APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

MEC523: ASSIGNMENT 1

CHAPTER 1

NO CONTENT DESCRIPTION EQUATION CIRCUIT EXAMPLE

1.1 Ohm’s Law Current in a resistive
circuit is directly
proportional to its
applied voltage and 𝑉
inversely 𝐼=
𝑅
proportional to its
resistance

1.2 Kirchhoff’s 1. The algebraic sum

Voltage Law of voltages around
(KVL) a closed path (or
loop) is zero 𝑉4 + 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 0
2. Voltage drop at
each element must be
same with voltage
supply
1.3 Kirchhoff’s 1. The algebraic sum
Current Law of currents entering a I2
(KCL) node is zero I1
2. The sum of 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 I3
currents entering the
node is equal to the
sum of currents
leaving the node
1.4 Circuit Element
in series 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 0
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 = 𝐼𝑇

1.5 Circuit Element

in Parallel 𝑉𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉𝑅1 = 𝑉𝑅2
𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2

1.6 Current Divider Determining the 𝑅2

𝐼1 = 𝐼
Rule current flow through 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑇
one branch of parallel 𝑅1
𝐼2 = 𝐼
circuit 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑇

1
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

1.7 Voltage Divider Determining the 𝑅1

Rule voltage drop across a 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
resistor within a 𝑅2
series circuit 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑅3
𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

1.8 Thevenin’s Thevenin’s theorem

Theorem states that it is Step 1: Calculate open Given a load resistor circuit
possible to simplify circuit voltage =
any linear circuit, to Thevenin Voltage
an equivalent circuit
with just a single 𝑉𝑠
voltage source and 𝐼𝑃 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
series resistance 𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝐼𝑃 𝑥𝑅2 Step 1: Open the load resistor
connected to the load.
Step 2: Calculate open A

circuit resistance =
Thevenin Resistance
B
1 1 1
= + Step 2: Open current sources and
𝑅1/2 𝑅1 𝑅2 short voltage source

𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝑅1/2 + 𝑅3
A

Step 3: Draw Thevenin circuit with

RTH and VTH

2
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

CHAPTER 2

NO CONTENT DESCRIPTION CIRCUIT EXAMPLE EQUATION

2.1 Diode Solid-state electronic a) Forward Bias Diode
device which created
by joining an n-type
and a p-type material
together.

Silicon Diode
𝑉𝑠𝑖 = 0.7𝑉

b) Reverse Bias Diode Germanium Diode

𝑉𝑔𝑒 = 0.3𝑉

2.2 Half wave One of the Circuit

rectifier application of diode
is to generate a
waveform v0 that will
have an average
value of particular
use in the ac-to-dc
conversion process.
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 0.318(𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝑘 )
Graph Vm= peak voltage
Vk = Diode Voltage

3
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

2.3 Full wave obtained from a Full-wave bridge rectifier

rectifier sinusoidal input can
be improved 100%
using a process called
full-wave retification.

Positive half cycle

Full-wave
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 0.636𝑉𝑚

For 𝑉𝑚 ≫ 2𝑉𝑘 ,
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 0.636(𝑉𝑚 − 2𝑉𝑘 )

Negative half cycle

4
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

2.4 Full wave Full-wave rectifier Circuit

center tapped with only two diodes
transformer but required a center-
tapped(CT)
transformer to
establish the input
signal across each
section of the
secondary of the
transformer.
Positive half of the AC cycle

𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 0.636(𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝑘 )
Graph

Negative half of the AC cycle

Graph

5
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

2.5 Zener diode Zener diode is Circuit

designed to work in
reverse bias direction
without harming the
diode.
A diode operated in When VL˂ Vz , Zener
this region will have diode is “off”
relatively constant
voltage across it. 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿
When VL˂ Vz , Zener diode is “off” 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝐿
𝐼𝑍 = 0
𝑉𝑧 = 0

When VL>VZ , Zener

diode is “on”

𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑧
𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑍 + 𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝐿
When VL>VZ , Zener diode is “on” 𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝐿
𝑃𝑧 = 𝑉𝑧 𝑋 𝐼𝑧

6
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

CHAPTER 3

NO CONTENT DESCRIPTION CIRCUIT EXAMPLE EQUATION

3.1 Bipolar Two types of pnp transistor
Junction transistor:
Transistor 1) pnp
2) npn

Emitter and collector

currents
𝐼𝐶 ≅ 𝐼𝐸
Base-emitter voltage
𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉

When amplification
factor is given
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐸 = (𝛽 + 1)𝐼𝐵

npn transistor Power dissipation

Common-base:
𝑃𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐶𝐵 𝐼𝐶
Common-emitter:
𝑃𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝐼𝐶
Common-collector:
𝑃𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝐼𝐸

7
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

3.2 Bipolar Biasing refers to the Fixed-bias circuit

Junction DC voltage applied
Transistor – DC to a transistor in
analysis order to turn it on to
amplify the AC
signal.

