— ee ee 54 TRANSISTOR VOLTMETER CIRCUITS gmitterfollower Voltmeters - omer ading ze Scion 42) canbe greatly educed by using 9 ree. An enter flower fers ahgh input resistance V8 Tessured, and provides a low output resistance to drive current Page col ofa elton meter, Te basi emir follower voting ta astatedinFig, 5 showsa pemanentsragnet moving col nt and a multiplier resistance (R) connected in series with 2 BIT inter The d supply (Vis connected postive tothe rasistor collector negative tothe Gfleton meter. The postive terminal of the voliags 19 a erored (Ei applied to the BIT base, and its negative terminal's ve ected to the same terminal asthe power supply negative. Figure 51. Enitrioower vole. The ‘nie flowers aign purest {0 a messes votage, and a low osout raptors lo a Getcton mater. Te base nitrogen) irons rr Inthe masse is substantially ower than the meter whet gs the BJP current gain, Thus, the circuit input resistance is = i ‘Which s much large than the meter circuit resistance (R, + Ry R Example 5-1 The simple emitter follower voltmeter ircuitin Fig. 5-1 has Vgc=20 V,(R, +R,)=93 KO, |= 1 mA at fll sale an fg. = 10 forthe transistor. (@) Calculate the meter current when E = 10 (b) Determine the voltmeter input resistance with and without the tran- Solution ° E-Vy=10V-07V ae| =93N ae " Ve 9. : ee In= GR,” 99K0 te =1mA & ie ott (©) With the transistor en Haar Tipe, 100, =10HA EB . 10v * Roy > Opa, ote =1Ma ie Without the transistor ee Ria Ry +Ry=93KO an ‘The BJT base-emitter voltage drop (Vax) introduces an error in the simy @ eter lions voltmeter, For example, when E is 5 V in the cieuits o Euample 5.1, the meter should indicate half of full scale, that is, 05 mq sol However, as a simple calculation shows, the meter current is actually 046 mA. The error can be eliminated by using a voltage divider and an additions, @ emitter follower, as illustrated in Fig. 5-2 ‘The practical emitter-follower circuit in Fig. 5-2 uses a plus-and-minus o¢ dual polarity supply (typically #12 V). Transistor Q; has its base biased to ground via resistor R;, and a voltage divider (Ry, Rs, and R,) provides an adjustable bias voltage (Vg) to the base of Q>. Resistors R, and R, connect the BYT emitter terminals to the negative supply voltage (Vey), and the meter circuit is connected between the transistor emitters, The circuit input resistance is R, in parallel with the input resistance at the BJT base. ‘age vir (FF and Fa) When no voltage is applied (E = 0) the base voltage of Q3 is adjusted give zero meter current _— =(meter circuit voltage), Y= gy, Co amenns input E) isa aes plied to Q, base. The meter circuit VaVn~V, (E~Vaey)~ Veg *GV-071)-C07Vy =5V Thus, unlike the case ofthe emiter-fllower vt wer voltmeter all ofthe voltage tobe measured appears across the meter circuit. No pat ofits lost a BYE base-emitter voltage drop, Example 5-2 Voc= #12V. (@) Determine I, and I, when E =0V, (©) Calculate the meter circuit voltage when E = 1 V and when E = 05 Vv. Solution ie Via Vio*OV-Vap=Vox V-a7v-eav) h us 39 () When =1 V2 B-V—pe1V-07V sv foVg=0V-079 ov sa-V203V-(07¥) v When = 05 -Vpg208V-079 ovrespect to ground. However Fig, 5:36) which shows volte wih negate a at the current conditions inthe ston, Cris esistor Rand serious have one of ts Circuit. Cleary, the voltmeter should ot ‘ming rounded Volar Wee! common termina act elf Sconce emi Vex (&) Plus/minus soppy wi Lore atest ZRPER = BRELERESS GARE (a) vole with one of terminals iGoundelean cases shor cet y eo — srry ‘ema \ 7 1 owe Sa Vn o— yo St ve (0 Pus/ mins ppl wing u power supple s Fore $3 Sous messvaert os can edt when a grounded valet miata foretycomaced acct The vine conn ein Sls aMaysbe ee {ote gourd ocean mia ip z Forthe circuit in Fig.5:2to function correctly, the ower end ofR,mustte Th at zero volts with respect to +Vccandl-Vep. The + and supply vllgemay be derived from two batteries (Fg. 5300), or from two (ungrounded) & te power supply cuit Fg. 530) Inboth eases, the negative terminal othe positive supply i connected to the postive terminal ofthe negative supp For 49 V supplies, Vcc is +9 V with respect tothe common terminaland Vis is-9 V with respect othe common tenminal. In many electronic cis tht power supply common terminalis grounded. In electronic voltmeter euis_ lePe titi 5 trig Berne matures 188 capacitor, usually 0.1 LF Thus, for example, in a BJT circuit, the common terminal into ‘wherever itis connected. To avoid any eff ‘when measuring voltage levels roduces a capacitance to ground ‘on conditions within the eireuit {oscillations or phase shifts), the voltmeter common terminal should always be connected to the circuit ground or zero voltage terminal. All voltages are then measured with respect to this point. Voltmeter Range Changing The volage divider constituted by resists R, Ry Ry and Ryn Fg 4 lows rg input voltages tobe measureon an enitesdalower valet ‘Ths netork, called an input attenuate, esrtly dvs the ellage tobe measure before its apple tothe input anion, alsa cheat the Qs np voltage Es alvays 1 V when the manimem inp capped shany hogs Rerouripia. ona Vie Fon Bx POtR ER Reh Teo ka 040+ 4040 SOAR =1V ‘The input resistance offered by this circuit toa voltage being measured is the total