Modul 2 - Power System Studies 1

Hadi Suyono, Ph.D | Power System Analysis | Department of Electrical Engineering | Brawijaya University
Introductions
Hadi Suyono, Ph.D | Power System Analysis | Department of Electrical Engineering | Brawijaya University
 Introduction

• Power system planning, design and operations require careful studies in order to
evaluate the system performance, safety, efficiency, reliability and economics.

• Such studies help to identify the potential deficiencies of the proposed system. In the
existing system, the cause of the equipment failure and malfunction can be
determined through a system study.

• The modern interconnected power systems are complex, with several thousand
buses and components. The manual calculation of the performance indices is time
consuming.

• The computational efforts are very much simplified in the present day calculations
due to the availability of efficient programs and powerful microcomputers. The
following study tools are used for power system analysis

3 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Introduction

• Digital computer - The main frame computers are used in power system
calculations such as power flow, stability, short circuit and similar studies. The
introduction of cheaper personal computers with the graphics capabilities has
reduced the computational costs. However, the results produced by the
programs are sophisticated and require careful analysis.

• Transient Network Analyzer (TNA) - The TNA is a very useful tool to

perform transient overvoltage studies. The TNAs are small-scale power
system models with computer control and graphic capabilities. The TNA
allows the use of statistical run on the switching studies using circuit
breakers. With the introduction of transient programs such TNA studies can
be efficiently performed with personal computers.

4 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Introduction

• Microcomputer applications - With the advent of cheaper microcomputers

practically anybody can be provided with the necessary equipment. Data
entry, calculations, graphics and storage of the program-related documents
are made very simple. Many of the software programs from main frame are
converted to microcomputer applications. Also, the programs become more
user-friendly and very fast to execute with the larger memories available in
the microcomputers. The following microcomputer configurations are
commonly used:
• A stand-alone workstation operated by a single user or a number of users at
different times. The programs and the data are stored in the microcomputer
memory.

5 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Introduction

• A workstation, which is part of a local area network, is another version of the

microcomputer application. In this arrangement sometimes the main software
is installed at the server and various users perform the calculations at the
workstation.
• Workstation connected to a central computer. This is similar to the local area
network, but the central computer may be a main frame or super computer.
• Large file transfer between various computer resources is achieved by e-mail
or through other Internet activities.
• In all the microcomputer configurations, the printing or plotting devices is available
locally or at a centralized location.

6 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
Power System Studies
Hadi Suyono, Ph.D | Power System Analysis | Department of Electrical Engineering | Brawijaya University
 Power System Studies

• There are several power system studies performed to evaluate the efficient
operation of the power delivery [1,2]. Some of the important studies are:
• Impedance modeling.
• Power flow analysis.
• Short circuit studies.
• Transient stability analysis.
• Motor starting studies.
• Power factor correction studies.
• Harmonic analysis.

8 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Power System Studies

• Flicker analysis.
• Insulation coordination.

• Cable ampacity analysis.

• Ground grid analysis.
• Lightning surge analysis.
• EMF studies.
• Data acquisition systems.
• Relay coordination studies.

9 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Line Constants

• The overhead transmission lines are supporting the current carrying

conductors.

• The conductor diameter, the resistance, the distance between conductors,

the distance of the conductors from the earth, the skin effect factor, the soil
resistivity and the frequency of the currents are some factors related to the
line parameters.

• Accurate value of the line constants are required for the power flow, stability,
voltage drop calculations, protection coordination studies and other power
system studies.

10 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Line Constants

• The underground cables are more complex than the overhead lines and the
parameter calculations involve the thickness of the insulation, shield and the
various materials involved in the construction.

• The approach to parameter evaluation and examples are presented. The

cable parameters are used in all kinds of power system analysis.

• The calculated impedance values are presented in tables related to the line
or cable location.

• Sometimes there may be many line or cables involved in a system and the
parameters are presented in the impedance diagrams. Such diagrams will be
very useful in the system analysis.

11 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Power Flow Analysis

• Power flow studies are used to determine the voltage, current, active and reactive
power flow in a given power system. A number of operating conditions can be
analyzed including contingencies such as loss of generator, loss of a transmission
line, loss of a transformer or a load.

• These conditions may cause equipment overloads or unacceptable voltage levels.

