MINIMUM CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS

FOR WATER BORES

IN AUSTRALIA

Edition 2
Revised September, 2003

2/25/04, 12:12 PM
 FOREWORD

Groundwater has played a vital role in the development of many areas of Australia. The extensive use
made of groundwater resources stems from a number of factors. The resource extends over large
areas, making distribution costs more economic than from surface supplies. It is generally well-
filtered, is mostly accessible at reasonably shallow depths, and the scale of development required can
be tailored closely to meet individual water demands.

Access to the resource is usually by bores or excavated wells. However, bores must be constructed to
an acceptable standard using appropriate materials in order for this access to be achieved efficiently,
cost-effectively and reliably without danger to the resource from pollution or overuse. It is estimated
that over $6.6 billion has been spent on bore construction in Australia. For many individual
landholders the cost of constructing a water supply from bores represents a large proportion of their
total property investment.

It is important to both the nation as a whole and groundwater users that the very large investment in
bore construction be protected by proper construction methods.

All States and Territories have introduced, or are about to introduce the national system of licensing
water bore drillers.

In order to underpin the skills levels on which the three classes of drilling licences are based, it is
essential that there be a common reference standard for bore construction and that this standard be
clearly defined and accepted by water licensing agencies and the drilling industry throughout
Australia.

The purpose of this document is to provide such a reference as a technical basis and description of the
minimum requirements for constructing water bores in Australia.

This document is a minimum guideline only. It must be recognised that special conditions may
require a higher standard to be applied to a particular bore.

This document draws on and is supported by a number of state and industry documents and
standards which are referenced in the relevant chapters.

Although the document is focused mainly at drillers and drilling contractors, it will also be of value
and use to water licensing agencies, consultants, consulting engineers and clients.

We urge you to become fully acquainted with the requirements set out in here.

Chair, Water Reform Task Group Chair, National Minimum Bore

Member, Land and Water Biodiversity Committee Specifications Committee

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contents
The members of the National Minimum Bore Specifications Committee are:

Australian Drilling Industry Association

Australian Drilling Industry Training Committee
Department of Environment, Western Australia
Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Environment, Northern Territory
Department of Infrastructure Planning and Natural Resources, New South Wales
Department of Mineral Resources, Tasmania
Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria
Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, South Australia
Queensland Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy
Water Corporation, Western Australia

This book is based on information available in September 2003.

It is available from the Queensland Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy Library, the
State Library of Queensland and the National Library, Canberra, through interlibrary loan.

ISBN 1 9209 2009 9

QNRM04027

© Land and Water Biodiversity Committee, 2003

Inquiries should be directed to the appropriate authorities listed on pages 7 and 8 of this publication.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Need for minimum bore construction requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Purpose of document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Types of water bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.0 Administrative requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.0 Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1 Client responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Driller responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Joint responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4.0 Drillers’ classification system and drilling methods used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4.1 Drillers’ classification system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2 Drilling methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3 Choice of drilling method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5.0 Siting a water supply bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5.1 Obtaining information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2 Driller considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.3 Client considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

6.0 Formation (strata) sampling and water sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

6.1 Formation sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.2 Water sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

7.0 Drilling fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

8.0 Plumbness and alignment of bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

8.1 Method of testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

9.0 Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.1 General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.2 Types of casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.3 Choosing casing type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

10.0 Grouting (cementing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

10.1 Decreasing the specific gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

10.2 Increasing specific gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
10.3 Reducing setting time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
10.4 Increasing setting time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
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11.0 Water entry 41
11.1 Open hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.2 Slotted casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.3 Screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
11.4 Gravel packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

12.0 Bore development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

12.1 Use of chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

12.2 Use of mechanical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
12.3 Sand content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

13.0 Disinfection of water bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

13.1 Disinfection practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

14.0 Test pumping of bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

14.1 Testing of bores by drillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
14.2 Test pumping of bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

15.0 Recording and reporting data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

16.0 Headworks and completion of bore site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

16.1 Headworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
16.2 Disposal of wastes and materials from the site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
16.3 Restoration of drilling site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

17.0 Reconditioning of bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

17.1 Problems encountered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
17.2 Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
17.3 Rehabilitation of artesian bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

18.0 Decommissioning of bores (abandonment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

19.0 Monitoring bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

19.1 Monitoring bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
19.2 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
19.3 General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
19.4 Drilling techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
19.5 Drilling fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
19.6 Monitoring bore designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
19.7 Drill core samples and bore logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
19.8 Bore casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
19.9 Screen or slotted casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

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 19.10 Gravel packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
19.11 Sealing of annulus above or between monitored intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
19.12 Centralising casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
19.13 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
19.14 Decommissioning bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
A Definitions and metric conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
B List of references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
C Typical bore types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Water monitoring bore (non-flowing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Figure 1.2 Low-yield bore (non-flowing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 1.3 High-yield bore (non-flowing, screened and gravel packed) . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Figure 1.4 Flowing bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 8.1 Types of bore misalignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 8.2 Typical bore plumbness test assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Figure 11.1 Example of open-hole bore construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 11.2 Examples of perforated and slotted casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 11.3 Stacked set of sieves used to provide grain distribution curve . . . . . . . . 43
Figure 11.4 Example of sieve analysis report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 12.1 Improving bore permeability through development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 12.2 Commencing development of a bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 15.1(a) Example of a drilling log (front of form) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 15.1(b) Example of a drilling log (back of form) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Figure 18.1 Requirements for decommissioning a flowing bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Figure 18.2 Requirements for decommissioning a single aquifer non-flowing bore . . . 75
Figure 18.3 Requirements for decommissioning a multiple aquifer non-flowing bore . . 76

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Drilling methods and their applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Table 6.1 National Water Quality Management Strategy
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines — 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 6.2 pH limits for various water uses (guidelines only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 7.1 Suggested Marsh funnel viscosities
for drilling unconsolidated materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 7.2 Recommended up-hole circulation velocities
and Marsh funnel viscosities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 9.1 Reactivity of steel casing to corrosive waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Table 9.2 Comparison of strengths of bore casing materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Table 9.3 Bore casing manufacturing standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Table 9.4 Minimum acceptable wall thicknesses for steel casing or steel tubes . . . . 33
Table 9.5 Maximum potential pressure differential
for PVC bore casing (head difference) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Table 10.1 Recommended range of cement–water mixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 10.2 Recommended cement–bentonite–water mixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 14.1 Type and duration of pumping test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Table 15.1 Guidelines for soil classification and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Table 15.2 Guidelines for rock classification and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Table 17.1 Chemicals used in the treatment of bores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