resistance ofthe attenuator, which is 1 MQ. A 9 MQ resistor could be included in series with the input termiral to aise the input resistance to 10MQ. This would further divide the input voltage by a factor of 10 before it ‘sapplied to the input terminal of Q, FET-input Voltmeter The put resistance ofthe BJT voltmeter cre can be increased further by ‘sng an additional emitter follower connected atthe base of Qin Fig. 5:2 However the use ofa JFET source lowe (Qin Fig. 5-9 givesa higher input revistance than ean be achioved with a bipolar transistor. The FET source terminalis able to supply all ofthe base erent required by Q, while the inpat resistance atthe FET gate terminal istypialy in exces of MQ Consider the voltage levels in the cicuitof Fg. 5-4, When E = OV, the FET fate ist the zero voltage level. But the gate fan 1-channel FET mastalways, enegatve with respect its source termiral. This isthe same as stating that the source must be postive with respect tothe gat. If Voge tobe “8 V, andElectron insrumertotion and Mansuremerts Eg =0V, the source terminal voltage must be +5 V. This meang terminal of Q; is at 45 V, and because Q, base voltage must pense bbase voltage, Q, base must also be at +5 V. As inthe circuit of eta Fig. 5-4 adjusted to zero the meter when the input voltage nS S284 ov. Ra, Eniterfollower voltmeter te jpeiea: sce tance se Tampa ounce Sota ten eerie emi cee pe Roper eng opr ere een aaron Ree ee cee Dicer ea eve mune loca se maya Aare iota micron Pei ceaelepmot wet Example 5-3 Determine the meter current for the circuit in Fig. 5-4 when E =75V ani the input attenuator is set to its 10 V range. The FET gate-source voltages ABV, Vyq= 45 V, (R, + Ry) = 1 KO, and Ig, = 1 mA at full scale Solution (On the 10 V range Eg= Ex — Reta __ R+RtR AR evev 60 KO+40 ke [B00 K+ 100 k+-60 K+ 40 KO 175 ic Ves = 075 V-(5V) 75 /s~Vyg =5.75V-0.7V =505Vrien ec etree 88 Vea* Vin=Vee=5V-07V =43V V=Ver~Vin=505V-43V =075V=E, agp ns SIBY. Rak, Tho = 075 mA (75% of fll sale) ‘on the 10 V range, fll sale represents 10 V, and 75% of fll scale is read 1875. bifference Amplifier Voltmeter ‘Te instruments discussed so far can measure a maximum of around 25 V. ‘This could be extended further, of course, simply by modifying the input attenuator. The minimum (full-scale) voltage measurable by the electoric ‘otter circuits already consideredis1V.Thstoo canbe altered to perhaps 4 minimum of 100 mV by selection of a meter that will give full-scale deflection (FSD) when 100 mV appears across R, + Ry However, fr accurate measurement of low-voltage levels, the voltage must be amplified beforeitis Ippled tothe meter, Figure55 shows suitable amplifier circuit. (@) Zero contol Pre $-5 tence anger votmata amples owtoel apt vagus or measurement (oe coecson ett ora.114 Bron numeration ‘Transistors, and Qgtogether with Rs Ryan ReinFig. 5.54) | a diferente amplifier, or emiters redag? When the contact is moved lef the reverse stu. Thus, Vey and Vo Becilnsd cisely bymcaaof yan herr vlngeen wan Section Review 5-1 Draw a circuit diagram for an FET-input voltmeter with an inp attenuator, Explain the cicuit operation. Practice Problem 5411 The circuit in Fig. 5-4 has Vos =-3 V, Veg = #3 V, (R, + R,) =10, KO, and J, = 100 2A at full scale. Determine the meter curent ‘when E =35 V and the input attenuator i st to 5 V. 5-2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER VOLTMETER CIRCUITS Op-amp Voltage-follower Voltmeter ‘The op-amp voltage-follower stage in Fg. $6 i comparable tothe simp emitter-follower circuit in Fig, 51, However, unlike the emiterSollows there is no base-emitter voltage drop from input to output. Te valle follower also hasa much higher input resistance and lower output esse than the emitter-ollower. The vollage-fllower input (E) is applied tthe ‘op-amp noninverting input terminal, and the feedback from the outpat go to the inverting input. The very high internal voltage gain ofthe opamp combined with the negative feedback, tends to keep the inverting ter voltage exactly equal to that at the noninverting terminal. Thus, the oops __—ecroric nse ottage (V9 excl follows the npat As dscuste eal the altenttor age sets the voltmeter range: ya 88. An oparp volage loner vata is sia the anitrolowor vole ‘eat athe votape-olonr nut resstace is much higher ha of hemi foower Share no base-amitrvotage dp. op-amp Amplifier Voltmeter [ikea transistor ampli, an C opamp cuit can be used to amplify low tolagesto levels measurable by a deflection instrument. igure 57 shows a ‘itl opamp circuit for his purpose. Input voltage Es applied tothe op- Smnp noninverting input th output voltages divided acos resistors Ryan Ryan Vgy fed back to the opamp inverting input terminal. The internal Toltage gin ofthe opamp causes Vig to always equal . Consequently, he ouput voltages Ret Rs GD) Narinering {sie Figure $7. An opamp noimering pie sn be ed tay Le pit tips 1 eel ute ho in IR,fies, because i js sown as a noriaverting amph so ce paren input *rotage is applied, and nezative ya ®t a i, postive when a postive Pt ot sg amlifierhasa pean oe and a vollage gain of Ne ahgt Bek Ae S| nope meg agi testen genet icy mapa ‘amp input bias current (fy). Then the resistors a7 culated as op -E Rye Bando | Example 5-4 Jan opamp voltmeter crt as in Fig. 97 requed 10 mean saaspam rapt of 20 mV. The opamp input cUrEnt 1 02 WA, ang ge | roer cet has [= 100 WA at SD and Ry =10 KO, Determine sit resistance values for Ryand Ry Solution For [>> Islet y= 1000% p= ams Atfullseale, Iq 100 A 100002 nA ao Lax Ry= 100} x 1012 =4910 \Voltage-to-current Converter The ict shown in wn in Fig, $8 is essentially @ noninverting amplifier at Fg 57, Howe nnd f cnet tent been cutput nl rund tis substtated in plc of esto Rin ig 57 Om ‘gain, Vig remains equal tothe input voltage, and as lng avery 09 greater than Jy the meter curren ie ane 6s —Figure 60. Voureter cut using 2h 9 tmp vage-berant comet. The meter curentis BR, Example 5-5 Calculate the value of Ry forthe circuit in Fig 5-8 if 1 V input isto give aD on the meter. The meter has R= 100 and [= 1 mA at fll sale Detenune the maximum vollage a the opamp otput terminal Solution El av. 4.53, ima Vo = fy (By + Ry) = 1A (1+ 1000) suv Section Review 521 Draw circuit diagrams for an op-amp voltge-follower voltmeter, 1 noninverting amplifier voltmeter, and a’ voltage-to-current converter voltmeter. Briefly explain the operation of each circuit Practice Problem 521A noninverting amplifier voltmeter circuit as in Fig. 57 has 200.0, Ry =9 8, fy =$0 pA at FSD, and R= 40 KO. Determine the input vollage for FSD. 5-3 OHMMETER FUNCTION IN ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS. Series Ohmmeter Because analog electronic instruments contain a moving-col deflection ‘meter theretsnoreason why they cannotbemadetofunctionasan ohmmeter inthe same way as described in Chapter The cia in Fig 5-9) shows a series ohmmeter crc that uses the electronic voltmeter ona 15 Vrange. A1.5.V battery and several standard ssistors a i Unknown retance OR) la conneced across terminals A and ae Be velimete inp ithe wolage dnp across RTRs cet sine ser chet In Fg eet he wage dp aoa BRL measured instend of ts curent xs 1Ma (©) Ohmmeter scale for electronic instrument Figure 5-9 A series ohmmeter used in an electronic voltmeter i simply a voltage divider mae Up ofthe selected standard resistor (,) andthe unknown resistance (F.). The votmeter neat lures the voltage drop acrose A. ‘Suppose that the range switch is set, as shown, to the 1 k® standard resistor (Ry). With terminals A and B open-circuited (R, not connected), the voltmeter indicates full scale (1.5 V). Therefore, FSD (right-hand side of the scale) represents R, = e [see Fig. 5-9(b)]. If terminals A and B are short-circuited, E becomes zero, and the pointer is at the left-hand side of the scale, Thus, the left-hand side represents R, =0.. (Note that this scale is reversed as compared to the electromechanical ohmmeter scale in Fig. 4-11(b),] Now suppose that an unknown resistance greater than zero but less than infinity is connected to terminals Aand B. The battery voltage (Ey) is divided across R, and R,, giving oe) Whenways indicat when R= whatever range'sselecte "ys indicate hal-scale when R, = Ry on Example 5-6 Forthe circuit shown in Fig. 5-8, determine the resistance sale marking 1/3 of FSD and 2/3 of FSD. aad rae Solution From Fa. 5-4 AN/AFSD, RyCy/3) : n= RO | Ey -(Ey/3). eH /At2/3 FSD, E=2Ey/3 R2Ey/3) and, Ra & Ey ~(2E5/3) Rs ‘The two points calculated in Example 5-6 are shown on the resistance scale in Fig. 5b), Further calculations demonstrate that the scale becomes progressively cramped at both extremities. Thus, asin the zase ofthe non- electronic ohmmeter, this instrument measures resistance mast acearatsly ‘when indicating close to half-scale deflection ‘The above discussion assumes thatthe electronic voltmeter is operating, ‘nits 1.5 V range, and thatthe battery voltage (Eis precisely 15 V.A battery voltage slightly larger or slightly smaller than this is easily taken care of by Including an adjustable resistance calibration contol (R,) in series with the deflection meter. If Ey = 1.4 V, R, is adjusted to give FSD for 14 V when terminals A and Bare open-circuited. Then when R, = Ry, E= 05 Egas before, and the pointer once again indicates hal-sale, All points on the scale are correct once the meter has been adjusted for full scale with terminal A and B open-circuited. Itshould be noted thatthe resistance measuring system described above requires two adjustments before use. First, the vollmeter must be zeroed. electrically when terminals A and B are short-circuited, After that, the resistance calibration control must beadjusted to give FSD whentheterminals are open-circuited. The unknown resistance can be measured only after both adjustments have been made. Shunt Ohmmeter [A shunt-type clmmeter circuit for use with an electronic instrument is ilustrated in Fig, 5-10. The precision resistors (Ry and R,)are connected in Parallel withthe supply instead of in series, In this case a regulated power supply is used to provide a stable 6V supply, instead of using a battery This eliminates the need for a voltmeter calibration control, because, unlike a Inter, the regulated power supply voltage doesnot drop.ee Ser acih d SSE t Seon oeiacns Sloane a volage divider, asc deta iene With terminals A and Bin Fig, 5-10 open-ctcuited, R,= mand 215V Therefore, inthis ccut the voltmeter fs once again