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Keywords: Heat based vapour absorption cooling technology is the most appropriate, efficient and eco-friendly way of
Vapour absorption cooling system harnessing solar heat energy, as many cooling load requirements are always in phase with the accumulated solar
Solar heat. The performance improvement of such systems has currently become a high research priority, to ensure
Thermodynamic analysis conservation of electrical energy. Performance of these systems depends on two important factors: i) selection of
COP
suitable working fluid pair and ii) adopting appropriate configurations and multiple cascaded ‘effects’ of the
Single-effect
absorption cycles. The Thermodynamic analysis (TDA) or the first law analysis is the broad indicating tool to
Double-effect
Triple-effect predict the performance behavior and suitability of a vapour absorption system for a particular application. In
1.5-effect the present work, a detailed literature survey has been conducted on various water based working fluid pairs and
Half-effect their cascaded effects; single-effect, double-effect, triple-effect, 1.5-effect and half-effect vapour absorption
Performance cooling systems based on TDA. This review paper focuses on two areas: (1) the importance of conducting TDA
Parameters and choosing right parameters in TDA for performance enhancement in order to overcome the drawbacks of
Generator temperature conventional systems. This will help in finding out system for solar based applications, air-cooled applications
and determining solutions to overcome crystallization, corrosion, compactness and initial cost; and, (2) as
generator temperatures represent the amount of solar heat energy required, considered as key parameter. For
various water based vapour absorption systems, the possible range of generator operating temperature re-
quirements and its corresponding attainable COP values has been reviewed and tabulated. This review data can
serve as a source of reference in selecting a suitable solar collector with available fluid pair and configuration or
vice-versa.
1. Introduction ‘effects’ are considered for a review because water is a natural re-
frigerant, is abundantly available, low in cost, and does not have any
This review work concerns the determination of the most appro- harmful effects on the environment. Moreover, its high latent heat of
priate and efficient comfort cooling technology, which offers the dual evaporation makes it ideal as a refrigerant for vapour absorption sys-
advantage of energy and environmental benefits. The vapour absorp- tems. The working fluid influences the performance to a certain extent,
tion cooling system (VACS) runs on low grade energy such as solar heat but higher performance can be obtained by adopting appropriate con-
energy or waste heat from industrial processes, which has no global figurations/‘cascaded effects’ of the multistage VACS. The ‘effect’ re-
warming consequences. These systems make use of non-ozone layer presents the number of times the primary high-temperature heat is
depleting natural materials as working fluid pairs. Hence, the VACS being utilized, to generate refrigerant vapour [1]. In the present work, a
seem to be a viable option for solar based cooling applications. detailed literature survey has been conducted on various water based
Objective of this review is to ascertain the feasibility of the VACS for single-effect, double-effect, triple-effect, 1.5-effect and half effect VACS
solar energy utilization and to discuss the various pros and cons. Its to determine how effectively solar heat can be utilized for a wide range
performance is comparatively lower when compared to the VCRS (va- of temperatures to achieve higher performances by overcoming the
pour compression refrigeration system). Choice of proper working fluid drawbacks of these systems. Performance of all the systems reviewed in
and proper configuration/number of effects are important factors to be this work are based on thermodynamic analysis(TDA)/first law ana-
considered for improving the performance of these systems. In the lysis, which will decide the parameter range of interest as well as the
present work, various water based working fluid pairs and their many suitability of alternate refrigerant-absorbent combination for a specific
⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Padur, Chennai 603 103, India.
E-mail address: psarshib@hindustanuniv.ac.in (P.S. Arshi Banu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.092
Received 4 July 2016; Received in revised form 19 September 2017; Accepted 28 October 2017
Available online 29 November 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P.S. Arshi Banu, N.M. Sudharsan Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3750–3761
application [2]. Second law based analysis and heat and mass transfer and strong solutions using the Dühring plot (p-T-X plot). State point
based analysis do not come under the scope of this review. enthalpies of pure water (refrigerant) can be found from the steam ta-
bles and state point enthalpies of solution can be found from h-T-X
2. Water based working fluid pairs(refrigerant–absorbent diagram. Mass, energy and concentration balance is performed to find
combinations) the heat loads on each component of the system. Finally, the overall
performance parameters can be determined. Some important perfor-
VACS literature has several refrigerant-absorbent combinations as mance parameters considered in TDA are flow ratio (CR), enthalpy-
working fluid pairs. They are categorized as water based, ammonia based coefficient of performance (COP), Carnot coefficient of perfor-
based, halogenated hydrocarbon based and alcohol based refrigerants mance (COPmax) and efficiency ratio (ηII).
with various absorbent combinations [3]. The most studied combina- Reasons to perform thermodynamic analysis/first law analysis:
tions are H2O-LiBr and NH3-H2O. The refrigerant (water) having a high
of vaporization and the fact that the absorbent (LiBr) being non-volatile • To find the influence of operating parameters on performance
makes it a favorable pair for VACS [4–11]. Comparatively H2O-LiBr parameters.
systems are safer and less complex having a better performance when • To find possible combinations of operating temperatures and their
compared to NH3-H2O systems. However, H2O-LiBr can be used in limits of a system.
applications requiring refrigeration temperatures above 0 °C. Some • To identify the best combination for a given temperature range of
authors [12,13] have suggested that H2O-LiBr pair has more scope for interest.
air conditioning applications using concentrated solar energy. • Useful in sizing of the component, such as solution heat exchanger.