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chapter
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 NEED FOR MINIMUM BORE
CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
S ome twenty per cent of Australia’s total
water use is from groundwater sources. In
general this percentage is increasing as surface
water sources become fully utilised and
economics favour the use of groundwater.
Water bores are the most common means of
tapping groundwater resources. The siting,
design, materials and construction method used
in a bore all influence the quantity and quality of
water obtained. The final bore 'product' is a
result of a range of considerations and decisions
which include the:
• intended purpose of the bore
• geological and hydrogeological conditions
including the groundwater quality
• drilling methods
• construction methods
• bore performance improvements (for example
bore development and disinfection)
• bore performance indicators (for example
pumping test and water quality test).
The final bore product is further influenced by the
inherent nature of drilling which disrupts the
native environment. Bores drilled to intersect a
hydraulic regime (aquifer) will disturb that regime
by providing a vertical connection between
aquifers of different head or groundwater
qualities. Where drilling intersects groundwater
held under pressure, uncontrolled flowing
(artesian) bores can result causing wastage of the
groundwater resource and the loss of hydrostatic
pressure. All non-flowing bores can potentially
provide a means of contaminating groundwater
by acting as a conduit for surface run-off.
Encrustation and corrosion of bores affects both
the security of supply and the level of
groundwater protection; this, in turn, affects how
and what will constitute the bore product.
All bores have a finite life span. Deteriorated or
abandoned bores which threaten the groundwater
resource should be decommissioned in such a way
that the hydrogeological environment is
maintained or returned as close as possible to the
condition that existed prior to drilling.
1
These minimum requirements aim to provide a
technical base for driller licensing, bore licensing
and use by the drilling industry. The document
considers the design, materials and recording
aspects for bore construction. In doing so the
requirements aim to ensure the:
• protection of the groundwater resource from
contamination, deterioration and undue
depletion, and the
• long-term economic production of
groundwater of the best possible quality.
Definitions of the various terms used are listed in
Appendix A.
This document was originally prepared by a
steering committee made up of representatives
from all State and Territory Governments, the
Australian Drilling Industry Association and the
Australian Drilling Industry Training Committee,
using information from Australia, and other parts
of the world. It accessed industry reference
materials, as well as appropriate Australian and
overseas Standards.
This document has been reprinted following a
review, which sought submissions from the
drilling industry. Reviews are conducted every
five years.
A list of useful references is shown in Appendix B.
These requirements are not designed to meet
the specific requirements of landholders or
purchasers, or replace specifications currently
used by various state water authorities.
However, they may be included into specific
documents.
The minimum requirements relate to the text
and clauses in the shaded blocks. All other text
is general information only and is not part of
the minimum requirements.
These minimum requirements have a broad
scope. They deal with the ‘whole life’ of the
water bore from tendering and licensing to
construction, development and decommissioning
for shallow small-diameter and low-yielding
bores through to deep large-diameter and high-
yielding bores.
1.2 PURPOSE OF DOCUMENT
The purpose of this document is to provide a
technical basis for and description of the
minimum requirements for constructing water
bores in Australia. It both complements and
underpins the national drillers’ licensing system
by providing a bore construction standard which
is consistent across Australia.
Although its use is focused mainly at the water
drilling industry, it should also be of interest to
anyone intending to construct a water bore.
In prescribing the minimum acceptable
construction requirements, it is not intended to
be viewed as a substitute for formal training.
Drillers play a vital role in the development, use
and protection of the groundwater resource.
They supply a service to clients and in so doing
have a responsibility to ensure that this role is
fulfilled through high standards of work and the
use of materials appropriate to the particular
works involved.
1.3 TYPES OF WATER BORES
The type of bore used to obtain a water supply
depends on a number of factors which include:
• flowing (artesian) or non-flowing
(subartesian) source
• the potential or desired bore yield
• single or multiple aquifers system
• the stability of the strata
• the grain size of the aquifer material
• whether the bore is to be used for monitoring
or production purposes.
There are numerous combinations of these which
result in the many types of bore necessary, a
number of which are shown in Appendix C.
The following describes some of the different
construction requirements for single, multiple
and flowing aquifer systems.
The minimum requirements for each of the
component parts of their construction are
detailed in subsequent chapters.
2
1.3.1 Single aquifer non-flowing bores
(a) Monitoring bores
Monitoring bores are normally of small diameter
and drilled specifically to obtain accurate
formation samples and are then equipped and
used for the sole purpose of taking water
samples and/or monitoring water levels.
The basic characteristics are 50–100 mm casing
slotted and/or screened, normally of low-yield
construction but providing for accurate water
quality sampling and water level measurements
from a particular zone of interest within an
aquifer. Annulus seals and selective filter
packing are used where necessary to isolate the
zone being monitored.
Care must be taken during drilling operations
and in selecting the drilling method to ensure
that there are no contaminants introduced that
may affect the monitoring/sampling results.
Casing, filter pack and sealing or grouting
materials should similarly be selected so that
their chemical properties have minimal or no
effect on the proposed sampling requirements.
An example of monitoring bore construction is
shown diagrammatically in Figure 1.1.
(b) Low-yield bores
Low-yield bores are the most common and
numerous type of bore and therefore drilling of
these bores tends to be competitive and of
relatively low cost.
The drilling priority is usually to obtain a usable
supply of water for livestock watering and/or
domestic use. Such bores normally use casing of
some 100–150 mm diameter to contain costs.
It is most important however that the bores be
constructed to an adequate standard because
they are often the only source of permanent
water available for a property.
Figure 1.1 Water monitoring bore (non-flowing) Any shallow water beds of poor-quality water
should be excluded from the bore. Potential surface
water runoff or shallow subsoil seepage should also
be excluded and sealed from bore entry.

An example of a non-flowing bore of low yield in

a consolidated aquifer is shown in Figure 1.2.

(c) High-yield screen and gravel packed bores

(unconsolidated formation)
The major objective when drilling a high-yield
bore is to ensure that the formation remains stable
and capable of being pumped at the maximum
efficient water yield with immunity from
contamination, particularly from the surface.

To achieve this result a test hole drilling program

is usually carried out to locate the optimum
production bore site.

The same criterion used for low-yield bores

applies to high-yield bores in regard to possible
contamination or pollution.

The surface casing should be sealed to prevent

surface runoff and subsoil seepage entering the
bore annulus.
Figure 1.2 Low-yield bore (non-flowing)

The basic requirements for these bores are:

• construction technique and water entry
selected to allow long-term production of
clear silt-free water
• adequate bore straightness to allow
installation and reliable operation of the
client's preferred pump
• use of proper bore casing of acceptable
standard and suitable materials
• effective isolation of the main production
aquifer from thief zones (lateral leakage),
aquifers of poorer quality and intrusion
through surface runoff and or seepage of
contaminants or pollutants
• a usable supply of water of acceptable quality.

3
Other important factors which must be Figure 1.3 High-yield bore
considered include: (non-flowing, screened and gravel packed)
• selection of a casing size based on the desired
or potential yield and the required pump size
• selection of screen length appropriate to the
aquifer thickness being screened
• choice of gravel pack size based on analysis of
the gradation of the aquifer materials
• selection of a screen slot aperture
approximately 20 per cent smaller than the
gravel pack modal size
• selection of a screen diameter and length that will
transmit the bore yield at low entrance velocities
• selection of a hole diameter large enough to
allow a gravel pack thickness of 50 to 100 mm
• selection of a gravel pack material that is well
rounded and clean.

It is important in constructing a high-yield bore

that the long-term stability and efficiency of
operation are not compromised by imprudent
cost savings.

An example of high-yield bore construction is

shown in Figure 1.3.

1.3.2 Multiple aquifer non-flowing bores

(a) Monitoring bores
When a single bore is required for the monitoring
of multiple aquifers of differing water quality,
yield or pressure, it is drilled with a larger
diameter to allow the insertion of two or more
separate strings of small-diameter casing.
As with all monitoring work, care should be
taken with design, materials selection, and
drilling/installation methods to ensure that water
samples are not contaminated. Extra care is
required with the placement of annular seals
between aquifers to ensure that representative
samples of each zone of interest can be obtained.
between aquifers and the hole is reasonably
stable the annular seal is sometimes left
overnight to set before the second casing string is
gravel packed.
This procedure is then repeated for any
subsequent casing strings. Experience has shown
that it is sometimes quicker and more secure to
drill multiple holes if room permits as any
drilling time saved with a single hole can be
taken up with the setting of multiple casing
strings and annular seals.

The usual method of construction is to drill and

sample the hole to full depth first, carry out any
logging work to help define potential aquifers
then slot and/or screen the first or deepest set
casing string and run it into the hole. Gravel is
then placed around the slots through the lower
aquifer up to where the first annular seal is
required. A tremie pipe is then run and the
between-aquifer annular seal is set. The tremie
pipe is withdrawn and the second casing string
run and gravel packed. If there is little distance

4
(b) Low-yield bores
Often the top or upper aquifer in an area is saline
or of poor quality or may be fully committed to
other users.
Bores in these cases are drilled through the upper
aquifers to allow tapping of the better lower
aquifers.
The bores are drilled to full depth with careful
sampling for quality and testing for yield as
drilling progresses so that the bore can be
completed to yield the most suitable water. Any
unsuitable waters are excluded from the bore
during casing by slotting or screening only the
selected aquifer. Annular seals are then set above
the slots or, if necessary to protect steel casing
from possible corrosive waters, grouting of the
casing to the surface is carried out.
Care must be taken to ensure waters of differing
quality or pressure cannot mix either in the bore
casing or in the annulus between casing and
bore hole.
Sometimes two or more aquifers may be
penetrated before the selected aquifer and in
these cases it is often easier to ensure there is no
possible mixing of waters by grouting the
annulus from the production aquifer to surface.
(c) High-yield bores
The completion of a high-yield, large-diameter
bore usually requires a large drilling rig and an
experienced driller and may require two or more
strings of casing for deeper bores.
The aim is to construct the bore to allow efficient
pumping from the selected aquifer at maximum
yield but prevent mixing of waters from other
aquifers penetrated.
1.3.3 Flowing bores (artesian)
The drilling priority for artesian bore
construction is the control of artesian pressure
and flow.
5
The requirements for an artesian bore include the
protection of production casing from corrosive
soils and prevention of discharge up the outside
of the casing by the setting and cementing of
surface control casing, then prevention of
intermixing of waters of different quality or
pressure from one aquifer to another, tapping of
one primary aquifer only, and the control of
formation pressures by selective cementing of the
production casing. During the selection process
for production casing and headworks materials,
consideration must be given to the depth of
installation, grouting pressures, well head static
pressure and water temperature together with
the corrosive nature of the water and strata.
Bores must also be fitted with headworks of
approved design to permit the control of flow,
and for periodic maintenance and measurement.
These approved headworks must have provision
made for flow and pressure to be measured
without having to disconnect or interfere with
reticulation or surface pumping systems.
Because of the high costs involved, few artesian
bores are drilled for monitoring purposes only.
The monitoring of artesian bores is usually
carried out by the licensing agencies and involves
a series of measurements, at regular intervals, of
flow, pressure, temperature and water quality on
a set of selected representative bores.
The construction requirements for artesian bores
tapping the Great Artesian Basin (GAB) vary
from state to state, and can be different to the
minimum requirements described in this
document. Local licensing authorities should be
consulted concerning artesian bore construction
requirements before drilling in an artesian
aquifer of the GAB.
In artesian aquifers outside of the GAB,
alternative construction requirements may be
approved by the licensing authority to meet the
local requirements.
An example of the construction for a flowing
bore is shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 Flowing bore

6
chapter

2.0 ADMINISTRATIVE REQUIREMENTS

T he following general legislative provisions

and policies are enacted by water agencies
in each of the States and Territories. Because the
relevant legislation varies between authorities,
drillers, consultants and clients must become
fully conversant with the requirements of the
State in which they intend the work be
undertaken.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DRILLING OPERATIONS

R2.1 Driller. Unless state or territory legislation provides an exemption, only drillers licensed
for the class of work proposed and endorsed for the construction method to be used may
carry out work on a water bore. This includes the construction, reconditioning,
decommissioning by plugging or other work as specified. The licensed driller must be on site
at all times during such operations. It should be noted that it is the individual driller who is
licensed, not drilling companies.