on 21.5 V range give FSD when R, ==, ‘When R, = 0 2(A and B short-circuited), E= 0V. Here again the pointers at the left-hand side ofthe scale for R= 00. At ary value of Ry IR, Fe Ea RR) - The meter indicates half scale wien R= RyRy The values of Rand ‘used in Fig. 5-0 gives the instruments @ 1 KO range. Resistance vals id times lager would give a 10 0 range. Similarly, resistances 10 times salt (than 4 KO and 1.33 KO) give a 100 0 range. Thescale on the instruments ‘exactly the same as that in Fig, 5-90) ‘The major advantage ofthis system over the series ohmmeter described previously is that (because ofthe stable supply vo'tage) only one adjustnent is required before resistance measurements are made; the voltmeter terminals are short-circuited, and the instrument is electrically zeroed, Linear Ohmmeter Inthe circuit of Fig. 511, transistor Q, together with resistors R, Ry and ‘operate as a constant-current circuit. Resistor R, and f divide the sap) voltage to give 57 V across Ry, When applied to te base of pp transite Qy this gives (5.7 V - Vy) = 5 V across resistor Re. So the current [pis 5V/Ro and this isa constant quantity. Because fc = ths collector curren isa? constant quantity. This constant current is passed through the unkno¥? resistance R,, and the voltage across R, is measured by the voltmeter. The voltmeter scale can now be multiplied by an azproprate factor and directly asa resistance sale. ie"iearnle omer GV range Figure 511 Alnoa chat ce rea cntartcurt cul (A, yard © fas afd ceil houp te urkrom stance (The vtape op sss Rs {on dectypopuonal oe eastre et, tug ne rsace se. ‘suppose that Rs adjusted to give a collector curentof exactly 1 mA. If the vlimetrindests evactl 8V, then R.=5V/1mA=5k0 ‘When the voltmeter indicates 3V, R, is exactly 3X9. Thus, the 0 to5V scale isa near Oto kA esistance sal, (Other standard resistors substituted in place of Re can reduce to 100A, crincreasitto 10 A. When le= 100A, the maxims resistance measurable nthe 5 V range fs now R= SV/100 HA =50K0 With f= 10mA, the maximum value of R becomes 5100. Formutirange operations switching arrangement mus be provided for selection of R fom several standard resistor values. Some series adjustment for ellration ofeach range is necessary Calibration is easily effected by connecting a known standard resistor in place of R and adjusting Ry fr the appropriate deflection Section Review 531. Sketchalinearohmmeter ciruitas used withan electronic voltmeter. Explain how it hasa linear scale fr resistance measurement. ‘and Ry = 400 0. Determine R, when the 1.5 V meter indicates 1 V.‘122 Secon inirumentavon and Massuremenss 5-4 AC ELECTRONIC VOLTMETERS Op-amp Half-wave Rectifier Voltmeter The IC op.amp voltgellower voltmeter described in Section 5.» instrument. Connecting a rectifier in series with the meter cng a4, instrument, as shown in Fig 5:12(a), converts it into a hale-waye th, | voltmeter. The output fom the voltagefollower i exactly the yn ‘input. So the voltage fed tothe meter cicuitis simply a half-way ety version ofthe input voltage Ey from the attenuator. T 7 The operation ott circuit and the design calculations are just as described of SRA “ES ‘in Sectig, . the font alave reer vattneter Te diene hey ‘he nonelectronic instrument and the electronic ac voltmeter crept i ta 2 ss ™ A RIE a o g ot fe | Res « a a te 1 = a wo! () Inclusion ofa rectifier converts the volta ie Sean eine 4 2 oy a G S i Sepa “0 ‘tly be 6 We a : | Rok (©) Use of precision rctiferi weet Improves the a voltmeter aytrig nce nanan 388 §5:12(a is, of course, thatthe electronic instrument has a very high input impedance, Note the coupling capacitor (C,) in Fig. 5-12). This usually provided atthe input of an ac voltmeter to block unwanted de voltages. precision Rectifier Voltmeter ‘Te voltage drop (Vp) across the rectifier isa source of eror in the circu in Fig. 542(a). This canbe taken into account in design calculations when the instrument i indicating full scale. However, at other points onthe scale an error occurs due to Vp Also, the rectifier voltage drop isnot always exactly (07V, as usually assumed fo a silicon diode, and it varies with temperature change. To avoid these errors, the voltage-ollower feedback connection to the inverting terminal is taken from the cathode of rectifier D instead of fom the amplifier output [see Fig, 5-12(0)], The result is thatthe half-wave- rectified output precisely follows the postive half-cycle ofthe input voltage. Theres no rectifier voltage drop from inpat to output. The crit is known asa precision rectifier. ‘The procedure for calculation of series resistance R, for this circuits just «as explained in Section 43 with one exception; no diode is involved. Note that capacitors C,,C, and C, are connected across the attenuator resistors in Fig. 51200). These are normally employed with the attenuators on ac dectronic voltmeters in order to compensate fr the input capactance of the amplifier. This capacitance problem also occurs. with oscilloscopes Compensation capacitors are discussed further in Section 17-9. Low-level Voltmeter Lovrlevel ac voltages should be accurately amplified before being rectified and applied to a meter circuit. Amplification is combined with