However, some factors such as corrosion, crystallization and visc- • Useful in comparison of the performance of various working fluid
osity are causes for concern with H2O-LiBr combinations. Some re- pairs.
searchers have worked on additives for H2O-LiBr system to overcome
the corrosion problem [14–17]. In H2O-LiBr VACS at high concentra- Choosing the appropriate parameter and its impact on performance
tions and high operating temperatures, the solution will undergo crys- plays equal role while performing TDA. Several parameters and their
tallization and reduces performance by reducing absorbing capacity. significance have been discussed as follows. The standard operational
Crystallization can be overcome by adding one or more salts in a basic parameters such as generator temperature(Tg), condenser temperature
H2O-LiBr system which will increase the operating limit without crys- (Tc), absorber temperature(Ta) and evaporator temperature(Te) and its
tallization [18]. Hence, for the purpose of this review, In addition to influence on COP and circular ratio(CR/λ) are considered for TDA, as is
H2O-LiBr other water based refrigerants with allied and alternative salts a general feature as seen from open literature. Quality and quantity of
of LiBr are considered as absorbents. heat source is denoted by generator temperature range by which fea-
sibility in solar thermal applications and choice of solar thermal col-
lector can be determined. The coolant (water/air) to be employed to
3. Thermodynamic analysis
remove rejected heat is decided by condenser temperatures and ab-
sorber temperatures. Inference on the risk of crystallization can be
Thermodynamic analysis [19,20] of VACS is carried out with certain
drawn from this range. Cooling loads of equipment represented is by
assumptions, considering the flow as steady state, neglecting the po-
evaporator temperature. In performance parameters the COP represents
tential and kinetic energy changes in components, neglecting frictional
the overall efficiency and the flow ratio / circulation ratio represents
losses and assuming that only pure water vapour comes out of the
the size of the various heat transfer equipment of VACS. It also indicates
generator. Thermodynamic analysis can be performed by finding the
the load and heat losses associate with solution heat exchanger in
state point vapour pressures and solution concentrations(X) of weak
Fig. 1. a: Basic vapour absorption cooling system. b: Single-effects VACSwith SHX. c: Single-effects VACS with SHX and RHX.
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Table 1
Single-effect VACS.
H2O-LiBr 70–90 50 30 8 0.63–0.67 9.54–4.38 – 2 < Te < 15 TDDD for H2O-LiBr presented. [22]
30 < Ta < 50
20 < Tc < 50
50 < Tg < 110
H2O-LiCl 70–90 50 30 8 0.47–0.76 27.86–12.45 – 2 < Te < 15 TDDD for H2O-LiCl presented. [31]
P.S. Arshi Banu, N.M. Sudharsan
30 < Ta < 50
20 < Tc < 50
50 < Tg < 90
H2O-Lil 64.5–86.6 30 30 5 0.5–0.62 27.9–9.3 – 0 < Te < 20 TDDD for H2O-LiCI with and without a heat exchanger calculated. [32]
69.2–87 0.76–0.7 With HX 30 < Ta < 50
20 < Tc < 45
50 < Tg < 100
H2O-CARROL 60–100 30 30 8 0.64–0.79 18.34–3.5 – 2 < Te < 14 High viscous Carrol can increase the heat and mass transfer rates in the absorber and [33]
30 < Ta < 50 overall COP.
20 < Tc < 50
50 < Tg < 100
H2O-NaOH 71.8–90.6 35 35 5 0.5–0.8 4.96–29.24 0.70 5 < Te < 15 Sixteenaqueous salt mixtures have been compares. Better COPs are attained with [35]
H2O-Lil 75.6–93.6 35 35 5 0.77-0.63 99.06–12.68 0.70 H2O-LiBr + LiCl + ZnCl2 and lowest working temperatures are possible with H2O-
H2O-LiCl 63.7–81.4 35 35 5 0.67–0.83 22.06–4.79 0.70 LiCl.