R2.2 Works. Where necessary, the owner or legal occupier of the land on which a bore is to
be constructed must obtain the appropriate licence or permit from the licensing authority in
the relevant State or Territory. Work must not commence on a bore until such approval has
been granted.

A driller must sight the licence or permit before commencing any work and be aware of the
conditions relating to the particular bore. The licence or permit will stipulate the nature of the
work that has been approved. It may also stipulate the reporting requirements.

The following is a list of government agencies in

Australia and driller associations from whom
further information may be obtained in regard to
this document or drilling requirements generally.

Western Australia Goulburn Murray R.W.A.

Water Corporation PO Box 165
PO Box 100 TATURA VIC 3616
LEEDERVILLE WA 6007
Wimmera Mallee R.W.A.
Department of Environment PO Box 56
PO Box 6740 HORSHAM VIC 3402
Hay St,
EAST PERTH WA 6892 New South Wales
Department of Infrastructure Planning and
South Australia Natural Resources
Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity GPO Box 39
Conservation — SYDNEY NSW 2001
Drilling Services
PO Box 219 Queensland
INGLE FARM SA 5098 Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy
PO Box 156
Resource Assessment MAREEBA QLD 4880
PO Box 2834
ADELAIDE SA 5001 Northern Territory
Department of Infrastructure, Planning and
Victoria Environment Natural Systems
Southern R.W.A. PO Box 30
PO Box 153 PALMERSTON NT 0831
MAFFRA VIC 3860

7
Tasmania
Mineral Resources Tasmania
PO Box 56
ROSNEY PARK TAS 7018

Industry
Australian Drilling Industry Association Ltd
PO Box 3020
FRANKSTON EAST VIC 3199

Australian Drilling Industry Training Committee

PO Box 742
LANE COVE NSW 2066

8
chapter
3.0 RESPONSIBILITIES
W hen a bore is to be constructed both the
driller and client are responsible for
various aspects of the work. It is in the interest of
both parties that a written agreement or contract
be entered into detailing all aspects of the work
to be performed.
The following is a general guide to the
responsibilities of driller and client. It is
emphasised that some responsibilities relate to
legislative requirements which vary between
licensing authorities. When in doubt, the
respective agency should be contacted at the
address shown in Chapter 2.
3.1 CLIENT RESPONSIBILITIES
In general the client has the following
responsibilities:
• obtaining the necessary licence or permit to
construct the bore and comply with the bore
licence conditions
• selecting and if necessary preparing or clearing
the site, often in consultation with the driller
• providing access to the bore site(s)
• submitting reports and water samples to the
relevant authority where required
• arriving at a written agreement/contract with
the drilling contractor on the work to be
carried out and materials to be supplied
• ensuring, where legislation requires, that the
driller holds a current Driller’s Licence for the
class of work and drilling method employed
• seeking advice on likely availability of water
supply and its quality.
3.2 DRILLER RESPONSIBILITIES
The driller generally has responsibility for:
• providing the client with accurate and
competent technical advice on the work
• providing references
• offering warranty on completed and tested
works including materials and the quality of
work undertaken
• providing the client with a written quotation
for work to be performed and materials to
be supplied
• ensuring the quantity and quality of materials
used are suitable for the job
• the standard of work and deciding the
construction method used
9
• providing the client with regular and timely
reports of progress, and any other information
that may be relevant to the work and its cost
• ensuring, where legislation requires, that the
client holds a current Waterworks or Bore
Licence for the type of bore being constructed
and that the driller is conversant with the
construction requirements, depth and aquifer
limitations contained therein
• providing the client and the water licence
authority with a written log of each bore's details
• providing advice on the flow and quality of
water on completion of a bore
• leaving the site in a clean and tidy manner
and free from contamination.
Note: a driller cannot warrant or guarantee
quantity or quality of water before drilling is
carried out.
3.3 JOINT RESPONSIBILITIES
The type and nature of bore construction should
be discussed fully between the driller and the
bore owner before the work commences.
The following should be taken into account:
• legislative requirements (including State
occupational health and safety legislation)
• protection of the aquifer
• materials required
• the desired yield or purpose of the bore
• known geological conditions
• the desired life and future maintenance of the
facility
• costs
• duration of contract
• provision of detailed strata logs, strata
samples and water samples as specified by the
relevant licensing agency
• preferred pumping equipment and power
source options.
The construction of a bore can often be a very
important development resulting in a vital
and valuable source of supply to a property,
town or project.
The client, or a representative, should be on site
for a substantial amount of the construction
period or at least be readily contactable when
absence is necessary. The client should also be
made fully aware of the more critical phases of
construction of the bore. Differing geological
formations encountered may present difficulties
that even the most experienced driller could not
anticipate, and may require consultation with
the client.

