Journal of Gerontology

1978, Vol. 33, No. 3, 402-407

Adult Age Differences in

Reflection-Impulsivity
Andrew C. Coyne, BA,1 Susan K. Whitbourne, PhD2
and David S. Glenwick, PhD3
Adult age differences in reflection-impulsivity were examined on a modified version of Kagan's adult
Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFF). The sample consisted of 20 elderly adults (mean age = 70.6)
and 20 young adults (mean age = 21.9), each of whom was administered the modified MFF by an adult
examiner. On half of the 24 items, the original (i.e., the standard) was present among the four alter-
natives ("original present" condition), while on the other half, all the alternatives were variants of the
standard ("original not present" condition). The elderly subjects were generally more impulsive (had
shorter latencies and committed more errors) than were the young adults. The results, though, varied
somewhat with the two stimulus conditions employed. An analysis of the mean scores of both age groups
indicated that the elderly took less time to respond only in the "original present" condition. A higher
number of errors was observed for the older group in both conditions, and both age groups had fewer
errors in the "original present" condition. Possible interpretations of these findings, in terms of age
group differences in search strategy, anxiety, and other aspects of decision style are offered, and implica-
tions for further research are provided.

HE term cognitive style refers to a person's
T characteristic approach to a problem-solv-
ing situation. Reflection and impulsivity, as
originally defined by Kagan (1965a), are two
extreme points along one dimension of cogni-
tive style. Reflective persons take longer to
produce a response and make fewer errors than
impulsive individuals, who perform more
quickly and less accurately.
The Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFF)
(Kagan, 1965a) is a perceptual match-to-
sample task frequently used to measure
reflection-impulsivity. It yields scores on
errors and latencies, from which categorization
of a subject as reflective or impulsive can be
made. Among children, the two measures are
negatively correlated, ranging from -.60 to -.30
(Eska & Black, 1971; Kagan, 1965a). Kagan
and Kogan (1970) have also noted that with
increasing age in childhood, regardless of sex,
there is an increase on the MFF in response
times and a decrease in errors.
Despite the wealth of data accumulated on
children, there is comparatively little on
reflection-impulsivity in young adults (Drake,
1970; Wolfe et al., 1972) and even less in the
elderly. The purpose of the present study was
'Dept. of Psychology, Washington Univ.
2
(Formerly Susan K. Gordon.) Assistant Professor, Education & Psy-
chology, College of Education, Univ. of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627.
3
Kent State Univ.
to compare young adult and elderly groups of
men and women on a modification of the adult
version of the MFF to determine whether
reflection-impulsivity differs over the span
of adulthood.
Indirect evidence on the elderly may be
found in studies on reaction time, in which a
slowing-down of behavior is generally ob-
served (Birren, 1964; Birren & Botwinick,
1955; Da vies, 1968; Surwillo, 1968). This may
be due to alterations in central processing
mechanisms responsible for decision-making
(Fozard & Thomas, 1975), an increase in
random noise in the nervous system (Welford,
1977), and/or overall health status (Botwinick
& Thompson, 1971). Moreover, motivational
factors, amount of practice, and testing condi-
tions can also affect the degree of response
slowing exhibited by the elderly adult in a given
task (Botwinick, 1973; Fozard & Thomas,
1975). When given sufficient time to respond,
older persons can maintain accurate
performance (e.g., Thompson et al., 1963).
This raises the question of the degree to which
response slowing is due to greater cautiousness
in old age or to diminished sensorimotor
abilities. According to Welford (1977):
Determining the relative contributions of both has
practical as well as theoretical implications: funda-
mental changes are essentially a physical problem whereas
changes of strategy may be amenable to training.

402

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 AGE DIFFERENCES IN REFLECTION-IMPULSIVITY
If cautiousness were a factor affecting per-
formance in the present study, then a greater
proportion of elderly persons could be
expected to fall into the reflective category,
since they could maintain a lower error rate
by increasing their response latency.
In contrast, a number of studies lead to the
opposite hypothesis: that the elderly are more
impulsive than their younger counterparts.
From Wapner and colleagues' (1960) regres-
sion hypothesis one would expect a return to
childhood levels of impulsivity in old age.
In addition, personality research suggests that
the elderly may respond more to their instinc-
tual drives and hence show greater impulsivity
than younger adults (Davidson & Kruglov,
1952; Neugarten, 1963, 1964; Pollack &
Kastenbaum, 1964; Rankin & Johnson, 1962;
Singer, 1963). On field independence-depen-
dence, another common measure of cognitive
style, the elderly show greater field depen-
dence (Marcus, 1971; Schwartz & Karp, 1967).