Emitter-stabilized bias circuit

Voltage divider bias circuit

DC bias with voltage feedback

8
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

3.3 Fixed-bias
circuit
At Base-Emitter Loop

From Kirchhoff’s voltage

law:
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0
Solving for the base current:
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝐵

AT Collector-Emitter Loop

DC analysis The collector current:

𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵
From Kirchhoff’s voltage
law:
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶

Base-Emitter Loop Collector-Emitter Loop

3.4 Emitter- Adding a resistor (RE) to the emitter circuit stabilizes the At Base-Emitter Loop
Stabilized Bias bias circuit
Circuit From Kirchhoff’s voltage
law:
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 − 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 = 0
Since,
𝐼𝐸 = (𝛽 + 1)𝐼𝐵
Then,
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝐵 + (𝛽 + 1)𝑅𝐸

At Collector-Emitter Loop

DC analysis From Kirchhoff’s voltage

law:
𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 0
Since,
𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶
Then,
VCE = VCC − IC (R C + R E )
Also,
𝑉𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝑉𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
Base-Emitter Loop Collector-Emitter Loop 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + 𝑉𝐸

9
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

3.5 Voltage Divider

Bias

Exact Analysis

𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2
𝑅2 𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝑉𝑅2 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Exact Analysis 𝑉𝑇𝐻 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸

𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + (𝛽 + 1)𝑅𝐸
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸 )
Approximation analysis
Where 𝐼𝐵 ≪ 𝐼1 and I2 and
𝐼1 ≅ 𝐼2
𝑅2 𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝐵 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Where 𝛽𝑅𝐸 > 10𝑅2

𝑉𝐸
𝐼𝐸 =
𝑅𝐸
𝑉𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸

Approximate analysis From Kirchhoff’s voltage

law:
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 − 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸 )

10
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

3.6 DC Bias with

Voltage
Feedback

At Base-Emitter Loop
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼 ′ 𝐶 𝑅𝐶 − 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 − 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 = 0

Circuit Where 𝐼𝐵 ≪ 𝐼𝐶 ;
𝐼′𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐶

Knowing 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 and 𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶 , the

loop equation becomes:
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝛽𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐶 − 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 − 𝛽𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 = 0

Where IB can be solve with:

𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝐵 + 𝛽(𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸 )

At Collector-Emitter Loop
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
Base-Emitter Loop 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼′𝐶 𝑅𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 0

Knowing 𝐼′𝐶 ≅ 𝐼𝐶 and 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 :

𝐼𝐶 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸 ) + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 − 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 0

Solving for VCE:

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸 )

Collector-Emitter Loop

11
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

3.7 Bipolar BJT Modelling

Junction - A model that represents the Common-Emitter Configuration
Transistor – AC characteristics of the
AC analysis transistor.
- A model that approximate
the behavior of the transistor.
- There are two models
commonly used in small signal
AC analysis of a transistor:
- re model
- Hybrid equivalent model

Common-Emitter Fixed-Bias Configuration

Common-Emitter Emitter-Bias Configuration (Bypassed RE)

VCC
RC
C2
RB
C1
Vo

Vi

RE CE

Common-Emitter Emitter-Bias Configuration (Un bypassed

RE)

12
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

Bipolar
Junction Common-Emitter Voltage-Divider Bias
Transistor –
AC analysis

Common-Emitter Collector Feedback Configuration

Collector DC Feedback Configuration

13
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

3.8 Common-
Emitter
Configuration

26 𝑚𝑉
𝑟𝑒 =
𝐼𝑒

3.9 Common- Input impedance:

Emitter 𝑍𝑖 = 𝑅𝐵 ||𝛽𝑟𝑒
Fixed-Bias 𝑍𝑖 ≅ 𝛽𝑟𝑒 , when 𝑟𝑒 ≥ 10𝑅𝑐
Configuration
Output impedance:
𝑍𝑜 = 𝑅𝐶 ||𝑟𝑜
𝑍𝑜 ≅ 𝑅𝐶 , when 𝑟𝑒 ≥ 10𝑅𝑐

Voltage gain:
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝐶 ||𝑟𝑜
𝐴𝑣 = = −
1. Replace all capacitors with short circuit and set dc source to 𝑉𝑖 𝑟𝑒
𝑅𝐶
zero 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑟 when 𝑟𝑒 ≥ 10𝑅𝑐
𝑒