The study results can be used to determine the optimum size and location of the
capacitors for power factor improvement.

• Further, the results of the power flow analysis are the staring point for the stability
analysis. Digital computers are used extensively in the power flow study because of
the large-scale nature of the problem and the complexities involved.

• For the power flow analysis, the acceptable voltage levels are derived from the
industry standards. The line and transformer loadings are evaluated according to the
normal, short-term emergency and long term-emergency ratings.

12 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Result of Load Flow Analysis (5 Bus System)
20 22.96 45 15 40 5

50.78 2.34

1.0 V∠0.0° 1.043V∠ − 2.96° 1.039V∠ − 3.25°

(1) SLACK (3) PQ (4) PQ

3.55 26.96 1.2 23.82 23.42 0.34 20.99 6.77 20.95 7.72
7.17 2.35
22.3 1.52
25.7 0.44

26.06 1.52
6.49 26.82
53.29 6.66 52.24 5.14 7.12 4.87
22.58 2.88
(2) PQ (5) PQ
1.052V∠ − 0.78° 1.025V∠ − 4.02°

5.72 95
20 10 60 10

13 Department of Electrical Engineering Dimana MW

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia MVAR
 Short Circuit Studies

• The short circuit studies are performed to determine the magnitude of the
current flowing throughout the power system at various time intervals after a
fault. The magnitude of the current flowing through the power system after a
fault varies with time until it reaches a steady state condition.

• During the fault, the power system is called on to detect, interrupt and isolate
these faults. The duty impressed on the equipment is dependent on the
magnitude of the current, which is a function of the time of fault initiation.

• Such calculations are performed for various types of fault such as three-
phase, single line to ground fault, double line to ground fault and at different
location of the system. The data is used to select fuses, circuit breakers and
surge protective relays. The symmetrical component model is used in the
analysis of the unsymmetrical faults and mutual coupling.

14 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Transient Stability Analysis

• The ability of the power system consisting of two or more generators to

continue to operate after a change occurs on the system is a measure of the
stability. The steady state stability is defined as the ability of the power
system to remain in synchronism following relatively slow load changes in the
power system.

• Transient stability of the system is defined as the ability of the power system
to remain in synchronism under transient conditions such as fault and
switching operations.

• In a power system, the stability depends on the power flow pattern, generator
characteristics, system loading level, the line parameters and many other
details. Typical stability runs and the example results showing the acceptable
and not acceptable results are presented in this Chapter.

15 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Motor Starting Studies

• The majority of the load in the industrial power system consists of three-phase
induction and synchronous motors. These motors draw five to seven times the rated
current during energization and this causes significant voltage drop in the distribution
system.
• If the terminal voltage drop is excessive, the motor may not produce enough starting
torque to accelerate up to rated running speed. Also, the running motors may stall
from excessive voltage drops or under voltage relays may operate.
• Further, if the motors are started frequently, the voltage dip at the source may cause
objectionable flicker in the residential lighting system. By performing the motor-
starting study, the voltage-drop-related issues can be predicted.
• If a starting device is needed, the required characteristics and rating can be
determined. Using a computer program, the voltage profile at various locations of the
system during motor staring can be determined. The study results can be used to
select suitable starting device, proper motor selection or required system design for
Department of Electrical Engineering
16
Brawijaya minimizing
University, Malang, Indonesia
the impact of the motor starting.
 Power Factor Correction Studies

• Usually, the power factor of various power plants is low and there are several
advantages in improving them. The power factor capacitors provide an
economical means of improving the power factor.

• When the power factor improvement capacitor banks are installed in both
high voltage and low voltage levels, then there are several factors that
require careful consideration. Some of the important items are:
• Sustained overvoltages.
• Resonance frequencies of both high and low voltage capacitor banks.
• Voltage magnification at low voltage capacitor banks.

• Back-to-back capacitor switching.

17 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Harmonic Analysis

• Nonlinear power system loads such as converters, arc furnaces and vapor lamps
draw non-sinusoidal currents from the source.

• The voltage distortion produced in the system depends on the system impedance
and the magnitudes of the harmonic currents injected. If the system impedance is
low, the voltage distortion is low in the absence of harmonic resonance.