In light of Witkin and colleagues' (1962)
conclusion that field dependency is related to
less effective impulse control, an increase in
impulsivity in old age would then be expected.
The possibility remains that the MFF
performance of older adults is neither clearly
impulsive nor clearly reflective. Rabbitt
(1965,1968) has observed that the elderly have
greater difficulty in discriminating among
complex stimuli. To the extent that cautious-
ness cannot compensate for decreased neural
efficiency in the elderly, then a pattern of slow
and inaccurate performance would be ex-
pected, since the MFF requires complex dis-
crimination and analytic abilities.
The typical classification of reflection-impul-
siveity, using simultaneous median splits on
the two dimensions of latency and errors,
ignores those minorities who either (a) respond
slowly but inaccurately or (b) quickly but
correctly (Block et al., 1974). To gain a more
complete picture of cognitive tempo in the
elderly, in the present research all four
quadrants were considered: (a) slow/accurate
(reflective), (b) fast-inaccurate (impulsive), (c)
slow/inaccurate, and (d) fast/accurate.
The standard MFF was modified in the
present study, yielding two conditions:
presence or absence of a duplicate of the
standard among the four choices presented
to the subject. It may be assumed that when
the original is not present among the choices in
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403
half of the trials, the task becomes more diffi-
cult for the trials in both test conditions. Since
a series of complex discriminations is involved,
this additional element should further highlight
age differences in reaction time and latencies
(Botwinick et al., 1958). Moreover, potential
variations in the search strategies employed by
persons in the two age groups can be inferred
from differential performance in the two test
conditions.
On the basis of the existing literature on adult
age differences in cognitive tempo, the follow-
ing hypotheses were tested: (1) adult age
groups will differ in errors and latencies on the
MFF and (2) errors and latencies will differ
in the two conditions of "original present" and
"original not present." The direction of these
differences and the relationship of age to the
original present-absent variable were not
specified, due to inconclusive previous
evidence.
METHOD
Subjects
The sample consisted of 20 elderly adults
(mean age = 70.6; range = 61 to 87) and 20
young adults (mean age = 21.9; range = 18 to
27), with 10 males and 10 females in each
age group. The elderly persons who volun-
teered were solicited through various com-
munity centers. All were in good health with
no obvious cognitive impairments. The young
adults, none of whom was a college graduate,
volunteered through informal community
organizations. Visual screening was accom-
plished by having each potential subject
complete a sample picture set, similar to those
in the actual test, and read a caption. Although
an effort had been made to obtain the elderly
and young adult samples from similar socio-
economic levels, they differed significantly on
years of formal education, ?(38)=3.86,
p < .001. The mean education of the elderly
was 9.75 (range = 3 to 14 years) and 12.3
(range = 9 to 14 years) for the young adults.4
Materials
The original adult version of the MFF con-
sists of 12 sets of pictures of familiar objects,
such as a dog, a plane, a bed, a lion, and the
4
For practical purposes, the difference in educational level may be seen
as minimal. During the period in which the elderly subjects were of a
comparable age to the young volunteers, the general population had
fewer years of formal education. For further discussion of this point, see
Botwinick (1977).
 404 COYNE, WHITBOURNE, AND GLENWICK
like. Each set is composed of one picture
(the standard) on a page horizontally facing a
second page on which there are eight pictures
of the same object. Of the eight pictures, only
one is an exact duplicate of the standard, while
the other seven are slight variations. Each
picture is approximately 2.5 in by 2.5 in and is
reproduced in black ink on a white back-
ground.
In the present study, the number of choices
for each set in the MFF was reduced to four.
There were 24 sets of pictures: (a) one set of 12
standards with three variants and one duplicate
serving as the choices ("original present") and
(b) a second set of the same 12 standards with
four variants and no duplicate serving as the
choices ("original not present"). The variants
were those used in the standard MFF. Each of
the 24 standards appeared on a page horizon-
tally facing the four choices on a second page.
For each trial, the subject performed one
matching task. The 24 trials were arranged
according to two different random orders.
Each half of the sample received one of the
random orders. The choices were also dis-
tributed randomly within each of the two
conditions.
Procedure
Each subject was seated at a table in a
well-lit room with the modified MFF (de-
scribed above) on a stand in front of him or her.
The following instructions were read:
I am going to show you a number of sets of pictures
of familiar objects. Each set will consist of one pic-
ture on the top page and four similar pictures of the
same object on the bottom page. I would like you to
tell me whether or not you find an exact duplicate of
the picture on the top page among the four on the
bottom page. If you do not find a duplicate, please
indicate this to me. If you do find a duplicate, please
indicate which of the four pictures it is.