half-wave rectification in the circuit shown in Fig. 5-13, With the diode omitted, the op- amp circuit is a noninverting amplifier as described in Section 52 Inclusion (fD, causes the positive hall-cycles ofthe input tobe amplified by afactor A, =(Ry+R,)/Ry, The amplifications precise and ere again there isno rectifier voltage drop involved Pression stir amptier | apa Faure £48. Ac votineler crauts using an opamp nonmvering ample gether wih ‘ein hall weve recitation Low-level vatage are amped before measunmaSe iy 1 iaipsiertal nck ‘dreuit in -14{a) is a voltage-to-cur converter with theenepin hat onthe ostiv lyst he cinptare ggg ping ar gh te Doge nate hal ya gt is reverse biased and no current flows through the meter or through, BR, The meter peak currents = E,/R and th average meter caren =05 0671) (a) Votugetocarent converte with all ave recter ll %y ce " c t ™ fa le i In t E Figure 14 Ac waco etalon canbe cnstce nga vorage ce om ‘meine wah recat,ee ton cnc eras ‘op-amp Full-wave Rectifier Voltmeter 'Afll-wave bridge rectifier is employed in the circuit of Fig, 5-140). When the input voltage is positive the op-amp outputs positive. Diodes D, and Dy ae forward biased so that current flows through the meter from top (+) #0 tottom (). When the input is negative, D, and Ds are forward biased. Once curent passes through the meter from the +to the ~ terminal. Whether the nputis postive or negative, the meter peak curenis limited to ly = Eq/Ry ‘The average meter current in the full wave rectifier circuits ly = 0637 ly ‘op-amp Halt-bridge Rectifier Voltmeter Instead of afullwvave bridge rectifier some electronic instruments use the haltbridge fullavave rectifier circuit of Fig 49. As explained in Section 43, this arrangement helps to correct fr differences inthe diodes. However, the circuit in Fig, 5-146) tends tobe unaffected die differences, because the meter current is stabilized by the amplifier feedback circuitry. So the hal ‘ridge circuit would not improve on the performance of an IC opamp voltageto-current converter type of voltmeter. A hal-bridge rectifier could be useful in an electronic voltmeter that uses a transistor amplifier. que S18. Acclectonicvlmnotr ung hal bp ul-nave ein, Figure 515 shows a half-bridge rectifier circuit connected to the output stage of a BJT amplifier. Output transistor Q, passes direct current through resistor Ry, producing a de voltage atthe collector of the transistor which might be above or below the zero voltage level Capacitors C, and C, block the direct current from the meter circuit and pass the alternating current ‘when an alternating voltage appears atthe amplifier output, The circuit then functions exactly as described in Section 4-3. Example 5-7 The hall-wave rectifier electronic voltmeter circuit in Fig, 5-14(a) uses a 1 mA FSD meter with a 1.2 KO col resistance. Calculate the resistance for Ry to give full-scale pointer deflection for a 100 mV (ems) ac input. Also determine the meter deflection for a50 mV ac input.Solution For FSD, the average meter current is Iug=1mA, ‘With half-wave rectification 671, . I, ae 3 ‘ or, Ip= Zw ,2x1mA 0.637 ~~ 0687 =314mA Peak level of Vig = input peak voltage b= LE _100mv 0707 "0.707 =114mVv, 05 mA (half scale) Section Review = 54.1 Draw circuit diagram for an ac electronic voltmeter (a) using & half-wave precision rectifier (b) using. half-wave precision rectification with amplification. Compare the operation of th two circuits, | Practice Problem | i ) see 5-41 The full-wave rectifier voltmeter circuit in Fig, 5-14(0) use 3 {500 WA meter With Ry = 460.2 together with Ry = 4500. Determine the rms input for FSD on the meter. et ) —i i ir i 5.5 CURRENT MEASUREMENT WITH ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS Voltmeter and Shunt Real hatte two reason for introducing electronic devices into voltmeters are (1) to produce a very high input resistance, end (2) to amplify very small ‘ritages to measurable levels. lem I does not apply in the case of current ‘essurement; onthe contrary ammeter should normally have the lowest- be resistance Item 2 can apply inthe caseof very low current levels. “The basic circuit ofan analog electronic ammeter for measurement of Very tow curens is shown in Fig. 516, The smal voltage drop across shunt restr Re is amplified before being applied ty the defection instrument ‘risapproachisjustasapplicabletothemeasurementoflow-levelaltemating current sits to direc-curent measurements For lteating currents, 0 ‘Sceletronic volimeter using rectors (see Section 5) isused instead of ade instrument Figure 546. An elasonc vet can be for curent measurement by mess he vogedop acess shut (fg. lnsumer eel cai 0 For medium or high current measuremens, there is no need to use electronic amplifies. In fact, any electronic voltmeter could have several ‘current measurement rangesif appropriate shurtsand ectifersareincluded, as explained in Sections 41 and 44, The deflection instrument would be involved, but the eletronic circuitry could be switched out Burden Voltage Many electronic multirange instruments do nothave any current-measuring facies. Those that do measure current generally have very low-level ‘current ranges, and some have relatively high resistances