Current gain:
𝐼𝑜
𝐴𝑖 =
𝐼𝑖
𝛽𝑅𝐵 𝑟𝑜
=
(𝑟𝑜 + 𝑅𝐶 )(𝑅𝐵 + 𝛽𝑟𝑒 )

𝐴𝑖 ≅ 𝛽 when 𝑅𝐵 ≥ 10𝛽𝑟𝑒 ,
2. Substitute BJT with re model 𝑟𝑜 ≥ 10𝑅𝑐

Current gain from voltage

gain:
𝑍𝑖
𝐴𝑖 = −𝐴𝑉
𝑍𝑜

14
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

3.10 Common- Input impedance:

Z i  RB re
Emitter VCC
Emitter-Bias RC
Configuration C2 Output impedance:
RB
(Bypassed C1
Zo  RC ro  RC
Vo
RE) If 𝑟𝑜 ≥ 10𝑅𝐶
Vi Voltage gain:
Vo  I b RC ro 
RE CE
Vi  re I b
Vo R r
Av   C o
Vi re
Current gain:
ro I b
Io 
ro  RC
RB I i
Ib 
RB  re
I r RB
Ai  o  o
I i ro  RC RB  re
3.11 Common- Input impedance:
Emitter Zi  R B || Zb
Emitter-Bias
Configuration Zb  re  (   1)R E
(Un bypassed Zb   (re  R E )
RE)
Z b  R E
Output impedance:
Zo  R C
If ro=∞
Voltage gain:
Vo R C
Av  
Vi Zb
Vo RC
Av   Z b   (re  R E )
Vi re  R E
Vo R
Av   C Z b  R E
Vi RE
Current gain:
Io R B
Ai  
Ii R B  Zb
Current gain from voltage
gain:
Zi
A i  A v
ZO

15
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

3.12 Common- Input impedance:

Emitter R   R 1 || R 2
Voltage-
Divider Bias Zi  R  || re
Output impedance:
Z o  R C || ro
Zo  R C ro 10R C

Voltage gain:
Vo  R C || ro
Av  
Vi re
Vo R
Av   C ro 10R C
Vi re
Current gain:
Io R ro
Ai  
I i (ro  R C )(R   re )
I R 
Ai  o  r 10R
Re model I i R   re o C
Io
Ai   ro 10R C , R 10 re
Ii
Current gain from voltage gain:
Zi
A i  A v
RC
3.13 Common- Input impedance:
Emitter re
Collector Zi 
1 RC
Feedback 
Configuration  RF
Output impedance:
Zo  R C || R F
Voltage gain:
Vo R
Av   C
Vi re
Current gain:
Io R F
Ai  
Ii R F  R C
Io R F
Ai  
Ii R C

16
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

3.14 Collector DC
Feedback
Configuration Input impedance:
𝑍𝑖 = 𝑅𝐹1 ||𝛽𝑟𝑒
Output impedance:
𝑍𝑜 = 𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐹2 ||𝑟𝑜

For 𝑟𝑜 ≥ 10𝑅𝐶
𝑍0 ≅ 𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝐹2

Voltage gain:
𝑉𝑜 𝑟𝑜 ||𝑅𝐹2 ||𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑉 = = −
𝑉𝑖 𝑟𝑒

For 𝑟𝑜 ≥ 10𝑅𝐶 ,
𝑉 𝑅 ||𝑅
𝐴𝑉 = 𝑜 = − 𝐹2 𝐶
𝑉𝑖 𝑟𝑒

17
 APPLIED ELECTRONIC AND MICROPROCESSOR ASSIGNMENT 1

Effect of Load Impedance and Source Impedance on gain

3.15 Effect of Adding a load Voltage gain:

Load reduces the Vo RL
Impedance gain of the Av   A vNL
Vi R L  R o
on Gain amplifier
Current gain:
Zi
A i  A v
RL
3.16 Effect of The internal The fraction of applied signal that
Source resistance of reaches the input of the amplifier:
Impedance the signal RiVs
on Gain source reduces Vi 
Ri  Rs
the overall
gain Voltage gain:
Vo Ri
Avs   AvNL
Vs Ri  Rs
3.17 Combined Effect of Load Impedance:
Effect of Vo R L A vNL
Load Av  
Vi R L  R o
Impedance
and Source Ri
Ai   Av
Impedance RL
on Voltage
Effect of Load and Source
gain
Impedance:
Vo Ri RL
A vs   A vNL
Vs R i  R s R L  R o
Rs  Ri
Ais   Avs
RL

18