After being shown a sample set of pictures
and being reminded that each set may or may
not contain a duplicate, each subject was
individually administered the MFF by a male
young adult examiner. Contrary to standard
instructions, each subject was allowed only
one response per item. This procedure was
designed to eliminate possible interference
caused by negative feedback and to reduce the
total testing time. The subject's response to
each set of pictures was recorded, along with
the number of seconds for each response
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(i.e., latency) on a manually-operated stop-
watch. Following completion of the MFF, each
subject was asked to indicate his or her age and
number of years of education.
RESULTS
Preliminary analyses were carried out to
determine whether the typically found negative
correlation between errors and latencies would
be observed in the present sample. With age
partialled out, the correlation in the original
present condition was -.43, (p < .01), and in
the original not present it was -.45 (p < .01).
These correlations fall within the range of those
reported in the reflection-impulsivity literature
on children. The data from the 12 trials of the
"original present" condition were then
analyzed using the fourfold categorization of
cognitive tempo by simultaneous median splits
on number of errors and latency. The median
latency for the total sample was 36.05 sec, and
the median number of errors was 4.17 errors.
The mean latencies for response times in the
fast and slow groups were 25.09 and 54.29 sec,
respectively. In the accurate group, the mean
number of errors was 2.1, while in the inaccu-
rate group the mean was 6.6. No scores fell
exactly on the median. A breakdown of the
subjects, based on these median splits, is
presented in Table 1.
A chi-square test performed on these data to
detect differences in distribution between the
two age groups over the categories was signifi-
cant, x2(3) = 18.16, p < .001, C = .56. Further
examination indicated that the greatest incre-
ments to the total chi-square value were
contributed by the disproportionately high
number of elderly in the impulsive category,
and the relatively greater number of younger
persons in the fast/accurate grouping.
Age differences in errors and latencies were
then analyzed for the two testing conditions,
collapsed over trials. Two 2 (Age Group) x 2
Table 1. Classification of Subjects by MFF Errors
and Latency.
Age Stow/ Fast/
Group Inaccurate Impulsive Reflective Accurate
Old 5
Young 10
Note: N for each group is 20.
 AGE DIFFERENCES IN REFLECTION-IMPULSIVITY
(Conditions) analyses of variance were con-
ducted, with repeated measures on the second
factor. Although there had been age dif-
ferences in years of education, these did not
alter the results on the two dependent mea-
sures of the study.5
The means and standard deviations of error
scores by age group and condition are shown in
Table 2. The main effects of age, F(l,38) =
38.18, p < .001, and condition, F(l,38) =
130,00, p < .001, were found to be significant.
Thus, both age groups committed fewer errors
when the original was included in the matching
choices, and the elderly had a higher error rate
than the younger group in both test conditions.
Table 2. Means and Standard Deviations of
Errors on Matching Familiar Figures Task by
Age and Condition.
Original
Present
Age Group ~X SD
Elderly 6.10 2.13
(N = 20)
Young Adult 2.60 2.16
(N = 20)
The means and standard deviations on
latencies are presented in Table 3. There was
a significant main effect of condition, F(l,38)
= 23.45, p < .001, but not age, F(l,38) < 1.
The interaction of age x condition was
significant, F( 1,38) = 11.79,/? < .001. Post-hoc
comparisons showed that the interaction was
accounted for by the relatively greater dif-
ference in latencies between the two conditions
for the young adults,F( 1,38) = 34.27,/? <.001,
than the elderly, F(l,38), p < 1. The older
persons, in contrast, demonstrated similar
response times in both the original present
and the original not present conditions.
DISCUSSION
Cognitive tempo is considered to be a
process that undergoes developmental change
in childhood (Kagan, 1965a). In the present
research, this process was investigated with
respect to age differences in adulthood.
Through comparisons of elderly and young
'Separate 2 x 2 analyses of covariance, with years of education as the
covariate, yielded similar main effects and interactions as the analyses
of variance reported here.
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405
adults on a modified version of the adult MFF,
the older subjects were found to be generally
more impulsive than the young group who, in
turn, were more accurate at both latencies.
This result, when contrasted to data obtained
in research on children, suggests a curvilinear
relationship between age and cognitive tempo.
This conclusion, however, needs to be
qualified by consideration of performance
differences under the two stimulus conditions.
Table 3. Means and Standard Deviations of
Latencies (Sec) on Matching Familiar Figures
Task by Age and Condition.
Original Original
Present Not Present
Age Group X SD X SD
Elderly 35.82 15.03 33.56 16.15
(N = 20)
Original
Not Present Young Adult 43.56 19.29 30.28 10.12
~X SD (N = 20)
10.80 J.96
More specifically, thefindingscan lead to the
7.10 2.65 interpretation that in the' 'original not present''
condition, the two age groups took approxi-
mately the same amount of time to answer,
but the elderly made relatively fewer correct
decisions. In the "original present" condition,
both age groups increased their latencies and
decreased the number of errors (compared
to their performance in the "original not
present" condition). However, the young
adults increased their latencies more than did
the elderly.