10
chapter
4.0 DRILLERS’ CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
AND DRILLING METHODS USED
U nder the national system of drillers’
licensing, there are three classes of licence
and endorsements for four basic drilling
construction methods.
The class of licence relates to the skill level
required to construct bores in different types of
aquifer systems, while the endorsements relate to
the drilling and construction methods which a
driller is licensed to use.
4.1 DRILLERS’ CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
4.1.1 Licence classes
Class 1 — This licence is restricted to drilling
operations in non-flowing (sub-artesian)
single aquifer systems.
Class 2 — This licence, in addition to
operating in Class 1 conditions, permits
operations in non-flowing (sub-artesian)
multiple aquifer systems.
Class 3 — This licence, in addition to
operating in Class 1 and Class 2 conditions,
permits drilling operations in flowing
(artesian) aquifer systems.
4.1.2 Drilling endorsements
Cable tool — This endorsement permits
drilling operations using cable tool or cable
percussion drilling methods.
Auger — This endorsement permits drilling
operations using bucket auger, hollow-stem
auger and solid-stem auger techniques.
Rotary air — This endorsement permits
drilling operations which use rotary drilling
methods with air or foam as the drilling fluid.
This endorsement also includes the use of
down-hole hammers.
Rotary mud — This endorsement permits
drilling operations which use rotary drilling
methods with water as the drilling fluid or as
the base for the drilling fluid.
Non-drilling rig — This endorsement covers
operations such as spear points etc.
4.1.3 Required skills, experience
and abilities
Class 1 licence: The holder of a Class 1 Driller’s
Licence must be capable and have knowledge
and skills, as they apply to the drilling method
endorsement, in:
11
• the provisions of the legislation and regulations
relating to groundwater and groundwater
drilling; and understanding and appreciation
of bore construction licence application
procedures and licence conditions
• siting a bore — recognising potential
contamination sources to water supply bores
and appropriately siting a bore to prevent
contamination and meeting the location
requirements of the bore licence
• straightness and plumbness of hole — setting up
a rig, the causes of bent bores and the
methods of hole straightening
• drilling — correctly choosing and using
equipment, having regard to such factors as
rotational speed and proper annular velocities
• fishing — tool string inventories, fishing tools
and procedures
• formation sampling and description — obtaining
representative formation samples, and
labelling and describing them
• bore design — designing and constructing
bores for domestic use, stock watering and
household irrigation purposes in single
aquifer systems
• construction — seating and sealing of casing,
casing types and their limitations and uses,
and completion of the bore site
• cementing — grouting surface casing and
decommissioning (abandoning) bores or test
holes
• setting screens and stabilising gravel fill —
selecting the appropriate slot size, screen
length and diameter, and procedures for
screen installation in low-yield bores
• bore development — basic knowledge of
development techniques
• disinfection procedures — basic knowledge of
disinfection procedures and safe chemical
disposal
• aquifer testing and water sampling — carrying
out a single stage pumping test, and
determining and recording static water level,
drawdown and yield; taking and labelling a
water sample
• decommissioning — designing and selecting
appropriate materials for the
decommissioning (abandonment) of bores in
single aquifer systems
• bore completion reports — correctly filling in a
drill log or other required bore reports for
each bore or test hole
• construction standards — all bores constructed
under this class of driller’s licence must be
constructed to meet the relevant minimum
standards requirements set out in this document.
Class 2 licence: The holder of a Class 2 licence 4.2 DRILLING METHODS
must have the knowledge and skills required of a
Class 1 driller together with knowledge and Drilling methods are many and varied, ranging
skills, as they apply to the drilling method from simple digging with hand tools to high-
endorsement, in: speed drilling with sophisticated equipment.
• bore design — designing and constructing The most commonly used methods are described
bores in multiple aquifers with emphasis on briefly below for the general information of
designs and methods used to exclude readers who do not have a drilling background.
unsuitable waters including the use of inert
plastic and other nonferrous casings 4.2.1 Cable tool drilling
• screen setting and gravel pack selection — skill in
Cable tool drilling, otherwise known as percussion
the design of high-yielding bores is required.
drilling, is probably the oldest drilling method.
This entails overcoming entrance velocity
problems and carrying out sand sieve analysis
Basically it involves the lifting and dropping of a
in order to select appropriate gravel pack
string of solid steel drilling tools suspended from
material and screens (that is screen length,
a wire rope, which hit the bottom of the hole.
diameter and aperture)
This process drives the cutting bit,
• cementing — grouting casing, placing cement
fracturing or pulverising the formation. The
plugs over selected zones, effect of cement
crushed material forms a slurry on mixing with
additives; ability to calculate hole volume,
water that is either added or naturally present in
slurry volumes and specific gravities; hole
the hole. The blow rate varies from 40 to 60
preparation, casing installation and
strokes per minute and due to the characteristic
circulation requirements
lay of the wire rope cable, the bit turns and
• aquifer testing — the procedures involved and
strikes across a different section of the hole
data required from a multistage pumping test
bottom at each blow.
• decommissioning – designing and selecting
appropriate materials for the
When the bit can no longer fall freely through the
decommissioning or abandonment of bores in
water–cuttings mix, the drill tools are withdrawn
multiple aquifers
from the hole. A tubular bailer, which is run on a
• construction standards — all bores constructed
separate smaller wire rope, is then used to pick
under this class of driller's licence must be
up the slurry and cuttings and remove them from
constructed to meet the relevant minimum
the hole before drilling is resumed.
standards requirements set out in this
document.
In cable tool or percussion drilling there are
basically three major operations:
Class 3 licence: The holder of a Class 3 licence
(i) the drilling of the hole by chiselling or
must have the knowledge and skills required of a
crushing the rock, clay or other material by
Class 1 and Class 2 driller together with
the impact of the drill bit
knowledge and skills, as they apply to the
(ii) removing the cuttings with a bailer as
drilling method endorsement, in:
• drilling fluids — methods, procedures and cuttings accumulate in the hole
calculations required for formation fluid (iii) driving or forcing the bore casing down into
the hole as the drilling proceeds.
pressure control
• cementing — methods and procedures and
calculations required in carrying out pressure
cement jobs
• bore design — in aquifer systems that have
high-pressure conditions; design of efficient
bores in corrosive water areas; use of inert
plastic and other nonferrous casing
• headworks — design, fabrication and fitting of
suitable bore flow control and remeasurement
headworks
• construction standards — relevant bores must
be constructed to meet the minimum
standards requirements set out in this
document.

12 Cable tool drilling rig

Because of the relatively low initial cost and
simplicity of the equipment used, cost per unit
drilled is relatively low. However, the technique
is slow and when the increased cost of labour is
taken into account, there is usually little net
advantage over faster rotary drilling methods in
the drilling of new bores.

Cable tool drill plants are used extensively for

reconditioning work. They are usually smaller
than a rotary plant with an equivalent depth
capacity and therefore easier to establish over a
bore hole. They can also lower and retrieve tools
to probe a bore more quickly than with a rotary
plant and are able to work inside casings and
insert casing liners more quickly due to their
better access around casing strings for screwing
or welding a joint.

4.2.2 Auger drilling

Auger drills are used mainly for soil
investigation and drilling in soils and very soft
rock. The mechanical clearing of the hole
eliminates any need for pumps or compressors.

Continuous-flight augers can be driven by any

top-drive rotary machine provided it has
adequate torque rating and slow rotation.
In deep, small-diameter holes using continuous-
flight augers, cuttings are supported by the hole
and carried to the surface by rotation of the
helical flights.
Hollow augers consist of a continuous-flight
auger which has a hollow centre tube. They are
normally used with a bit plug held in place by a
secondary internal rod string with the augers
used to drill as with a conventional continuous-
flight auger to the required depth. At that point
the central bit plug and rod string is withdrawn.
Short-flight and plate augers are loaded with
cuttings and then pulled out of the hole. At the
surface the cuttings are 'spun' off the auger.
With bucket augers the cuttings are picked up in
a bucket, hoisted to the surface and dumped
through the hinged bottom of the bucket.
Extensions are added as the hole gets deeper.
Short-flight, plate and bucket augers are used for
shallow, large-diameter holes.
Rotary air drilling rig
4.2.3 Rotary air drilling
This method is used to drill holes in consolidated
or semi-hard formations such as sandstone or
shales which are self-supporting. The principle
common to all rotary techniques is that a drill bit
is attached to the end of a hollow drill pipe and
rotated against the bottom of the hole,
thereby imparting either a fracturing, digging or
scraping action, depending on the bit type and
the nature of the formation. Pressure is applied
to the bit by the weight of the drill pipe and
additional weight (feed) is also applied from the
drill plant. The cuttings produced by this process
are cleared by circulating air, which is derived
from a compressor and fed down the drill pipe to
emerge through a bit.
To remove cuttings effectively an annular
velocity of at least 900 metres per minute is
necessary. Compressor output, hole diameter
and drill pipe size should be matched to provide
velocities of this order.

13
Holes can be drilled to depth using a large
volume of air at high pressure. However, the
equipment normally used is limited in depth
once below water level.
Two general types of bit are used. These are the
roller-cone type, usually called a rock bit, and
the drag type, of either a fishtail design or the
wing insert bit of three- or four-piece design.
A major advantage of the rotary air drilling
method is that water is blown to the surface as
soon as the water bearing stratum is
encountered. This allows the driller to obtain a
progressive indication of the available supply
and monitor any changes in the quality and
quantity of water as the drilling progresses.
Air is used principally in hard clay or rock
formations, because once the air pressure is
turned off, loose formations tend to cave in
against the drill pipe. Foaming additives are
occasionally used to increase the up-hole
carrying capacity of the return air.
Down-hole hammer method The down-hole
hammer method involves a pneumatically
operated special bottom-hole drill bit that
efficiently combines the percussion action of
cable tool drilling with the turning action of
rotary drilling. The pneumatic drill can be used
Rotary mud drilling
14
on a standard rotary rig with a high pressure air
compressor of sufficient capacity. It is used for
fast and economical drilling of medium to
extremely hard formations. Fast penetration
results from the blows transmitted directly to the
bit by the air piston. Continuous hole cleaning
exposes new formation to the bit and practically
no energy is wasted in redrilling old cuttings.
Down-hole hammer drilling is generally the
fastest method of penetration in hard rock. The
bit is turned slowly (5–15 rpm) by the same
method by which the drill bit in the fluid or air
drilling operation is rotated. Foaming additives
are occasionally used to increase the up-hole
carrying capacity of the return air. The down-
hole hammer has revolutionised hard rock
drilling and has enabled water bores to be
established from rock aquifers previously
regarded as being too hard to drill. The method
is not recommended for drilling loose,
unconsolidated materials.
Reverse circulation drilling method — air
(dual tube rotary air and down-hole hammer)
For this drilling method, air is introduced
through a dual swivel head on a top drive rotary
rig and pumped down the annulus in the dual
drill pipe to the bit or hammer being used.
Cuttings are returned to the surface through the
inner tube. This method is used primarily for
mineral sampling to obtain an uncontaminated
strata sample. However, it can also be used for
Mud rotary drill rig
water sampling programs. Large-diameter dual
tube rotary air drill strings permit the insertion of
up to 50 mm PVC casing through the inner tube
for the construction of monitoring bores. It is not
a common method for water bore construction.
4.2.4 Rotary mud drilling
Rotary mud drilling functions on the same
principle as air drilling except that the circulation
medium is aqueous. The technique was
developed for handling soft, unconsolidated
formations which would collapse if air was used.
The mud forms a membrane which inhibits flow
through the walls of the hole. The internal
pressure of the mud provides structural support
to the hole wall. Drilling fluids are also used for
drilling deep bores which are beyond the
capacity of air compressors.
In the rotary mud system, drilling fluid or mud is
pumped down through the drill pipe and out
through nozzles in the bit.
The cuttings are removed by continuous
circulation of a drilling fluid as the bit
penetrates the formation material. The fluid
also serves to cool and lubricate the bit. The
mud fluid then flows upward in the annular
space around the drill pipe to the surface,
carrying the cuttings with it in suspension. At
the surface, the fluid is firstly channelled into a
settling pit, where most of the cuttings settle
out, and then into a storage pit, where the mud
pump picks it up again for recirculation.
The basic fluid normally used for rotary drilling
is water to which specific chemicals and other
additives can be added to increase density or
viscosity to improve hole support. The fluid can
also be weighted to control artesian pressures.
15
Reverse circulation drilling method – mud In the
reverse circulation drilling method, instead of
circulating the drilling fluid through and up the
outside of the pipe, the process is reversed. Fluid
is fed down through the space between the wall
of the hole and the drill pipe where it is then
pumped up, together with the cuttings, through
the hollow part of the pipe and then out through
a discharge pipe. Of particular importance is the
possible use of a light (nearly clear) drilling fluid
for large diameter holes rather than a viscous and
heavy drilling mud as used in conventional
rotary mud drilling which sometimes tends to
seal-off water-bearing formations. However, a
substantial quantity of fluid must be on hand to
maintain an open hole.
This method is used for rapid drilling of large-
diameter holes in soft formations where gravels
are encountered. It is possible to bring gravel to
the surface through the hollow drill pipe because
of the extremely high velocity of the fluid as it is
drawn up by the suction pump. The walls of the
hole are held in place by the pressure of the fluid
against the sides of the hole.
4.3 CHOICE OF DRILLING METHOD
Each of the common drilling methods has its
advantages and disadvantages. The choice of
drilling method employed should be made on
the basis of geological conditions and the type of
facility to be constructed.
 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DRILLING OPERATIONS