H2O-LiBr 71.8–87.9 35 35 5 0.65–0.82 57.23–6.92 0.70 25 < Tc < 45
H2O-LiCl-LiNO3 71.3–94.2 35 35 5 0.62–0.8 37.95–4.47 0.70
H2O-LiBr + LiI 71.3–88.8 35 35 5 0.62–0.82 60.47–8.14 0.70
H2O-LiBr + ZnBr2 74.1–91.9 35 35 5 0.47–0.79 123.38–16.20 0.70
H2O-LiBr + LiNO3 71.5–94.3 35 35 5 0.63–0.80 55.98–7.41 0.70 25 < Ta < 45
H2O-LiBr + LiSCN 71.6–88.7 35 35 5 0.82–0.63 58.29–7.15 0.70
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H2O-LiBr + LiCl + ZnCl2 70.7–88.6 35 35 5 0.66–0.93 66.74–9.15 0.70
H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 + 70.7–88.5 35 35 5 0.55–0.81 90.15–11.4 0.70
CaBr2
H2O-LiBr + ZnBr2 + LiCl 69.9–86.9 35 35 5 0.58–0.81 89.27–10.9 0.70 67 < Tg < 95
H2O-LiBr + LiI + C2H6O2 72.4–90.2 35 35 5 0.47–0.79 103.07–11.15 0.70
H2O-NaOH + KOH + 71.4–89.7 35 35 5 0.61–0.87 39.96–6.42 0.70
CsOH
H2O-LiNO3 + KNO3 + 75.1–87.9 35 35 5 0.65–0.92 71.06–11.16 0.70
NaNO3
H2O-LiCl + CaCl2 + Zn 70.2–89.9 35 35 5 0.72–0.84 42.69–7.16 0.70
(NO3)2
H2O-LiBr 101.85 46.25 40.15 5.65 0.75 – – Optimum values Organic salts tried to overcome the drawbacks of the H2O-LiBr and improve the [44,45]
H2O-LiBr + HCO2Na 56.15 46.25 11.15 5.65 0.94 – performance.
H2O-LiBr + HCO2K 55.15 46.25 11.15 5.65 0.94 –
H2O-LiBr + CH3CO2K 56.15 46.25 12.15 5.65 0.94 –
H2O-LiBr + CH 60.15 46.25 12.15 5.65 0.93 –
(OH)CO2Na
H2O-LiBr 81–98 40 40 6 0.29–0.65 – – 1 < Te < 14 The hydroxide mixture operates with a higher range of temperatures, but gives [39–41]
50 < Ta < 100 similar COPasLiBr with H2O.
50 < Tc < 100
100 < Tg < 160
H2O-NaOH + KOH + 81–141 40 40 6 0.29–0.63 – –
CsOH
H2O-LiBr 58–90 30 30 5 0.3–0.8 – 0.75 Pre- 55 < Tg < 90 H2O-LiBr gives better performance at lower Te. [34]
H2O-LiBr + ZnBr2 62.3–90 0.33–0.74 heater (0.75) H2O-LiBr + ZnBr2 + LiCl, H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 + CaBr2 gives better performance at
H2O-LiBr + ZnBr2 + LiCl 60–90 0.45–0.75 higher Te.
H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 + 59–90 0.32–0.78
CaBr2
(continued on next page)
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3750–3761
Table 1 (continued)
H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 + 55.7–129.4 30 30 8 0.85–0.77 – 1 50 < Tg < 150 Better COPs obtained with H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 + CaBr2 than H2O-LiBrbut lesser than [37]
CaBr2 H2O-LiBr + LiCl and H2O-LiBr + C2H6O2.
H2O-LiBr 52.6–89 0.84–0.8 H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 + CaBr2 can operate at wider temp than above three
H2O-CaCl2 + LiCl + ZnCl2 55.9–83.9 0.82–0.79 combinations, hence suggest it for air-cooled applications.