An explanation for the abovefindingscannot
be determined from the present data. Clearly,
there were combined effects of age differences
in neurological functioning and cognitive
strategy reflected in the differential response-
time performance in the two conditions.
Among the most plausible interpretations are
the following:
(1) The two age groups could have employed
different search strategies; the young adults
using a dissimilarity strategy, while the elderly
might have used a similarity strategy, attempt-
ing to locate the one alternative that matched
the standard by seeking similarities among the
choices and the standard.
(2) Alternatively, the two age groups could
have employed the same search strategy, with
the young adults being more thorough in their
 406 COYNE, WHITBOURNE, AND GLENWICK
use of it. Thus, over trials in the "original
present" condition, the young adults had
longer latencies than did the elderly because
they were more thorough and repetitious in
checking out all dimensions of the pictorial
stimuli before offering a response.
This interpretation receives support from
visual scanning research, which has been
extensively conducted with children (e.g.,
Ault et al., 1972; Siegelman, 1969). Further-
more, Drake (1970) found that both impulsive
and reflective undergraduates appeared to
employ the same general task strategy of
looking for differences between the variants
and the standards; however, the reflective
undergraduates applied this approach more
precisely.
(3) Research with children has suggested
(Messer, 1976) that impulsives are anxious
over a basic inability to perform competently
on a wide variety of tasks, while reflectives
are anxious due to uncertainty over making
mistakes on intellectual tasks. The elderly may
have been more anxious about having their
cognitive abilities tested (Whitbourne, 1976).
This may have resulted, in the present study,
in the elderly's answering more quickly (on the
trials in the "original present" condition) and
more inaccurately than the young adults.
Further research might investigate the
practical significance for the elderly of an
impulsive or reflective cognitive style. Such
studies exist on the personality, social, and
intellectual correlates of the MFF in children.
For example, reflective pupils are superior to
impulsives in reading (Kagan, 1965b) and role-
taking ability (Glenwick & Burka, 1975) and
are rated more positively by peers and teachers
(Block et al., 1974; Glenwick et al., 1976). It
would be interesting to explore whether
impulsive elderly persons are at a similar
disadvantage as their younger counterparts.
Finally, the present results provide further
support and impetus for the development of
cognitive training strategies for the elderly.
Such strategies are based on the assumption
that the elderly's reduced performance on
tasks such as the MFF is due primarily to
environmental and experiential factors rather
than to physiological decrement. Thus,
Meichenbaum (1974) has advocated self-
instructional training programs to provide the
elderly with covert self-statements to improve
task comprehension, production of verbal
mediators, and utilization of such mediators
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to regulate nonverbal behavior. Employing
such a procedure, Labouvie-Vief and Gonda
(1976) produced gains on measures of inductive
reasoning. Other training procedures aimed at
increasing the elderly's cognitive abilities have
involved modeling of appropriate questions
(Denney & Denney, 1974) and increasing
therapy group members' awareness of coping
strategies useful in handling problematic
situations (Kahana, Ref. Note 1). These and
similar approaches appear to warrant addi-
tional exploration and application for poten-
tially improving cognitive performance among
the aged.
SUMMARY
Adult age differences in reflection-impul-
sivity were examined on a modified version
of Kagan's adult Matching Familiar Figures
Test. Twenty elderly and 20 young adult males
and females were presented with two condi-
tions of the test, each consisting of 12 standards
and four choices per standard. In the "original
present" condition, the standard was included
among the picture stimuli presented, while in
the "original not present" condition, all stimuli
presented were variants of the standard. The
standard analysis, in which subjects' per-
formance are categorized on the basis of
median error scores and median latencies, was
initially employed. From the results of
categorization into cognitive tempos, it was
suggested that the older subjects were more
impulsive than their younger counterparts.
Further examination of the data, based on
analyses of variance for performance by age
group and condition, suggested that perhaps
the older persons were not simply more impul-
sive than the young. Interpretations for these
findings included the possibility of the two age
groups employing different search strategies,
the differential use of the same strategy,
and the effects of anxiety on each group's per-
formance. Implications of the present study for
research concerning the significance for the
elderly of an impulsive or reflective cognitive
style and the development of cognitive training
strategies for the elderly were also discussed.
REFERENCE NOTE
1. Kahana, B. Training the aged for "competent
coping" - a psychotherapeutic strategy. Unpub-
lished manuscript, 1976, Available from author,
Oakland University.
 AGE DIFFERENCES IN REFLECTION-IMPULSIVITY
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