• In the presence of harmonic resonance, the voltage distortion is responsible for

interference in the computer system, additional heating effects in the rotating
machinery, overheating and failure of power factor correction capacitors, additional
line voltage drop and additional transformer losses.

• Also, the harmonic frequencies induce voltage in the communication circuits. The
harmonic analysis is performed using frequency sensitive power system models.

18 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Flicker Analysis

• There are several industrial loads such as arc furnace, traction load, a
particle accelerator and motor-starting condition.

• If the process of applying and releasing a load on a power system is carried

out at a frequency at which the human eye is susceptible and if the resulting
voltage drop great enough, a modulation of the light level of incandescent
lamps will be detected.

• This phenomenon is known as flicker. The techniques to evaluate for the

calculation of the voltage drop and using the frequency data in a graph to
assess the voltage flicker level also discusses in this topic. Certain measures
to control the flicker in the power system are discussed in this topic.

19 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
Modul 3 - Power System Studies 2
Hadi Suyono, Ph.D | Power System Analysis | Department of Electrical Engineering | Brawijaya University
 Insulation Coordination

• The power system transients are disturbances produced due to switching,

faults, trapped energy, induced voltages, inrush currents, ferro-resonance,
loss of load, neutral instability and lightning.

• The transients produce overvoltages, overcurrents and oscillatory behavior.

• The overvoltages may damage the power system equipment due to flashover
through insulation breakdown. Usually a flashover will cause a temporary
tripping and reclosing operation.

• Permanent insulation damage will cause a sustained power outage.

Overcurrents can cause excessive heating and hence possible equipment
damage/tripping. The oscillatory type of transient may produce power quality
problems such as nuisance tripping, voltage notching, swings and sags.

21 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Insulation Coordination

• The power system transients are modeled using the transients program and
are analyzed in the time domain. In this Chapter, the approach to the
transient modeling of the power system and solution approaches is presented
with suitable examples.

• The transients due to energization, de-energization, fault clearing, back up

fault clearing and reclosing are demonstrated with suitable examples.
Approaches to minimize the transients are also discussed in this topic.

22 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Cable Ampacity Analysis

• Cable installation in the underground or in the cable trays are commonly used
to transmit power within the generating station.

• Also, the cables are used to transmit power at distribution level in the urban
areas. The current carrying capability of the cable is determined by the
maximum conductor temperature rise.

• This in turn depends on the conductor characteristics, losses in the dielectric

and shield and cooling arrangements.

• The analysis involves the application of thermal equivalent circuits at the

maximum loading conditions.

23 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Grounding Grid Analysis

• In the substations and generating stations part of the fault currents are
diverted through the grounding grids. During the ground fault conditions the
fault currents through ground grid causes the grid voltage drop and hence the
neutral voltage rise. The purpose of the safety analysis is to evaluate the
following:
• Grid potential rise.
• Maximum mesh voltage rise.
• Touch potential rise.
• Step potential rise.

24 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Grounding Grid Analysis

• Allowable touch voltage and allowable step voltage.

• Safety performance analysis.

• In order to calculate the above quantities, data for the soil resistivity, fault
current magnitude and duration and the geometry of the ground grid are
required.

25 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Lightning Surge Analysis

• The lightning surge is one of the major sources of external disturbance to the
power system. The lightning surge can strike the power system as a direct
stroke or as a back flashover strike.

• The surge current through the system depends on several factors such as
the tower and conductor configuration and the tower footing resistance.

• The system performance is analyzed for the overvoltages without and with
lightning arresters.

• The benefit of having lightning arresters in the system to control the adverse
effects of lightning surges is demonstrated.

26 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 EMF Studies

• Electric and magnetic fields exist wherever there is electric power. Field
calculation approaches are discussed both for the overhead lines and
underground cable circuits.

• The acceptable levels of radiated fields are presented from various industry
standards.

• This type of study can identify the levels of field exposure and compare the
existing levels with the industry standard values.

• Some mitigation measures are also identified.

27 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Data Acquisition Systems

• The data acquisition techniques are used to evaluate the power system performance
under various conditions. When there are several parameters to be measured in a
system, a simple data acquisition system can perform this function. When fast
transients are to be measured, data acquisition systems are used along with very
small time step.

• There are several types of data acquisition system software available for various
applications. Also, there are different communication protocols available to perform
the data transfer. In this Chapter, the following important data acquisition systems will
be analyzed:
• Steady state analysis.
• Transient analysis.