H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 54.5–151.8 0.81–0.71
H2O-LiBr + LiSCN 60.4–95.8 0.86–0.79
P.S. Arshi Banu, N.M. Sudharsan
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3750–3761
P.S. Arshi Banu, N.M. Sudharsan Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3750–3761
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P.S. Arshi Banu, N.M. Sudharsan Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3750–3761
and absorber temperatures. As the double effect system contains more heat exchanging com-
ponents and more solution circulation methods, it is made to work at
5. TDA review of water based double-effect VACS higher generator temperatures than single effect systems. Takada [52]
and Xu [53,54] found that the previous approach for the analysis was
Single-effect systems are simple in working and construction, but not sufficient. Apart from COP, corrosion and crystallization problems
after a certain limit COP does not increase with an increase in generator need to be considered for a complete analysis. Hence Takada [52]
temperature [22,26]. Hence double-effect needs to be adopted to considered circulation ratio, heat-recovery ratio and the distribution
achieve higher COP in absorption systems by effectively making use of ratio of solution as significant parameters and found their influence on
the higher temperature heat sources than single effect VACS. Double- the COP in double-effect parallel-flow VACS. Xu [53,54] considered not
effect VACS contains two generators. High temperature heat is supplied only COP, but heat transfer area and crystallization also important
to the high-pressure generator (G1) externally to produce the super- performance criteria for designing the double-effect VACS. He per-
heated refrigerant vapour. This vapour is reused as a heat source to the formed the TDA of double-effect series and parallel flow H2O-LiBr VACS
lower-pressure generator (G2), to produce additional refrigerant va- by considering input parameters as solution circulation ratio and the
pour. The refrigerant vapour is generated twice; hence it is called heat recovery ratio of solution heat exchanger. He discussed the influ-
double-effect absorption systems. In general, there are two circulation ence of the above parameters on COP and heat transfer area. It is found
methods for strong and weak solutions in the double-effect absorption that the lower solution circulation ratio and the higher heat-recovery
refrigerating machine: series flow and parallel flow double-effect ab- ratio are better for both the COP and total heat-transfer area in series
sorption systems. Series-flow double-effect H2O-LiBr VACS is the most flow. In parallel flow systems, it is found that the lower solution cir-
adapted configuration, which is shown schematically in Fig. 2a. The culation ratio and the higher heat-recovery ratio will increase COP and
weak solution produced in the absorber (A) is directly pumped to the crystallization and reduces total heat-transfer area. Distribution ratio
(G1) first. The strong solution from (G1) is sent to (G2) then it passes also affects both the crystallization and corrosion rate in parallel flow
into (A). Another possible arrangement of series flow shown in Fig. 2b systems. Optimum design and operating conditions are hence suggested
is, the weak solution produced in (A) is pumped to the (G2) first, and both in series and parallel flow systems.
then pumped to (G1). Then the strong solution from (G1) is directly sent Apart from the theoretical issues, practical problems of double-ef-
to (A). Fig. 2c shows schematically, a parallel-flow, double-effect H2O- fect VACS were also analyzed by Arun [55,56] using TDA. In practical
LiBr VACS. The weak solution produced in the absorber is split at the double-effect systems, in order to attain full condensation, the low
outlet, and sent to (G1) and (G2) separately. The concentrated solution pressure generator adjusts itself to an equilibrium temperature. In this
from the high-pressure generator passes and mixes with the strong so- regard, he analyzed the performance of double-effect series and parallel
lution from the low-pressure generator and then enters the absorber. flow H2O-LiBr VACS at equilibrium temperature of low pressure gen-
In double-effect vapour absorption systems, it is found that per- erator. The influence of component temperatures on COP, circulation
forming the TDA as well as choosing the right parameters is important ratio, the equilibrium temperature of low pressure generator and heat
factor in the complete analysis. In this regard, the following perfor- transfer at low pressure generator were discussed. He suggests that the
mance studies of series and parallel-flow H2O-LiBr VACS have been equilibrium temperature and heat transfer rates are the key parameters
discussed. In the initial study, the performance analysis of double effect in design and control of the practical absorption system. Comparison of
systems was conducted similar to single effect systems by considering the parallel-flow system with a series-flow system showed that the COP
the influence of component temperatures on CR and COP [50,51]. Vliet of the parallel flow cycle is better than series flow at all the temperature
[50] did a TDA of double-effect series flow H2O-LiBr VACS and found ranges. It is also found that the effectiveness of the low pressure heat
the influence of input parameters such as component temperatures and exchanger has more influence on the performance of the parallel flow
flow control methods of refrigerant on COP and cooling capacity. The system than series flow system. Optimum operational parameters were
study revealed that heat exchanger areas (HXA) of the components and suggested by Arun, for series and parallel practical systems.
the flow control of refrigerant vapour from one effect to another effect Some alternative salts of LiBr were also investigated in double effect
are important design parameters. Grossman [51] compared the per- VACS by the following researchers. Won and Lee [57] investigated
formance of two types of flows, series flow and a parallel flow H2O-LiBr TDDD for the H2O-LiCl pair and compared it with H2O-LiBr pair in the
double-effect VACS. He discussed the effect of generator temperatures double-effect VACS. It is found that the COP is higher and flow ratios
on COP. It is found that the performance of the parallel flow system is are lower for the H2O-LiCl pair than for the H2O-LiBr pair. The H2O-LiCl
better than the two types of series flow systems. Compared to the series- pair can be used for a lower range of operating temperature conditions
flow type, the range of operating conditions of the parallel-flow type is and hence is more suitable for solar absorption cooling systems. Won
far away from the crystallization line, but the control and regulation of [58] investigated TDDD for the H2O-LiBr-LiScN mixture. Comparative
the flow rate of solutions are complicated. study was conducted between the H2O-LiBr-LiScN mixture with the
Fig. 2. a: Double-effect series flow-I VACS. b: Double-effect series flow-II VACS. c: Double-effect parallel flow VACS.