R4.1 Drilling operations shall comply with relevant State or Territory Workplace Health and
Safety Regulations.

R4.2 Drilling equipment shall meet any State or Territory inspection and certification requirements.

R4.3 Drillers should not contract for or attempt works which could be reasonably expected to
exceed the depth, diameter or casing load rating of the drill plant to be used.

R4.4 Quality assurance procedures may be required.

Table 4.1 Drilling methods and their applications

Type of Cable Auger* Rotary air Rotary mud High-pressure

formation tool drill rotary air with
down-hole
hammer
Dune sand Slow–fair Fair Difficult–slow Suitable (with good Not suitable
Sand (if casing driven) Not suitable (Fair with foam fluid control)
and/or mud used below water table injection)
Loose sand Difficult–fair Not suitable Difficult – not Suitable (with fluid Not suitable
& gravel (if casing driven) suitable control) Fair (see note)
Loose coarse Difficult – slow (but Not suitable Not suitable Difficult–slow Not suitable
gravels & boulders generally can be sometimes impossible Fair (see note)
handled if casing driven)
Loam and silt Suitable Fair Fair Suitable Not suitable
Sandy clay Suitable Fair Suitable (drag bits) Suitable Fair
Puggy shale Fair Slow Fair (water injection) Suitable Slow
& mudstone (water injection)
Shale Suitable Fair Suitable Suitable Fair

Sandstone Suitable Slow Suitable Suitable Suitable

Conglomerate Slow Not suitable Fair–slow Fair–slow Fair (if
(rock bits) (rock bits) consolidated
formation)
Limestone & Slow Not suitable Fair (rock bits) Fair (rock bits) Suitable
dolomite
Limestone with Fair Not suitable Fair (rock bits) Fair (rock bits) Suitable
small cracks or
fissures
Cavernous Fair–slow Not suitable Fair (circulation Not suitable Fair (circulation
limestone problems) problems)

Weathered basalts Fair Slow Suitable Suitable Suitable

Thick layered Very slow - not Not suitable Fair (rock bits only) Fair (rock bits only) Suitable
Basalts suitable
Metamorphic rocks Very slow – not suitable Not suitable Fair to slow Fair to slow Suitable
(rock bits) (rock bits)

Granite Very slow – not suitable Not suitable Slow (rock bits only) Slow (rock bits only) Fair–suitable

LEGEND
Not suitable : Normally cannot drill formation type.
Difficult : Generally not suitable but can sometimes be adapted.
Slow : Can be used but drilling progress is usually slow.
Fair : Suitable with some care and/or special technique suggested thus.
Suitable : Normally used to drill formation type economically.

Note : Fair if top drive rig using hammer and swing out reamer and casing following bit.
* : Auger drilling requires high torque for rotation so depth is limited.

16
chapter

5.0 SITING A WATER SUPPLY BORE

T he siting of a bore usually involves the

consideration of a range of factors in the
course of providing a cost-effective and reliable
supply of water of acceptable quality.

5.1 OBTAINING INFORMATION

The initial location selection and investigation are
very important in the overall construction and
performance of a bore. The depth, cost and relative
importance of a production bore will usually
dictate the amount of investigation required.

Most licensing authorities can provide

information, advice and, if required, give an
assessment of groundwater availability in a
specific area of interest. This could include data
available on any previous drilling work in an
area and other geological and geophysical
records. Depending on the extent of the work
required to provide the assessment, a charge may
be made for providing this service.

Local information may also be available from

other drillers and neighbouring landholders. Siting the bore
This could include the location, depth to water, The client should advise the driller if there are
amount of water pumped, type of water bed or any underground or overhead services in the
formation, and water quality. area of the proposed drill site.

5.2 DRILLER CONSIDERATIONS The positioning of a bore should be based on the

If a driller has worked consistently in an area it is
probable that he has a knowledge of the
construction, depth, quality and yield of bores in
that area. However, the client has access to bore
information which is held by State licensing and
water authorities.
The driller should have an understanding of the
known hydrogeological conditions of the area so
that a determination can be made of whether the
drilling equipment available can do the job.
Provisions relating to licensing vary between
authorities; drillers must become conversant with
the requirements of the particular area in which
they operate.
5.3 CLIENT CONSIDERATIONS
The client should seek advice from the relevant
water authority so that the best site for the bore
can be determined.
17
best prospects for obtaining a successful supply
and on working convenience.
Consideration of other requirements may be
required if the pump is to be solar- or wind-
powered. A cleared area might be preferable if
such pumps are to be used. State and local laws
and planning schemes might limit or control the
ways in which vegetation or timber can be
cleared, and should be checked prior to
undertaking any clearing for a bore site.
The production bore site should allow ready
access for heavy machinery for drilling and
subsequent servicing of the bore and pumping
equipment.
Some licensing authorities may have a bore
licence or permit condition that requires that a
bore should be located not less than a specified
distance from the property boundary and/or from
a bore on a neighbouring property, channel,
stream, or source of pollution such as a septic
tank. This requirement is to minimise the
possibility of interfering with the flow and water
levels in nearby bores.
 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR SITING A BORE

R5.1 Distance condition: The driller shall not commence construction of a bore if its location
does not comply with a distance condition specified in the bore licence.

R5.2 Sources of contamination: All bores shall be positioned away from the influence of any
possible sources of contamination such as a dairy, septic tank and absorption trench, refuse
dump, land fill, effluent discharge (piggery or feedlots, sewerage treatment discharge), drainage
ditch, cattle/stock dip or chemical spray use/preparation area. In bores where the target aquifer
is deeper than the source of the pollution, the bore may be constructed providing the
contaminated formation is adequately cased and cement sealed before the target aquifer is
encountered. If the driller has any doubts concerning the potential problems and the
requirements for a particular situation, advice should be sought from the relevant licensing or
local authority.

R5.3 Protection of headworks: All bores or wells should be positioned so that the headworks
can be protected from frequent flooding and surface water drainage. If the bore has to be
located in an area of potential flooding, the casing should be raised above flood level or if this is
not feasible, completely sealed to prevent the entry of flood water. Temporary caps should be
fitted to all bores during the period from completion to pump installation to ensure foreign
matter does not enter the bore.

R5.4 Access to site: Access to a site and work to be carried out should be planned and
conducted in such a manner as to minimise damage to property improvements, crops, land,
drainage works and roads.

R5.5 Overhead power lines: Prior to commencement of drilling, the driller must contact the
local electricity/power supply authority to obtain advice on the minimum clearance distances
between the drilling rig and overhead power lines. This information should be supplied, as far
as practical, in written form.

R5.6 Underground/overhead services: The driller shall check with the client that no
underground or overhead services are located within the area of the proposed bore sites.