when operating as ‘ammeter. For example, the meter resistance o one instrument is specified 2890 when operating on a 1.5 pA range. This must be taken into account hen the instrument is connected in series witha circuitin which the current ‘sto be measured. The instrument terminal voltage drop when used as an a120 eerone insemanaion snd Messuromarsa — ammeter istermed the hrder lag (8 deus in Section 4) 5 co 7 resistance on a 1.5 iA range, the burden voltage is % Vpn 9kQ #15 wA=135mV sare 250 mV may, ‘Other typical burden voltage specifications 2 V og range and Vina These voltages GPs AY OF May note jet 104 depending onthe circuit under test er Section Review ; 5-51 Draw a diagram to show how the BJT circuit in Fig. 52 g ‘used to measure low-level currents. al Practice Problem 5-5. The circuit in Fig, 5-16 uses a1 kS2shunt resistor and has ao), PMMC meter with a 5 KO coil resistance. Determine a supe resistance for R; to give FSD on the meter for a 20 1A cue through the shunt. ca 5-6 ANALOG ELECTRONIC MULTIMETER Laboratory-type Electronic Multimeter ‘The Hewlett-Packard (HP) mode! 427A electronic voltmeter is represenating of laboratory-type analog electronic instruments. The front panel illustag tag 57 thors ttitenmennredevalage(DCV Seren i tha tstance (OHMS). A kalleadge pantes and wine ee F precise reading on two voltage scales: 0 to 1 and 0 to 3. The ohmmeter sa oe hasitet penton t thecaieceterasinig 390) Ace ilo provided. Voluge measurements ate made veee ROE COM Common) teminae For reisance menses Ree OHMS trdiaa are employed, Anclectia coe ie oe is included on the front panel, as well as a mechanical zero control for the oc eae The HPADZA ha nine de voltage ranges rom 01 ¥ (al sal) 9 The aDCV pesos onthe FUNCTION swith pecan eke yoo negative polarity voltages to be measured. The measurement accuracy & 42% of full scale, and the input resistance is 10 MO on all ranges. Theres 10 ac voltage ranges, the lowest being 10 mV, and the highest 300 V. Tie frequency range for ac voltage measurements is from 10 Hz to 1 MH. Ths can he extended by the use of a high-frequency probe (see Section 5-7. T# available probe is designed for use with voltages ranging from 025 V0) /, and it extends the frequency range of the HP427A to 500 MHz TH measurement accuracy for ac voltages is 42% of full scale. Howevet input impedance is stated as 10 M&_ shunted by a 40 pF enpactence on 8% up to and including 1.V, and 10 M& shunted by 20 pF on 3 V and sr ffee 8 _Anog Sevan rans 12 © = || Figure 6-17 Fort pando the Hewlet Packaré model 427A alectenc muita. Tis Inavanent can measure dc votage, ac vlioe, and esas. The ange soiecon, as a ralife of 10a multiple of ceerines which oe wo vag sales (01 1) 001 3) 8 (ee (Counesy of ewiot Packard) ‘There are seven resistance-measuring ranges on the HPA7A, starting at 10.0 (center scale) and going to a maximum of 10 MQ. The accuracy of resistance measurements is 25% ofthe reading at midscale. DC Voltage Measurement Procedure 1. With the instrument switched off, check the pointer zero position, ‘Adjust the mechanical zero as required. 2. Ifthe instrament is battery operated, set the FUNCTION switch to BATT, and check that the battery vollage is 15 V minimum. For {instruments with an internal power supply and line cord, this step is ot necessary. 3. Setthe FUNCTION switch to DCV+ or DCV- as required. 4k. Set the RANGE switch to 0.1, and short-circuit the VOLTS and COM ferminals. Adjust the de ZERO/ o® control to set the pointer precisely to zero on the scale, then remove the short-circuit connection. 5. Selec a voltage range greater than the voltage to be measured, Where the approximate value of the voltage isnot know, rotate the RANGE switch to the highest range.190 _Eisctronic instrumentation and Mswsurements 6. Connect the input vltge tothe VOLTS and COM termina Fat the cage tc t give the greatest onsen pints hg (Where there is a grounded point ina circuit, the COM term ction, we tometer tere more han one Sh Strament invelwe lf ofthe COM terminals should be eee single patel The scesor fortis are dacuseed in Seton ees it ‘The procedure for ac voltage mensurement is exactly a for ey, but with the FUNCTION switch set to ACV and no need for a acajustment stance Measurement Procedure 1. With the instrument switched off, check the pointer zero and, ‘mechanical zero control as necessary. 2. Check the battery voltage as explained for de voltage meastiremen, 3. Set the FUNCTION switch to OHMS, and with the instrument ee Adjust thy indicates infinity (~) on the resistance scale. 4. Selecta resistance range to sult the approximate value ofthe resisan, to be measured. 