3755
P.S. Arshi Banu, N.M. Sudharsan
Table 2
Double-effect VACS.
H2O-LiBr Series flow 153.5 1.227 41 38.4 5 12 1,0.9 Not available Optimum design and operating conditions [53]
suggested
H2O-LiBr Parallel flow 159.8 1.239 41 38.4 5 12 0.9,1 Not available Optimum design and operating conditions [54]
suggested
H2O-LiBr Parallel 66.3–148.2 0.3–1.3 23.9 23.9 7.22 – – 65.56 < Tg < 148.9 Performance is better in, parallel flow than the two [55]
Series flow 73–148.3 0.58–1.2 23.9 < Tc < 35 types of series flow systems.
Type-1 23.9 < Ta < 35
Series flow 70.25–148.4 0.3–1.2
Type-2
H2O-LiBr Series flow 110–136–160 1.16–1.36–1.33 35 30 5 21.6–4.4 0.7,0.7 85 < Tg < 170 COP of parallel flow is greater than series flow and [60,61]
25 < Ta < 40 LP HX has more influence on parallel than series
30 < Tc < 45 flow.
2.5 < Te < 7.5
H2O-LiCl Series flow 50–80 1.87–1.975 30 20 8 8.3–2.4 0.9 30 < Tg < 100 The COPis higher for the H2O-LiC1 than H2O-LiBr [57]
20 < Ta < 100 can be used for a lower operating temperature
20 < Tc < 100 hence is suitable for the solar system [40]
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H2O-LiBr 70–100 1.85-1.85 9–4.4 2 < Te < 10
H2O-LiBr + LiSCN Series flow 60–110 2.45–2.49 30 20 8 13.3–5.8 – 30 < Tg < 110 COP is higher water-LiBr-LiSCN mixture than other [58]
20 < Ta < 40 two
H2O-LiCl 50–80 1.9–2 8.4–2.45 20 < Tc < 60
H2O-LiBr 70.7–110.4 1.87–1.9 9.17–4.77 2 < Te < 10
H2O–LiBr Series flow 168–176 1.05–1.36 50 50 5 48.7–2.5 0.8 80 < Tg < 220 Cooling capacity and crystallization problems [60,61]
5 < Te < 10 checked for air-cooled cycle operation
H2O–LiBr + H2N(CH2)2OH 172–186 1.14–1.39 35.7–13.3 0.8 30 < Tc < 50
H2O–LiBr + HO(CH2)3OH 168–186 1.26–1.49 28.2–10.8 0.8 30 < Ta < 50
H2O–LiBr + 178–200 1.23–1.47 27.1–9.3 0.8
(HOCH2CH2)2NH
H2O-LiBr + LiNO3 + LiI + Series flow 125.3–155.6 1.344–1.617 40 40 6 27.2–6.2 0.8 2 < Te < 14 30 < Ta < 50 30 < Tc < 50Tg(COP = Applicable for air-cooled system with no [62]
LiCl 0) < Tg < Tg (crystallizationonnon) (limit) crystallization problem
H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 + CaBr2 Series flow 118.5–135.8 1.6–0.83 30 30 8 – 1 110 < Tg < 155 COP of H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 + CaBr2 is better and it [37]
H2O-LiBr 120.3–135.3 1.27–0.85 can operate at wider generator temp range than
H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 124.3–142.2 1.53–0.75 H2O-LiBr.
H2O-LiBr + LiCl + ZnCl2 119.4–138.1 1.59–0.79 Tg2 = 80
H2O-LiBr + ZnBr2 + LiCl 114.8–136.6 1.67–0.79
H2O-CaCl2 + LiCl + ZnCl2 123.1–149.1 1.51–0.78
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3750–3761
P.S. Arshi Banu, N.M. Sudharsan Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3750–3761
H2O-LiBr pair and the H2O-LiCl pair. He found that the COP was higher evaluated by considering factors such as position, connections and
for H2O-LiBr-LiScN mixture than the H2O-LiBr and the H2O-LiCl pair, configurations of heat exchanging components in addition to the simple
and the flow ratio of H2O-LiBr-LiScN mixture was lesser than the H2O- COP based performance evaluation discussed in previous sections.