18
chapter

6.0 FORMATION (STRATA) SAMPLING AND WATER SAMPLING

F ormation and water sampling are carried out

to determine the nature and type of strata
beneath the site and the water quality in any
water bearing formation.
6.1 FORMATION SAMPLING
Reliable information on specific geological
materials and aquifer conditions at a site is
necessary to establish the optimum design for
various elements of a final production bore
including the casing size and length, aperture
of the bore screen, and the gradation of the
gravel pack.
Geophysical logging equipment can also be used
and is recommended to confirm drilling depths
and strata details. It can also provide
information on the porosity of formation, clay
content, the integrity of the borehole and the best
production zones within the aquifer sequence.
6.2 WATER SAMPLING
Knowledge of the quality of water encountered
as a bore is being constructed is highly desirable
and, in some instances, imperative, because it can
affect decisions regarding continued
construction, selection of materials, and
modifications in construction or in the planned
operation of the completed bore.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR FORMATION SAMPLING

R6.1 Frequency of sampling: Formation samples shall be taken at least every three metres,
and if required, bagged and delivered as specified in the bore licence or permit. Particular care
should be taken when collecting samples from expected water producing zones. Samples of
water beds shall be taken at one metre intervals.

R6.2 Collection and marking: Samples required for collection shall be collected as soon as
possible after being withdrawn from the hole, drained of excess moisture and kept in plastic
bags, or other containers of at least 500 g capacity for each interval drilled. Containers shall be
plainly marked with the bore number and depth interval.

R6.3 Arrangement of samples: Samples, whether required for collection or not, shall be laid
out on regular lines so that both the driller and client can see the formation changes.

R6.4 Where there is no licence requirement for samples they shall be taken at each change in
formation and the depth recorded so that a reliable drilling log can be completed.

Laying out samples of drill cuttings

19
Common examples of water quality-related
problems are: water zones to be excluded by
casing or grouting; choice of casing material;
selective casing perforation; selection of screen
materials; screen setting; and the installation and
operation of water conditioning equipment.
If water is to be used for domestic consumption
both chemical and biological analyses are
necessary as recommended by the relevant
government agency. If the water is to be used for
irrigation or for a special purpose, further
analysis to determine its suitability is advisable.
Wherever possible water sampling and testing
programs should be carried out under Quality
Assurance guidelines.
In order to determine the chemical constituents
of waters in various aquifers it is necessary to
obtain water samples and carry out a chemical
analysis. Care needs to be taken to ensure that
the sample is representative of the water body
and is not contaminated by bore construction
materials. Use a clean, thoroughly washed
container of not less than one litre volume to
obtain and store water samples. Used plastic
drink bottles with residual smell, colour and/or
taste are not acceptable.
Where it is necessary to determine the suitability of
a particular aquifer or provide early advice to the
client on the likely quality of water from a bore, an
approximate indication of water quality may be
obtained by the use of field test equipment.
Professional water bore drillers would be expected
to have some basic water analysis equipment so
that an 'in the field' guide to groundwater
suitability can be given to the bore owner
Basic equipment would include a conductivity
meter and a meter or other method of
determining pH.
The equipment used should be checked and
recalibrated at intervals to ensure its accuracy.
Most licensing agencies would be able to provide
this service for a nominal charge.
A guide to the quality of water for various uses is
given in Tables 6.1 and 6.2.
20
A quick determination of the total salts in bore
water may be made using a conductivity meter.
Conductivity can be used as a guide to total
salinity, but it does not indicate the concentration
of individual ions, which is ultimately required
to assess the suitability of water for a particular
use, nor does it indicate the presence of possible
contaminants. If no conductivity meter is
available and water is required for domestic or
irrigation use be aware of water that clears
quickly when left standing in a container, as this
usually means high salinity levels are present.
The sample should be placed in a clean bottle
preferably rinsed at least five times with the
water to be analysed. The bottle should be sealed
so as to prevent the entry of air. Special sampling
and preservation techniques are required for the
analysis of specific ions.
The taking, handling, storage and analysis of
groundwater samples for particular
contaminants may require special considerations.
6.2.1 Water used for irrigation
A guide to the suitability of water for irrigation
can be obtained from a conductivity analysis.
Water authorities can supply charts listing the
range of values for different crop types.
High concentrations of individual ions may
render the water unsuitable, even if the
conductivity value is within limits suggested.
The suitability of water for continued irrigation
will depend on plant species, soil type, climate
and soil leaching conditions. The client or bore
owner should already be aware of any water
quality restraints imposed by the intended crop
types or proposed water use.
Table 6.1 National Water Quality Management Strategy Australian Drinking Water Guidelines — 1996
Characteristic Guideline values: Comments

Health Aesthetic
Dissolved oxygen ** >85% Low concentrations allow growth of nuisance micro-
organisms (iron/manganese/sulfate/nitrate-reducing
bacteria) causing taste and odour problems, staining and
corrosion. Low oxygen concentrations are normal in
groundwater supplies and the guideline value may not
be achievable.
Hardness as CaCO3 ** 200 mg/L Caused by calcium and magnesium salts.
Hard water is difficult to lather.
<60 mg/L CaCO3 soft but possibly corrosive
60–200 mg/L CaCO3 good quality
200–500 mg/L CaCO3 increasing scaling problems
>500 mg/L CaCO3 severe scaling
pH * 6.5–8.5 While extreme pH values (<4 and >11) may adversely affect
health, there is insufficient data to set a health guideline.
<6.5 may be corrosive.
>8 progressively decreases efficiency of chlorination.
>8.5 may cause scale and taste problems.
New concrete tanks and cement-mortar lined pipes
can significantly increase pH and a value up to 9.2
may be tolerated provided monitoring indicates no
deterioration in microbiological quality.
Taste and odour ** Acceptable to May indicate undesirable contaminants, but usually
most people indicates problems such as algal or bio-film growths.
Temperature ** No value set Generally impractical to control; rapid changes can
bring complaints.
Total dissolved solids ** 500 mg/L <500 mg/L is regarded as good quality drinking
water based on taste.
500–1000 mg/L is acceptable based on taste.
>1000 mg/L may be associated with excessive
scaling, corrosion and unsatisfactory taste.
True colour ** 15 HU 15 HU just noticeable in a glass.
(Hazen Units) Up to 25 HU is acceptable if turbidity is low.
If colour is high at time of disinfection, then the water should
be checked for disinfection by-products such as THMs.
Turbidity * 5 NTU 5 NTU just noticeable in a glass.
>1 NTU may shield some micro-organisms from
disinfection.
<1 NTU desirable for effective disinfection.

NOTE
* Insufficient data to set a guideline based on health considerations.
** No health-based guideline is necessary.

21
 Table 6.2 pH limits for various water uses (guidelines only)
Domestic use
Desirable Maximum

7–8.5 6.5–9.2
Stock water use
Desirable Maximum

6–9.5 4.3–10.0

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER SAMPLING

R6.5 Water sampling: After construction, water samples of at least 1 litre in volume shall be
taken by the driller for analysis. Prior to taking a sample from a particular formation, the bore
shall be pumped out or airlifted not less than three times the volume of the bore to remove
material which may contaminate the sample. The method used to collect the sample shall not
cause contamination of the bore or the sample.

R6.6 Licensing requirement: Samples of water separate from the client's sampling
requirements of at least 1 litre in volume from every completed bore shall be supplied as
required to the relevant licensing authority for chemical analysis. A clean container rinsed with
the water to be sampled shall be used. Sample containers shall be clearly labelled with the
name and address of licensee, bore licence number, depth to water bed and the date the sample
was taken. The relevant water authority may be a source of clean water sample bottles.

R6.7 Testing on site: Measurements of electrical conductivity (EC) and pH shall be taken using
portable meters or other methods.

22
chapter

7.0 DRILLING FLUIDS

D rilling fluids are used to facilitate the

removal of formation cuttings, act as a
lubricant and stabilise drilling operations.
The density (or weight) of a drilling fluid should
be kept as low as possible. Dense mixes should
only be used to control formation overpressure or
collapse or to control artesian flow.
Because viscosity can often be confused with
density, the specific gravity or density should be
determined by means of a mud balance and not
just estimated.
The use of chlorides as a hydration (clay)
inhibitor and weighting agent is not
recommended where steel casing is used.

Mud viscosity should be kept as thin as Rotary-drill rig pumps or compressors should
practicable while the mud retains the ability to have sufficient capacity to obtain the circulation
stabilise the formation and adequately clean the rates shown in Table 7.2.
hole. Mud viscosity should be measured using a
Marsh funnel. Suggested Marsh funnel
viscosities for drilling unconsolidated materials
are shown in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1 Suggested Marsh funnel viscosities for

drilling unconsolidated materials
Material Approriate Marsh
drilled funnel viscosity
(seconds)
Fine sand 30–45
Medium sand 40–55
Coarse sand 50–65
Gravel 60–75
Coarse gravel 75–85
Lost circulation 85–120

Table 7.2 Recommended up-hole circulation velocities

and Marsh funnel viscosities
Circulating Marsh funnel Recommended
fluid viscosity up-hole velocity
(seconds) m/s
Air or mist Nil 15–25
Water 26 0.6
Normal mud 32–40 0.4
Thick mud 50–80 0.2

23
 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DRILLING FLUIDS

R7.1 Water: Fresh nonpolluted or if this is not possible the best quality water that is reasonably
available shall be used as the base fluid (make-up water) for all water bore drilling fluid
preparations. Water taken from swamps or creeks may be contaminated. If no other water
supply is available and swamp or creek water is used the bore may need disinfection before use.
Where possible water shall be obtained from a treated town water supply.