5. Connect the resistance to be measured to the COM and OFMS tenn: nals, and adjust the RANGE control to givea resistance reading asin as possible to center scale Decibel (dB) and Decibel-Milliwatt (dBm) Measurements Decibel measurement is essentially the same as ac voltage measurements, On the HP427A the decibel scale is read directly when the instrument is et the 1 V (ACV) range. Each range position above 1 Vis 10 dB above Vani) || ‘dB must be added to the scale reading. For each range position below 1 V. 1) <4B must be subtracted from the dB measurements, For example, if the potter is indicating ~1 dB when set to the 3 V range, the dB measurement is C1 dB + 10 dB) =9 dB. A-5 dB scale reading on the 0.3 V range represents (3 dB = 10) =-15 a8. ‘The decibel scale on the HP427A is based on 0 dB as 1 mW dissipated ina 600 $2 load resistance. Where the load resistance is other than 600.9, the sale readings must be corrected to obtain the absolute dB measurements However, scale changes can be read directly as changes in dB levels. The decibel-miltioatt (dsm) term is sometimes employed because the absolute dB ‘measurements are measurements of changes in power level from a staring point of 1 mW power dissipation Frequency Response of AC Instruments It is important to know the frequency limitations of ac voltmeters. AX instrument with @ 500 Hz upper cutoff frequency used to measure a 1 Mi voltage gives a completely unreliable result, Figure 5-18 illustrates the Pi frequency responsesof several different types of analogand digital voltme’™™ ‘As shown, most hand-held instruments have a 40 Hz to 500 Hz fequet a,— ange. The bandwidth of high-performance portable instruments is typically Jaf t0 30 KHz, Many bench-type digital instruments have a 20 Hz to 100 He frequency range, while similar analog instruments can operate ‘atisfactoil to1 MHz. Instrument frequency range s normally extended by the use of high-frequency probes. Basic portable High-performance Benchtype Benepe insrumentporableisrament dig instrument analog strument ™ igre 518. Typical roquency ranges for ac instruments Section Review 5-64 List the correct procedure for using an electronic VOM as a de voltmeter. 5-62 List the resistance measurement procedure for the electronic YOM in Fig. 517. 563. Sketch a diagram to show the typical frequency ranges of various portable and bench-type ac instruments Explain, 5-7 MULTIMETER PROBES ‘There are many probes and adapters available for use with multimeters (and for use with analog and digital electronic instruments) that can extend the ranges of measurement, or adapt the instrument for measurement of temperature o other quantities. Some ofthese are illustrated in Fig. 5-19. High-voltage Probe ‘Thehigh-vltage probe (also known asa voltage multiplier shown in Fig. 5-19(a) is essentially a voltage divider well insulated for safety. The voltage to be ‘measured is divided by a factor of 1000, so that the instrument scales are ‘effectively multiplied by 1000. Thus, a 50 V scale becomes a 50 KV scale. High-current Probe High levels of alternating current can be reduced by the use of a current transformer (see Section 44), an this principe is used in the ac current probe lusrated in Fig, 5-190), The transformer core opensas shown, toclosearound ‘aconduetor carrying the current to be measured. The conductor can be treated {Sa single-turn primary on the transformer, and the secondary winding then{188 Becbee neuer and sslFoment letermines the measurable current level. Typically the T mA ae Sale ‘ltimeter is converted into 1A scale by the use ofthe current pa ay eset (© Abigh cnet probe uss a curent Mansfomer (9 Ati pre pots atom mage s Figure 538, arcu probes ae aslte © extend mutina 3 mansureent ranges. HO ‘lt racine tn may mafo eri re 198 Halleffect Probe ‘The Hall-effect probe shown in Fig. 5-19() has a si Mee ee tne ae and allemating currents in a condor, The Hallffen tanetce (see Section 17-2) contained in 'the probe oferates on the principle that a small voltage is produced at the edges of a fla currentcarrying conductor in the presence of magnetic field. The output isconnected to the meter voltage terminals, typically resulting in the milivolt scale being read as a current seal with 1 mV representing 1 A, . padio-frequency Probe Radio- frequency (RF voltages cannot be measured directly ona multimeter because the upper frequency limit ofthe instrument i not high enough. In an BF pre (also known as a peak detector pote), the RF waveform is clamped and converted toa direct voltage equa to its peak level. Figure5.20showsa peak detector circuit, asused inan RF probe. Capacitor Cj inseries with the input terminal, blocks d° input voltages and passes the ac voltage. When the input goes to its postive peak level, D is forward biased and C; charges up to (V, Vj) with te polarity shown, (The voltage developed across D, obviously cannot go above the level of +V— with respect toground.)C, retains its charge, and so when the input voltage goes negative, diode Dis reverse biased. At the negative peak ofthe input, te voltage at the anode of Dis the sum ofthe input and the capacitor voltages = -Vp-Ver 2=V p= (p= Vp) 2Vp+Ve ‘The alternating voltage (e) developed across the diode has exactly the same waveform and amplitudes the input. The important difference is that the positive peak of the waveform is now clamped to +V; above ground level (see the waveforms). Capacitor C, and diade D, constitute the voltage clamping circuit. The alternating voltage passed to R, and Cis the same as the input except that the ac wave is virtually all below ground level. [Neglecting the diode voltage drop, this wave now has a (negative) average value of one-half its peak-to-peak voltage, asillustrated. Resistor R, and capacitor C, function as a low-pass filter to block