LiBr pair. Various types of triple-effect VACS in their order of evolution and
In air-cooled double-effect VACS, temperatures of absorber and their performance advantages due to variation in the connections be-
condenser become much higher than the single-effect absorption sys- tween the heat exchanging components have been discussed here.
tems. Therefore H2O-LiBr systems work very close to crystallization line Amongst these, the first and the simplest triple effect cycle is the three-
hence effort has been taken in order to overcome the crystallization condenser-three-desorber (3C3D) triple-effect H2O-LiBr VACS [63] as
problem and develop a small size air-cooled double effect VACS as an shown in Fig. 3a. Heat rejected by the high temperature condensers(C1,
alternative to single effect VACS. Oh [59] analyzed the double-effect C2) is utilized by consecutive lower level generators (G2, G3). Another
parallel flow H2O-LiBr VACS for air-cooled applications. He found the type of triple effect cycle is Double Condenser Coupled (DCC) H2O-LiBr
effect of inlet air temperature of the absorber, solution circulation ratio, VACS [64–66] which is the same as DCC cycle, but it has an additional
distribution ratio and leaving temperature difference of heat-ex- heat exchanger, as shown in Fig. 3b. Heat of hot condensate leaving
changing components on COP of the system and derived optimum de- high temperature condenser (C1) is utilized to run the lowest tem-
sign data. New working fluids that satisfy the above requirements have perature generator (G3) by the heat exchanger. This arrangement gives
also been developed as potential alternatives to the conventional H2O- extra cooling effect by pre-cooled condensate and produces extra re-
LiBr solution. Lee [60] investigated the performance characteristics of frigerant vapour by supplying additional heat to the lowest generator.
H2O-LiBr + H2N(CH2)2OH, H2O-LiBr + HO(CH2)3OH, and H2O-LiBr + Hence, the DCC system performs better than the 3C3D system. Another
(HOCH2CH2)2NH solutions in order to check their validity as working form of DCC system is an alternate Double Condenser Coupled (DCCA)
fluids for the air-cooled VACS. Yoon [61] performed similar work using H2O-LiBr VACS. This is similar to DCC system without additional heat
H2O-LiBr + HO(CH2)3OH. Koo [62] tried the H2O – LiBr + LiNO3 + exchanger, as shown in Fig. 3c. The extra cooling effect of this cycle is
LiI + LiCl system as a working fluid in double effect VACS to overcome obtained from the hot condensate going into the medium temperature
the crystallization problem. Thermodynamic analysis was carried out condenser (C2). From the condenser (C2) it will directly enter the
for double effect series-flow VACS with the above fluids at various lowest temperature condenser (C3). In DCCA also the same cooling
operating conditions. The performance of the new working fluid was effect as DCC is produced, but with one lesser heat exchanging com-
found to have low crystallization temperature, which is suitable for air- ponent, hence it is simpler and performs better than the DCC cycle. All
cooled VACS. three VACS were tried in a parallel flow arrangement by changing so-
Table 2 gives the TDA results of double effect vapour absorption lution flow connection between the high temperature generator and
cooling systems of H2O-LiBr and other water based additives and al- absorber. In spite of configuring all the above three systems, it was
ternative salts of LiBr as working fluids. It shows the generator tem- found that parallel flow performs better than its corresponding series
perature range of each fluid pair and its corresponding COP ranges and flow VACS [67]. Another variation of triple effect VACS is dual loop
circular ratios at particular condenser and absorber temperatures. triple-effect VACS (DeVault) [68] which is shown in Fig. 3d. It is a
combination of two loops of single effect cycles. Heat rejected from the
condenser and absorber of the higher temperature loop is utilized to run
6. TDA review of water based triple-effect VACS
the generator of lower temperate loop. Nearly double amount of cooling
effect is obtained from two evaporators of both the loops, hence per-
Triple-effect vapour absorption systems have been investigated in
formance increment is obtained. It is hence proved that performance of
order to improve the performance and to utilize even higher tempera-
higher effect systems is prominently influenced by variation in the
ture heat sources than double effect vapour absorption systems. Triple-
connections or configurations between the heat exchanging compo-
effect VACS contain an additional high temperature generator and
nents.
condenser compared to double-effect VACS, so it has three generators,
Alefeld [69] and Marsala [70] compared the performance of various
three condensers, one evaporator and one absorber. With increase in
types of triple effect VACS based on two criteria, one is the number of
number of effects, heat exchanging components such as generators,
heat exchanging components and another is number of pressure and
condensers, heat exchangers and pumps will also increase. This will
temperature levels it contains. Here, number of heat exchanging com-
represent the complexity, heat losses, cost and corrosion of the system.
ponents represents the cost of the system and number of pressure and
Hence, Gommed [55] found that the performance of these systems is
Fig. 3. a: Three-condenser-three-desorber (3C3D) triple-effect VACS. b: Double-condenser-coupled (DCC) triple-effect VACS. c: Alternate double-condenser coupled (DCCA) VACS. d: The
dual loop triple-effect VACS.