• These analyses include examples of performance analysis, graphical representation

and the approach for effective report preparation.

28 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Relay Coordination Studies

• The main objective of protection coordination analysis is to minimize the

hazards to personnel and equipment during fault conditions.

• The studies are performed to select the fault-clearing characteristics of

devices such as fuses, circuit breakers and relays used in the power system.

• The short circuit results provide the minimum and maximum current levels at
which the coordination must be achieved in order to protect the system.

• Traditionally, the coordination calculations were performed in graphical

sheets using the time current characteristics.

29 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Relay Coordination Studies

• With the cheaper and faster microcomputers available at the design and
consulting offices, the time current characteristics of various protective
devices can readily be presented in graphical form.

• The necessary settings can be calculated and presented along with the
protective device characteristics in order to verify the coordination.

30 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
Example case of Load Flow
Three bus case
 Example 1.1

• A 160 MW cogeneration project is being planned for development at a river

bank. The plant will have one steam turbine driven generator unit of 90 MW
13.8 kV, 60 Hz, three-phase and a steam turbine driven unit of 70 MW, 13.8
kV, 60 Hz, three-phase. The generators will have individual circuit breakers
and a three-winding transformer, 13.8 kV/13.8 kV/138 kV. There will be one
138 kV circuit breaker and a tie line to the other end of the river, which is 2
miles. Prepare a simple one-line diagram of the proposed scheme and list the
required system studies.

32 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Solution 1.1

33 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Solution 1.1

• The one line diagram of the proposed system is shown in Figure 1.1. The
required system studies are:

• Load flow analysis - To make sure that the line and transformer loadings are
within acceptable limits.

• Short circuit studies - To make sure that the circuit breaker ratings and relay
settings are performed to meet the new load flow conditions.

• Transient stability studies - To ensure that the system is stable under

desired operating and some contingency conditions.

34 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Solution 1.1

• Cable ampacity studies - To select the 138 kV cable.

• Ground grid analysis - Ground grid for the substation and generating station
and related safety performance.

• Protection coordination studies - To get all the relay settings.

• Switching surge analysis - For insulation coordination.

35 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
Question and Answer
Discussion stage
Exercises
 Exercises

1. A 520 MW cogeneration plant is to be developed at 13.8 kV level. The plant will

consist of six gas turbine units each 70 MW, 13.8 kV and two steam turbine units
with a rating of 50 MW, 13.8 kV each. The voltage is to be stepped up to 345 kV at
the local substation and the power is to be delivered through a three-phase
overhead line of 3 miles. Draw a one-line diagram of the system and identify the
ratings of the circuit breakers and step up transformer units. What are the system
planning studies required for this project? Refer to Figure 1.1.

2. Is it necessary for the above developer (Problem 1) to perform harmonic analysis?

Explain.

3. There is a political form opposing the electric distribution system in a school district.
This is a health-related issue due to an overhead line. The electric utility planners
want you to look into this subject and recommend to them suitable studies to be
performed. What will be the recommendation?

38 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Exercises

4. A 230 kV transmission line is being installed between two substations at a

distance of 35 miles apart. There is a 340 feet river crossing involved in this
project and it was planned to install one tall tower at each end of the
riverbank. There will be one dead end tower following the tall tower for
mechanical considerations. Is there a need to perform special studies to
reduce any risk associated with this installation?

5. A generating plant is proposed with four 200 MW generators as shown in

Figure 1.2. There are two step-up transformers and a ring bus arrangement
to connect the generators to the utility system. In order to proceed with the
project, what power system studies are required?

39 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 Exercises

Figure 1.2 One-Line Diagram of the Proposed Generating Plant and Ring Bus

40 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
 References

• ANSI/IEEE Standard: 141, IEEE Recommended Practice for Electrical

Distribution for Industrial Plants, 1993 (Red Book).

• ANSI/IEEE Standard: 399, IEEE Recommended Practice for Power System

Analysis, 1990 (Brown Book).

• Ramasamy Natarajan, Computer-Aided Power System Analysis, 2002,

Marcel Dekker Inc., ISBN: 0-8247-0699-4, 270 Madison Avenue, New York,
NY 10016

41 Department of Electrical Engineering

Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia