
boiler components that contain water. The boiler’s feedwater supply may contain im-
purities. These impurities can coat the surfaces of boiler components, insulate them,
and restrict their ability to transfer heat. If the surfaces cannot transfer heat to water,
tubes can overheat and rupture.

Insufficient Feedwater
A heat transfer problem could also occur if the feed water supply were to stop for
any reason. Without a continuous supply of feedwater, the boiler could boil dry. With
no water to remove the heat, the tube metal would rapidly overheat, and severe
damage could result. Industrial boilers are equipped with control systems that work to
prevent this problem.

Soot
In boilers that burn coal or oil, another problem that can affect heat transfer is the
buildup of soot. Soot is created by ash and unburned fuel particles in the combustion
gases.

Soot build up insulates the tube surfaces, preventing good heat transfer. When
this occurs, the amount of heat transferred to the water decreases. As a result,
heat is wasted. It escapes with the gases routed out of the boiler, reducing boiler
efficiency.

Improper Warm-up
Another heat transfer problem is improper boiler warm-up. This may occur if the
boiler is not started up correctly.

Water tubes and other metal parts expand when they are heated. If the boiler has
not been operated for a while and then is rapidly heated, its metal parts may expand
at different rates, causing some parts to bend or break. To protect the boiler, heat must
be applied gradually to ensure that all the metal components expand at the same rate.

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Heat Transfer—Challenge Questions

1. Heat naturally transfers:
a. From hotter to colder objects
b. From colder to hotter objects
c. From solids to liquids
d. From liquids to gases

2. Which type of heat transfer occurs through electromagnetic waves?

a. Radiation
b. Convection
c. Conduction

3. How is heat transferred within the water that flows through boiler
tubes?
a. Radiation
b. Convection
c. Conduction
d. Combustion
Please refer to the end of the handbook for answers.

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Boilers: Basic Principles and Types AOBBPT0-0811CEN

BOILER TYPES

Overview
Most boilers can be grouped into one of two categories: fire tube boilers and water
tube boilers. In general, fire tube boilers use tubes to transport combustion
gases, and water tube boilers use tubes to transport water and steam. This topic
examines the design and basic operation of these two types of boilers.

Fire Tube Boilers

Design
Basically, fire tube boilers route hot combustion gases through metal tubes that
run through a shell filled with water. Fire tube boilers vary in design, but most
operate under similar principles.

In a typical fire tube boiler, horizontal fire tubes route combustion gases through the
boiler. There is also an outlet for the combustion gases, a feedwater line, and a
steam outlet line.

Figure 5

Operation
During operation, water enters through the feedwater line. The water level is main-
tained above the fire tubes to protect the tubes from overheating. Fuel and air enter the
combustion area. The burning fuel transfers heat to the water in the shell.

The hot gases flow through the fire tubes, and additional heat is transferred to the
water surrounding them. Each time the gases are routed through the shell is called a
pass. For example, if the gases pass through two times, the boiler is a two-pass
boiler.

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The combustion gases flow out of the boiler through the combustion gas outlet. As
the water in the boiler is heated, some of it turns to steam. The steam/water mixture
is lighter than the cooler water in the boiler, so it tends to rise. Steam collects
above the water level and then flows through the steam outlet and into the plant. The
feedwater, which is cooler and heavier than the steam/water mixture, flows to
the bottom of the boiler. It is heated by heat from the combustion area, and
the cycle continues.

Water Tube Boilers

Design
Generally speaking, water tubeboilers use tubes to route water and steam
through the boiler. The combustion gases flow past the outside surfaces of the
tubes. Water tubeboilers may vary in design, but most of them operate in basically
the same way.

In one type of boiler design, the boiler consists of a series of water tubes and two
drums. The drums distribute water to the tubes. The water tubes connect the drums
and form a wall around the combustion area of the boiler, where heat is
generated.

Figure 6

Operation
Water is fed into the upper drum through a feedwater inlet line. The water tubes
and the lower drum are completely filled with water. The upper drum is filled only
to a certain level to provide space for steam to collect. For this reason, the upper
drum is often called the steam drum.

As fuel is burned in the combustion area, heat is transferred to the adjacent water
tubes. The combustion gases then flow out of the boiler.

Water circulates from the upper drum, through tubes called downcomers, to the
lower drum. The lower drum is often referred to as the mud drum. From the lower drum,
the water is distributed to the water tubes surrounding the combustion area.
Boilers: Basic Principles and Types AOBBPT0-0811CEN

As the water in the tubes is heated, a steam/water mixture is produced. The steam/
water mixture enters the upper drum. The steam is then separated from the water and
routed through the steam outlet and into the plant.

Boiler Types—Challenge Questions

1. Select two general categories of plant boilers.
a. Fire tube
b. Oil atomizers
c. Water tube
d. Igniters

2. In a typical boiler, which component provides a source of air for

combustion?
a. Steam outlet
b. Combustion outlet
c. Fan
d. Water inlet

3. Select the choice that best describes the flow path of combustion gases in
a fire tube boiler.

a. From combustion area to fire tubes

b. From fire tubes to steam outlet
c. From combustion gas outlet to fire tubes
d. From fire tubes to combustion area
Please refer to the end of the handbook for answers.

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ANSWERS TO CHALLENGE QUESTIONS

Principles of Operation
1. d
Oxygen is found in air and is necessary for combustion.

2. Boilers are designed to allow the requirements for steam production and
combustion to come together.

3. b
Propane is NOT commonly burned in plant boilers

Heat Transfer
1. a
Heat naturally transfers from hotter to colder objects.

2. a
Radiation occurs through electromagnetic waves.

3. b
Heat is transferred within the water that flows through boiler tubes by convection.

Boiler Types
1. a,c
Two general categories of plant boilers are fire tube and water tube.

2. c
Ina typical boiler, a fan provides a source of air for combustion.

3. a
The flow path of combustion gases in a fire tube boiler is from combustion area
to fire tubes.

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GLOSSARY

This glossary contains terms pertinent to the study of basic boiler operating prin-
ciples and basic boiler types. The meanings of the terms are given in that context.

Boiling point—The temperature and pressure at which a liquid changes to a vapor.

conduction—A heat transfer process in which the transfer occurs as a result of

physical contact between two objects, or heat is transferred from one part of an
object to another part of the same object.

convection—A heat transfer process in which the transfer occurs within a fluid as a
result of the movement of the fluid.

Feedwater—The water supplied to a boiler to produce steam.

Fire tube—A tube in a fire tube boiler through which combustion gases are routed.

Fire tube boiler—A type of boiler in which tubes are used to route hot gases created
by combustion through a water-filled shell.

Heat transfer—A naturally occurring process in which heat is transferred from a hot-
ter object to a cooler object.

Radiation—A heat transfer process in which heat is transferred through electromag-

netic waves.

Scale—A buildup of solid impurities on the insides of water tubes that interferes
with proper heat transfer.

Shell—The part of a fire tube boiler that holds the water necessary to produce steam.

Water tube—A tube through which water and steam are distributed in a water tube
boiler.

Water tube boiler—A type of boiler in which tubes are used to transport water and
steam.

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