Water shall not be used where it is obvious that it is polluted or suspected that it may be
polluted in that it occurs close to a pollution source.

The conductivity and pH values of all make-up waters shall be measured.

R7.2 Types of drilling fluids: The following types of drilling fluids shall be considered
acceptable for water bore drilling:
• water-based drilling fluids
• natural drilling fluids
• air-based drilling fluids

Fluid additives: Additives to drilling fluids that are acceptable for water bore drilling are
classified as follows:

(i) Dissolved additives

(a) mud-thinning agents. The use of mud thinner based on phosphates is not recommended
(b) surfactants, drilling detergents, and foaming agents

(ii) Non-dissolved additives

(a) native solids (clays and sand)
(b) bentonite
(c) polymers (liquid, powder)
(d) density-increasing materials
(e) loss-circulating materials (not recommended for the production zone).

R7.3 Manufacturers recommendations: The use of drilling fluid additives shall be in

accordance with manufacturer's recommendations. Safety notes and manufacturer's
recommendations for any additives used or proposed to be used by the driller shall be available
for perusal by the licensing authority and client at the bore site during construction.

R7.4 Properties and tests: During drilling operations, when additives to water are used,
drilling-fluid properties shall be maintained within the limits that will allow their complete
removal from the bore, if necessary, and shall not affect the potential capacity, efficiency, or
quality of the bore. Drilling-fluid properties may be requested to be maintained during normal
drilling operations within the specified limits using test procedures conforming to API RP 13B:
(i) Weight (fluid density) — test equipment: mud balance (API)
(ii) Viscosity — test equipment: Marsh funnel (API)
(iii) Filtration (wall cake and filtration loss) — test equipment: filter press (API)
(iv) Sand content (solids larger than 200 mesh) — test equipment: sand-content set (API).

24
 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DRILLING FLUIDS (continued)

R7.5 Maintenance of fluid properties: The driller shall ensure that the composition and
properties of the drilling fluid are maintained to protect the water-bearing formations
penetrated and to allow the collection of good representative samples of the formation materials
during drilling.

R7.6 Toxicity: Chemicals or other substances which could leave a residual toxicity shall not be
added to the fluid.

R7.7 Frequency of fluid testing: Drilling fluid properties should be tested regularly as a
normal part of the drilling program or as determined by the drilling conditions.

R7.8 Removal: The drilling fluid must be removed from the hole to allow the subsequent
development of the bore.

Measuring viscosity using a Marsh funnel

25
 Pa
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26
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chapter

8.0 PLUMBNESS AND ALIGNMENT OF BORES

B ore holes should be drilled and casings set

to retain roundness and also be constructed
with as straight an alignment and true vertical
Figure 8.1 Types of bore misalignment

plumbness as possible.

In shallow low-yield bores, where the smallest

inside diameter of the bore is considerably larger
than the maximum outside diameter of the
pumping equipment installed in the bore, some
deviation in plumbness and alignment seldom
causes problems. Plumbness and alignment are
never perfect. However, the driller should be
expected to keep alignment and plumbness
within practical limits under most conditions, by
exercising reasonable care and using equipment
that is adequate and appropriate for the job.

Plumbness and alignment become more critical

with deeper holes and where a shaft-driven
turbine pump, helical screw type or rod-driven
pump such as a windmill or pumpjack is to be
installed in the bore. A badly aligned bore or one
containing kinks at casing joints, bends or
corkscrews can cause wear on the pump rods or
pump shaft, shaft bearings and discharge
column. Under extreme conditions it may be
(b) The test for plumbness shall be made using a
difficult to insert a pump into or withdraw it
plummet suspended on a thin-braided wire. This
from a bore.
consists of a pulley installed three metres above
the bore head on a tripod or frame and positioned
Alignment may not be as critical if a submersible
so that the plumb line comes off its outer edge
or jet type non-shaft-driven pump is to be used.
exactly over the centre of the bore casing.
All bores completed for the purpose of extracting
The outer plumb ring or plunger should be
water, other than monitoring purposes, should be
5–6 mm smaller in diameter than the inside
constructed to or pass the plumbness/alignment
diameter of the bore casing. The plummet must
methods of testing.
be heavy enough to keep the plumb line taut but
the hub of the ring must not be solid as the water
8.1 Method of Testing must pass through it as it is lowered into the
(a) Rigid dummy — A rigid dummy is made bore. The wire must be attached in the exact
12 metres long of casing or similar material. The centre of the plummet hub.
outside diameter of the dummy shall be 80 per
cent of the internal diameter of the bore casing Bore alignment shall be determined by lowering
being used. the plummet three metres at a time and taking a
measurement of plumb line deflection from the
Test dolly — A test dolly is made up by welding exact centre of the casing at the bore head (see
three rings each of 85 per cent of the inside Figure 8.2). Measurements are normally taken as
diameter of the bore casing onto a light but rigid North, South, East and West and maybe a
centre tube 12 metres long — one ring each end combination of two. If the plumb line hangs
and one in the centre. through the casing centre line the bore is plumb
at the depth the plummet is suspended. If the
In both of the above the lowering wire attachment line does not hang in the centre, the bore at that
bail should be on the top and in the centre of the depth is out of plumb by the distance from centre
assembly when suspended in the bore. plus an equal distance for each three metres the
plummet is below bore head level.
The cased hole must be sufficiently straight to
allow a rigid dummy or test dolly to be lowered
freely under its own weight to the lowest
proposed setting depth of the borehole pump.
27
 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR BORE ALIGNMENT

R8.1 The completed bore shall be sufficiently plumb and straight so that there will be no
interference caused to the installation, alignment, long-term operation or future removal of the
permanent borehole pump intended for use.