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P.S. Arshi Banu, N.M. Sudharsan Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3750–3761
temperature levels represents the complexity of the system. Later, systems to overcome crystallization, corrosion and size problems to
Grossman [71] found that accurate performance evaluation and com- enhance the performance. Table 3 shows the TDA results of various
parison could be obtained by considering all state points of triple effect configurations of tripe-effect vapour absorption cooing systems with
VACS and by performing TDA in detail. He evaluated the performances H2O-LiBr as working pair. It gives the generator temperature range of
of six types of H2O-LiBr triple effect cycles, they are: 3C3D VACS in each configuration and its corresponding COP range at particular con-
series flow as well as parallel flow, DCC VACS in series flow as well as denser and absorber temperatures.
parallel flow, ADCC VACS and the dual loop VACS. Common design and
operating conditions were considered for analysis of all these six sys-
tems. The influence of generator temperature on performance para- 7. TDA review of water based 1.5-effect VACS
meters such as COP, COPmax and cooling capacity was investigated and
it was found that DCCA parallel flow VACS gave the highest perfor- One and half-effect (1.5-effect) absorption cooling systems can be
mance amongst the six variations of systems. Kaita et al. [72] carried considered as a combination of a single-effect and half-effect VACS.
further research on DCCA triple-effect VACS due to its superior per- When the generator temperatures are lower than the double-effect and
formance. They considered DCCA H2O-LiBr VACS with different flow higher than the single-effect, the 1.5-effect systems may be an appro-
combinations, such as series flow, parallel flow and reverse flow. De- priate choice. There are six configurations of 1.5 effect VACS are
tailed TDA was performed and all three systems were compared based available, only three of them are compatible withH2O-LiBr and other
on COP, maximum pressure and temperature. It was found that parallel water based salt solutions without crystallization. In each configura-
flow DCCA system gave the highest COP compared to the two other tion, again there are parallel, serial, reverse-serial, and reverse-serial-
systems, whereas maximum pressure and temperatures were found in parallel flow arrangements. The configuration-I (Erickson [74]) is a
the Reverse flow DCCA system. combination of a high temperature single-effect subcycle, and a high-
Though the triple-effect absorption cooling systems give higher temperature half-effect subcycle, as shown in Fig. 4a. The heat rejected
COPs, using LiBr as the working fluid causes corrosion problems at from the high temperature condenser (C1) is used to run the low-tem-
higher generator temperatures. Kim [73] suggested four types of H2O- perature generator (G3) and the heat from a high temperature absorber
LiBr triple-effect VACS to overcome the corrosion problem. The com- (A2) is used in the low-temperature generator (G2) to generate re-
pressor was introduced at four different state points of the basic triple- frigerant vapour. The configuration-II (Erickson [74], Inoue [75]) is a
effect cycle. From comparative TDA, it is found that these four systems combination of a high temperature single-effect subcycle and a low-
can operate at much lower generator temperature than the basic triple temperature half-effect subcycle, as shown in Fig. 4b. The heat rejected
effect cycle. This means that, if a part of mechanical energy is in- from the high temperature condenser (C1) is divided into two parts.
troduced as input from heat energy, the system can be operated at One part of the heat is delivered into G2 and the other part is delivered
lower generator temperatures without causing corrosion problem. into G3 to drive the low-temperature subcycle. The configuration-III
Hence, the author suggested that the H2O-LiBr mixture can be used as a (Zhen [76]) is a combination of a high temperature half-effect subcycle,
working fluid in triple-effect systems without the risk of corrosion or and a low-temperature single-effect subcycle, as shown in Fig. 4c. The
without integrating multiple solution circuits. heat from C1 and A2 is delivered into G2 to drive the low-temperature
In triple-effect absorption cooling systems, component temperature subcycle.
and cooling loads, and their influence on COP have been analyzed in Though various configurations of 1.5-effect cycles were developed,
literature so far. Triple-effect systems contains more heat exchanging literature contains very few performance studies that give the optimum
components, more solution circuits, refrigerant circuits and heat utili- generator temperature of 1.5-effect VACS. Zhen [76] did a TDA and
zation methods than double effect systems. With the influence of op- found the performances of three configurations of 1.5-effect H2O-LiBr
erational parameters such as circulation ratio, heat recovery ratio and VACS. He analyzed the influence of component temperatures and so-
distribution ratio, it is observed that not only COP, but heat transfer lution heat exchanger effectiveness on the performances of the three
area, crystallization and corrosion also play a major role in defining the configurations of 1.5-effect systems. COP and flexibility in operation
performance of multiple effect systems. However, there is lack of actual were found to be higher in configuration II compared to the two other
performance evaluation based on the above parameters in triple-effect configurations. It was also found that variation of performance was
systems. Comparative work with other effects and within the config- higher due to change in absorber temperature than the generator
urations of same effect of triple-effect systems has not been performed temperature. Table 4 shows the TDA results of various configurations of
based on the above criteria. It is also observed that in triple-effect 1.5-effect and comparison with other effect vapour absorption cooling
systems, various configurations, change in refrigerant flow directions, systems with H2O-LiBr as working pair. It also gives the generator
change in solution circulation method and effective utilization of heat temperature range of each configuration and its corresponding COP
between components play a major role in enhancing the performance. ranges at particular condenser and absorber temperatures.