the alternating component of the voltage and to pass the de (average) level. ‘The de level (E), which equals (approximately) the peak value of the input (one-half the peak-to-peak voltage), is now passed to a de voltmeter for measurement. The voltage must be divided to 0,707 of its peak level to give an rms voltage reading on the mebr. As in the case of rectifier ‘voltmeters, the peak response instrument is accurate only for pure sine- wave inputs.re 820 Peer ctr ota canst rian ys ty ‘cg dahon omar acon ura le, A Samer m The RF probe converts any de voltmeter into a high-frequency set eee ee Instrument that we peak ction always have the detector ei separate probe on one end ofa cotil cable which connect tothe vale ‘suas. This pts te detector night a the pot of measurement age of atthe opposite end of connecting cables which might have onside cepacitane and inductance Suc cable capacitance and inductance (gre the detector could have a serious eet on the measured voltage, Wit high-requency voltage converted to a de voltage, the connecting att impedance sno longer of ary consequence Section Review 5.7.1 Draw-a diagram of an accurrent probe for use witha multimeter, Explain how the probe extends the current range for the ‘multiplier 572. Sketch the circuit diagram and waveforms fora high frequency probe, as used to extend the frequency range of an instrument Explain the circuit operation, REVIEW QUESTIONS Section 5-1 541 Sketch the circuit of a simple BIT emitterfollower voltmeter crit and compareitto a non-lechonic voltmeter. 52 Sketch the circuit of an emitter-follower voltmeter using two transis Carefully explain the ccst operation138 _tlecironio mstovmaneton and Measurements the typical frequency ranges of various ac voltmeters, mmo Section 5-7. 524 525 526 527 cca clay wy ws nip cas edad ia-cme oie nine ta Seer ae eae rare eters ate sioueipfneuctahpran pe Epcnnrpae, ip er Sereno mientras gc Sarktecietanganke tapisenany panic eS Show the cst waveforne and explants pation, Un, PROBLEMS Section 5-1 54 52 5 A Simple enter one cin 51h Vg #1 ha 2 mA meter anda tain wth he = 8. Cale sau Teaco tote SD hen ESV Asa emi ea resin 4a emierfolower volume csi a8 Fig 52, bas the components: R; = 12 KO, R, sarge 3340, Ra 3100, wah PR Osa A yn mbt hes age eee att vey 7D Vn so nl when ae cdo te magratadiaemeerte Cal he cs oral nPnen 2 whe ey, volge lees me 08,078 Vand A33¥ inp appli oeinp tenatstown ny 4 Cay, the volage con enc rang seton THe FTinp volcan he be towing cape ook la Rya5000 = SSL RS Themetallwalecarentn;0}A therapy vote aE a In ane FET gtesurevlgeinion= 3¥.Daeosne ee shdiwhen=0. Abo cet ng ftsatnet Cate the meter defections forthe car oon 65 hn tetris 0 5V rage an the npuenc ae Cave The ference amplifier voloneterin 5h long enc, RyeIShO Ry Rye 39M Res AL Re Dae a netfee curren i 5 8 andthe age cones trio lage ees hen For the circuit in Problem 57, determine the EJT collector currents when te ‘meter indicates FSD. Section 5-2 59 Anop-amp volage-follower voltmeter a in Fig. 5-6, has R,=80040, R= 10, R= 6D and Ry= 40 40. A.50 WA meters used witha reste of 50 £2. Determine the resistance for R, to give FSD when E = 10 Vand te range switch is as illustrated.alg Eaton uae 510 Thenoninverting amplifier voltmeter cireuit in’ 5-7 uses an pwith Ip. =300nA,anda50 pA meter with = 100ka Peery ee for Ryand R, to give FSD when the input is 300 mV. a Tee cirouit in Fig. 58 uses/a 375 yA (ISD) flection = 900 0.16 Ry inp levesto pve SD and OSSD, 0M deteminetbe input vlage $312 Determine the new resistance for Rn the deuitin Problem 5-1 to give FSD hen E=1 V- Also, calclt th opamp output vlage section 53 513 Calculate the resistance scale markings at 25% and 75% ol full scale for the seresohmmeter reat in ig 5 ‘514, Determine the percentage meter defection inthe circuit of Fig. 9 when the 100K standard resistor is switched into th det and R, «166 LO. 515. Caeuat the meter defection forthe shunt ohmmeer circ in Fg. 510 when Ry=2kAand when R,=3000. 516 A 1667 KO ressor is substituted for Rein the linear oknmeter ceca in Fig 5:1. Calelate the measured resistance when the meterndiates 39. section 54 517 The half-wave rectifier electronic vllmeler in Fig. $20) uses a 500 wA deflection meter witha 4600 col esitance IR,» 450 Qealeulate thems voltage require to give FSD. S18 The components used in Problem 517 ae reconnected as in Fig 5-1) with = R, Determine he now rm inpu voltage ove FSD. determine the ster defections when the input) 100 and () 200. 5:19, Theac dlectronic voltmeter cit in Fig 513 uses the following components: Ry= 2240, Ry= 22540, Ry=68 0 and Rye Raa 1 KD. Te meter gives SD for 300 WA. Calculate the rms input vollge for meter PSD and for 03 FSD, 5.20 Thefllwavereciter voltmeter crcatin Fig 540) uses a0) KA meter with By =500 0. Determine suitable esistanc for Ro gve FSD on the mete for 2 500 mV rms input. Also calculate th opamp peakoutpat lage section 55 521" A100 A current is tobe measured by the type of cut shown in Fig. 516 ‘Treshuntresstori 3900, nda mA PMMCaneter with 490 cil resstance isto be used, Determine sultable resistance for Rs to giveFSD onthe mete, and calculate the maxima opamp osu, PRACTICE PROBLEM ANSWERS SAA pA 521 dmv Bar aa S41 505 mV 551 200