Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Trimester 2 2013/2014
Assignment 2
By
Gerada Holder
Albert Joseph
and
Meredith B. Connor
Email: Meredith.hodge@my.open.edu
Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
References .................................................................................................................................................. 11
Introduction
This paper was developed in partial completion of an assignment which involved
research and peer discussions on the topics cognitive information processing (CIP), meaningful
learning and schema theory, and situated cognition. The paper will describe how learning
occurs in all three theories, the implications for instructions, outline the progression between
them and state how situated cognition theory provides for human learning.
Sensory memory is the ability to hold on to impressions of sensory information after the
original stimuli has ended. Sensory information is anything that has to do with seeing, hearing,
smell taste or touch in our environment. When this information is detected it is either ignored
in which case it is automatically dismissed; or it is observed which would result in it being
entered into sensory memory. Only information that the brain recognizes as potentially useful
in the future is registered into sensory memory and this is done unconsciously. This type of
memory lasts for up to 30 seconds. If the stimulus catches the learner’s attention then it is
encoded and passed from sensory memory to working memory or short-term memory.
Encoding information is the process of relating incoming information to existing concepts or
ideas in a way to make them more memorable.
Working memory or Short-term memory as the name implies, has limited capacity and
so small amounts of information is retained for a relatively short period of time unless some
effort is made to preserve it. An example of this is repeating the information as would be done
if the learner was trying to learn vocabulary words for a foreign language. After some repetition
(rehearsal) and meaningful association this information is transferred or stored in long-term
memory for retrieval at a later date. Chunking (grouping individual bits of information into
larger related or similar units), the use of acronyms and mnemonics (e.g. ROYGBIV to recall the
colours of the rainbow) and serial positioning are some strategies for improving short term
memory that are useful for both learners and instructors.
Long-term memory in contrast has a large capacity for storage and retention of
information therefore information is stored indefinitely. Information is stored in long-term
memory based on meaning and association (Semantically), as well as by sound. It is in long-
term memory that the learner stores facts (semantic memory), events (episodic memory) and
procedures (procedural memory) which can be recalled at later dates for example how to play
an instrument. Semantic and episodic memories are also known as declarative memory or
explicit memory. An Example if this type of memory is being able to describe the rules of long
division. The ability to remember information stored in long-term memory would depend on
environmental cues that would trigger recollection.
Instructors can use the following techniques to help students to focus their attention and
activate CIP:-
Graphic organizers such as concept maps to show the relationship between the concept
being taught and other ideas and information this will help students to retain the
information;
Using words that have concrete referents that represent things and experiences invoke
imagery in the mind of students and are great for teaching about abstract ideas like
peace and historical events like revolutions, or future events such as general elections;
Organize material to show the link between new material and previous knowledge this
provides mental scaffolding;
Highlight important points and present outlines prior to introducing new study
material;
Use methods that will aid short-term memory for example acronyms and mnemonics,
sequence positioning and chunking. This is useful when teaching complex concepts or
topics. Chucking can be used in language for example to teach related topics like
phonology, morphology and semantics that may be overwhelming if taught in one
lesson.
Choose instructional approaches that will help the students to become self-regulated
through meta-cognition. A good way to do this is by asking leading questions which
would cause the student to think deeply e.g. What is the relationship between A and
B?
Use instructional strategies that actively involve the students in learning for example
group discussions, corporative learning, discovery-based learning and any activity that
involves learning by doing.
These changes in schema support the idea that long-term memory changes over time as
they become consistent with our knowledge, beliefs and our expectations. The conditions for
meaningful learning to occur are:-
Advance organizers – Lessons should begin with the big picture and then narrow
the focus to the area of concentration using mental scaffolding. Graphics and
other visual and audio aids can be used to expose or compare information.
Phrases like “do you recall how yesterday we did...” direct attention to what is
important in the material which is to follow; allows the instructor to highlight
relationships among ideas that will be presented in the lesson and reminds
students of relevant information already in memory i.e. to ‘hook’ or connect the
previously learned knowledge with what is to come. These will be the anchors
which provide relevance to the new ideas being taught and open the learner to
receiving new information.
Comparative organizers – help the learner to distinguish similarities and
differences among the information being taught. Tables and charts are great
tools that students should be encouraged to utilize as well.
Progressive differentiation or elaboration – the teacher would start at the most
general idea and the move to more specific areas to clarify anchoring ideas.
Example today our topic is transportation (general), then progress to various
forms of transportation, and then to cars (specific).
Provide unifying themes for content, since information that lacks a theme can be
difficult to comprehend, or, worse, the learner may “accrete” the information to
the wrong schema.
Choose texts with “standard” arrangement so that they conform to student
expectations. If designing material use a standard format and ensure that there is
consistency of design throughout the material;
Encourage students to read titles and headings. Point out the structure of
particular kinds of texts; e.g., what are the key terms.
Situated Cognition Theory
Situated cognition theory is a move away from viewing learning as an individual internal
process to seeing learning as being influenced by external social factors. Through the lens of
situated cognition theory, learning is “naturally tied to authentic activity, context, and culture”
(Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989) in which it occurs. This is so because every human thought is
adapted to the environment that is it is situated in, because what people perceive, how they
conceive of their activity, and what they physically do develop together (Clancy, 1997 as cited in
Driscoll 2005). The theory purports that learners should understand the concepts and skills
being taught in the context in which it will be used. This is why instructors are now creating
environments were people with common interests and goals can interact while completing
tasks are identical or very similar to those that will be encountered in the real world. Therefore
knowledge is viewed as lived practices and learning as participation in communities of practice
as people learn while doing. Situated cognition recognises the relationship between cognitive
processes and their social, cultural and historical setting. This is why case studies and simulated
instruction are used to provide context and practical application of knowledge. Similar
strategies and techniques can be utilized in instruction as shown above so that acquisition of
knowledge and skills would become more natural as the context is created.
Brown, Collins and Duguid (1989) Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning, Educational
Researcher, 18, 32-42 Retrieved from
http://people.ucsc.edu/~gwells/Files/Courses_Folder/ED%20261%20Papers/Situated%2
0Cognition.pdf (Accessed March 28, 2014)
Driscoll, M., (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction.USA. Pearson Education Inc
Driscoll, M., (2004). Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Boston. Allyn & Bacon
Wilson, B.G., Myer, K.M. Situated Cognition in Theoretical and Practical Context. Retrieved from.