Unlike single and double effect systems, additives and alternatives of Though 1.5-effect systems fits in-between single and double effect
LiBr in aqueous solution have not been tried so far in pilot triple effect cycles from generator temperature and COP point of view, a review of
literature indicates that actual comparison has not been done based on
Table 3
Triple-effect VACS.
H2O-LiBr Triple-effect 3C3D parallel-flow cycle 129.2–263.8 29.44 29.44 7.22 0.43–1.4 93.33 < Tg < 260 [71]
H2O-LiBr Triple-effect 3C3D series-flow cycle 129.2–263.7 29.44 29.44 7.22 0.43–1.3
H2O-LiBr Triple-effect DCC parallel-flow cycle 129.7–263.3 29.44 29.44 7.22 0.93–1.6
H2O-LiBr Triple-effect DCC series-flow cycle 129.3–263.8 29.44 29.44 7.22 0.88–1.43
H2O-LiBr Dual loop Triple-effect Cycle 218.3 29.44 29.44 7.22 1.42
H2O-LiBr Triple-effect DCCA 129.4–263.4 29.44 29.44 7.22 0.97–1.73
H2O-LiBr Triple-effect (DCCA)parallel-flow cycle 208–224 32 32 7 1.9–2 190 < Tg < 240 [72]
H2O-LiBr Triple-effect (DCCA)series-flow cycle 200–217 32 32 7 1.7–1.9
H2O-LiBr Triple-effect (DCCA)reverse-flow I 197–205 32 32 7 1.8–1.9
H2O-LiBr Triple-effect (DCCA)reverse-flow II 200–213 32 32 7 1.8–2
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P.S. Arshi Banu, N.M. Sudharsan Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3750–3761
Fig. 4. a: Configurations-I of 1.5 effect VACS. b: Configurations-II of 1.5 effect VACS. c: Configurations-III of 1.5 effect VACS.
Table 4
1.5-effect VACS.
Half-effect H2O-LiBr 59–88 42 37 5 0.29–0.41 – 0.6 3 configuration of 1.5 effect system proposed and it will fill the gap of [76]
single-effect H2O-LiBr 80–108 42 37 5 0.25–0.75 – 0.6 generation temperature between single-effect and double effect.
double-effect H2O-LiBr 133–180 42 37 5 0.67–1.31 – 0.6
1.5-effect Configuration-I H2O-LiBr 109–145 42 37 5 0.52–1 65.2–7.6 0.6
1.5-effect Configuration- H2O-LiBr 106–145 42 37 5 0.6–1.02 44.4–7.6 0.6
II
1.5-effect Configuration- H2O-LiBr 108–145 42 37 5 0.46–1.01 98.2–7.6 0.6
III
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P.S. Arshi Banu, N.M. Sudharsan Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3750–3761
Table 5
Half effect VACS.
H2O-LiBr Two stage 75–87 32 32 7 0.38 – TDA of two stage H2O-LiBr absorption refrigeration system [77]
H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 + Two stage 44.1–112.3 30 30 8 0.43–0.39 1 H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 + CaBr2 can operate at wide temp range compared to other [37]
CaBr2 combinations
H2O-LiBr 56.2–73 0.42–0.41
H2O-CaCl2 + LiCl + 60.3–68 0.412–0.407
ZnCl2
H2O-LiBr + ZnCl2 41–90 0.44–0.38
H2O-LiBr + LiSCN 54–85.3 0.44–0.4
H2O-LiBr + LiCl + ZnCl2 41.2–83.5 0.44–0.399
H2O-LiBr + C2H6O2 55.6–71.2 0.439–0.427
analyzed the performance of a novel GAX resorption heat driven re- ranges along with their corresponding COP ranges for various effects
frigeration cycle using H2O-LiBr. The novel system was simple as that of and their diverse configurations. This data can be used for selecting
a single effect VACS and the performance was found to be sensitive to appropriate working fluids and configuration for an existing solar
the inlet temperature of the cooling water and chilled water. The COP collector or for selecting an appropriate solar collector for existing
of the system was better than that of the conventional single effect working fluids and configuration.
VACS, but less than that of the simple GAX cycles. In another category • Hence, it is concluded that solar heat energy can be used effectively
of advanced cycles, Wu [81] found that H2O-LiBr pair is the most sui- and economically with the selection of a proper working fluid,
table working fluid for Ejector hybrid absorption cycles. The reasons number of effects and configuration of vapour absorption systems
they found are water vapour (the refrigerant) can be used directly as the for cooling. This can be done through TDA by selecting appropriate
working fluid for ejectors; simplicity in construction of cycle; and it parameters prior to the development of a vapour absorption system.
gives better performance. Hence it is inferred that there is a scope of
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