Figure 8.2 Typical bore plumbness test assembly

28
chapter
9.0 CASING
B ores must be lined with an adequate length
of appropriate casing to prevent the collapse
of the strata penetrated. The casing also acts as a
safe housing for any pump installed in the hole.
9.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The casing must be of sufficient strength and
composition to withstand the pressure exerted by
the surrounding strata and other forces imposed
during installation, bore development and any
cementing operations, and to resist rapid
corrosion by the soil and water environments. It
should provide a secure and leakproof conduit
from the water source to the surface through
unstable formations and through zones of actual
or potential contamination. It must be joined and
installed so that it is reasonably straight and free
of kinks or twists.
The selected diameter of the bore casing should
firstly comply with the minimum requirements
of the respective licensing authority and be
adequate to accommodate the size of pump
selected to meet design or supply requirements.
It should take into account:
• the efficiency of the pumping unit
• the expected pump life
• the extra clearance required in the event that
the casing is not perfectly straight
• the possibility of weld metal projecting inside
at the joints of steel casing.
The wall thickness or class of the bore casing
should be selected in accordance with good
design practice and experience as applied to
conditions found at the bore site. Where it is
necessary to drive casing only steel should be
used. Casing that is placed in an oversized drill
hole may be of other types of materials as noted
in these guidelines. Irrespective of what material
is used all joints should be watertight and have
the same structural integrity as the casing itself.
9.2 TYPES OF CASING
Casing selection depends on several major
factors: strength requirements, corrosion
resistance, ease of handling, cost considerations,
type of formation, method of drilling, the
particular bore design, construction techniques
and licence or permit requirements. Casing must
have the column, collapse and tensile strengths
required for a specific borehole.
29
The improved drilling methods and techniques
now available allow the use of a range of
materials for bore casing:
• steel
• PVC
• thermoplastic
• fibreglass
Each of these has advantages over the others and
may be more suited for a particular application.
9.2.1 Steel
Steel is a commonly used casing material because
of its greater strength.
Today much of the steel used as casing is in the
form of piping or tubing and each length is
joined by butt welding. Some screwed and
socketed casing is used but the former is less
expensive.
If using steel, choose casing or piping that is
clean, new and of approved quality. Do not use
steel tubing that is defective or reject pipe.
Steel has these advantages over other types of
materials:
• The diameter of drill hole can be smaller in
soft formations.
• It is stronger than other materials.
• It can be pressure-cemented to greater depths
due to its higher collapse strength.
• It can withstand rougher treatment.
A disadvantage with steel is that its life can be
reduced in a corrosive environment. This can be
through corrosive soils, water or by galvanic
action arising from the use of dissimilar materials
in the bore. Stainless steel has generally fewer
problems but cost may be a prohibiting factor.
It is also best not to use steel in situations where
iron bacteria are present. These bacteria can
cause corrosion and use steel as an additional
source of energy.
Some potable waters can be very corrosive to
steel because of the dissolved gases they contain,
carbon dioxide being the most common.
Indications of high CO2 water qualities that can
accelerate the corrosion of steel are listed in
Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Reactivity of steel casing to
corrosive waters
Reactive Water Reaction
agent quality
pH less than 5.5 corrosive
O2 more than 4 mg/L corrosive
CO2 more than 100 mg/L corrosive
CO2 50 to 100 mg/L marginal/corrosive
CO2 less than 50 mg/L acceptable
The reactivity shown in the table can vary
depending on the chemistry of the particular
water.
Nonferrous or plastic materials are commonly
used as casing materials where corrosive waters
preclude the use of steel.
9.2.2 Plastic
Plastic materials have much lower strength and
weight than steel and require care in handling,
storage and installation to prevent breakage or
distortion of their shape and must be derated in
accordance with the manufacturer’s
specifications when used with waters which are
above certain temperatures.
Plastic casing is low in compressive strength
relative to steel casing. High temperatures derate
the pressure rating of the casing, so care must be
used when grouting to minimise the effects of the
heat of the curing grout around the casing.
Plastic material is much more flexible than steel.
Therefore, plastic casing must be centred in the
borehole before backfilling or filter packing is
completed. Any voids in the backfill or filter
pack material may lead to sudden collapse of
formation materials against the casing, causing it
to break.
The collapse strength of unreinforced plastic
casing is much less than for steel casing. The
actual strength for any situation will depend on
the wall thickness uniformity, roundness of the
casing, rate of loading, and the temperature of
the casing when the loading is applied. Where
unreinforced plastic casing is fully supported by
evenly compacted non-clayey fill or by grout, the
collapse strength and hence possible setting
depth is significantly increased.
30
The short-term strength of plastic casing is much
higher than its strength over time. In general,
short-term test results for strength are not a good
indication of long-term strengths.
Other factors to consider when using plastic
materials include impact resistance, toughness
and pipe stiffness. When casing protrudes above
ground level, for example, it must be protected
because it can be severely damaged by moving
vehicles or contact with drilling tools. The casing
should also be shielded from the sun’s ultraviolet
rays if exposed above ground for long periods,
because the impact strength of the material may
be reduced significantly over time. Care must be
used during cold weather to prevent shattering
of the plastic during handling. Because the
weight of plastic casing is only one-fifth to one-
seventh that of steel, tensile strength is usually
less important. Occasionally, it will float in a
bore during installation, thus creating special
handling problems.
Plastic pipe may present a hazard to drinking
water quality in areas where groundwater
contamination has occurred. If volatile organic
chemicals exist in groundwater near a bore, but
above the intake section, it is possible for some of
these chemicals to move into the discharge by
passing through the wall of the casing. Although
this process is not fully understood, it appears
that plastic casing can be permeable in the
presence of certain chemicals.
9.2.3 PVC (unplasticised polyvinyl chloride)
PVC pipe is made as piping for a wide range of
drainage and general water distribution uses. It
is made in a variety of wall thicknesses and
internal diameters.
The only PVC piping suitable for use as bore
casing is pressure rated pipe manufactured to
AS 1477 standards. The piping is swell-jointed
and solvent-welded. The only solvent and primer
to be used is Type 'P' conforming to AS 3879.
If screws are `used to support the joint while the
solvent cures, only stainless steel screws are to be
used. Care must be taken to ensure the screws
do not protrude internally.
All other PVC piping is unsuitable for use in bore
construction. PVC sewer or drainage pipe shall
not be used. Class 6 pressure pipe has been
found to have insufficient strength to be used as
bore casing. Class 9 can be used with care for
shallow bores. Class 12 piping is the
recommended casing for most bore construction
applications. Under NO circumstances is mPVC
to be used as bore casing.
9.2.4 ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)
In recent years thermoplastic ABS casings have
been developed specifically for use in water bores.
ABS is generally a low-density material with a
higher tensile strength and lower temperature
derating than PVC. It is light and easy to handle
and inert in aggressive groundwater conditions.
The only acceptable ABS piping to be used shall
comply to AS 3518.1.
There is a variety of joining methods available.
ABS can be supplied in a flush internal and
external screw joint as well as a tapered solvent-
weld flush internal and external joint. The
solvent used must conform with the pipe
manufacturer’s recommendations and
compliances.
9.2.5 FRP (fibreglass-reinforced plastic)
Casing for water wells may also be constructed
from various types of fibre-reinforced plastic
materials. This type of casing is usually referred
to as fibreglass casing as the reinforcing fibre is
normally glass strand. Fibreglass casing is
resistant to most forms of corrosion, is not
conductive, and has a higher strength to weight
ratio than steel. It is used for deep water supply
bores in some areas. Fibreglass casing has more
collapse resistance than other plastic pipes. A
higher initial cost may be offset by longer bore life.
9.3 CHOOSING CASING TYPE
Where resistance to collapse is the most critical
strength requirement for boreholes with unstable
strata, steel or FRP casing is usually selected to
meet the strength characteristics required. For
corrosive water, PVC, ABS, FRP or stainless steel
casing provides the longest life possible. Because
of the many and sometimes conflicting factors
involved in selecting the most suitable casing
material, the driller or contractor should consult
with the water authority, owner and local drilling
contractors before selecting the type of casing.
9.3.1 Collapse resistance of pipes or casings
Plastic pipe or casing which is subjected to a high
enough pressure externally (or vacuum
internally) can be potentially unstable. For any
given diameter:wall thickness ratio, there is a
critical collapse pressure at which the pipe wall
will commence to buckle inwards. The failure
mode is unstable, (that is the more it buckles the
less resistance to buckling) and so total collapse
occurs rapidly.
Situations where pipe buckling can arise are
common in bore drilling and bore development
and this can be the controlling factor in the
selection of a pipe class.
The maximum possible differential pressure
against collapse resistance should be used to
calculate the theoretical maximum depth for each
casing class.
Plastic casings have been and can be installed in
a water-filled hole to greater depths than the
theoretical maximum provided the pressure
differential does not exceed the external collapse
pressure rating for that particular casing type
and size.
Maximum differential pressures that should be
allowed for have been calculated to range from
12 kPa per metre head for an evenly compacted
non-clayey filled bore annulus to 23 kPa per
metre head for bores in swelling clays.
Plastic casing should not be set to a depth in
unconsolidated formations where the maximum
potential pressure differential could exceed the
collapse rating of the pipe with consideration also
given to any loss of strength if the pipe is slotted.
Drillers need to be aware that problems can
eventuate when the bore is developed or air-
tested especially if a long column of mud or
water is rapidly discharged. Pumping of the bore
can also cause a pressure difference.
A comparison of the similar strengths of casing
materials is shown in Table 9.2.

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Table 9.2 Comparison of strengths of bore casing materials

Material Specific Tensile Tensile Impact Upper

gravity strength modulus strength temp.
103 kPa 105 kPa (relative to PVC) limits, 0C
ABS 1.04 31 20.0 x6 50
PVC 1.40 55 28.0 x1 40
Fibreglass (FRP) 1.89 115 158.0 x20 80(1)
Steel 7.85 350 (yield) 2068.0 very high(2) 800–1000
Stainless steel 8.0 517 (yield) 2000.0 very high(2) 800–1000
(1) FRP higher temperature with special resins.
(2) The impact strength of steel and stainless steel is so high relative to PVC and to the demands of water well work, that it is generally not a design consideration.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR CASING OF BORES

R9.1 Material: The casing material types listed in Table 9.3 shall comply with manufacturer's
standards shown. (Drillers may be required to supply copies of these compliances.)
Second grade or reject steel pipe or tube shall not be used as bore casing.

Joints in steel casing may be welded or screwed. Care should be taken with welded joints to
ensure a round, straight, secure and leakproof joint is obtained.

Holes should not be cut into casing for the purpose of raising or lowering a string of casing in a bore.

Casing of nonferrous or plastic type inert material shall be used in all areas where a corrosive
problem from bore water or strata is known to exist.

Table 9.3 Bore casing manufacturing standards

Casing material Standard

Steel AS 1396–2000 steel water bore casing
AS 1579–2001 arc welded steel pipes and fittings for water and wastewater
API–5L–350 MPa linepipe
ABS AS 3518.1 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) pipes and
fittings for pressure applications – pipes
PVC AS/NZS 1477–1999 PVC pipes and fittings for pressure applications

R9.2 Casing diameter for bores: The minimum casing size shall be 100 mm for shallow low-
yield bores and 125 mm for deeper bores unless otherwise formally approved by the licensing
authority. As a general guide the diameter of the bore casing for high-yield bores shall be
approximately 50 mm larger than the pump size specified for the bore. It is recognised that
small diameter casing may be used for monitoring bores.

R9.3 Casing wall thickness: Bore casing wall thickness shall be sufficient to withstand the
anticipated formation and hydrostatic pressures imposed on the casing during its installation,
bore development and use. The minimum wall thickness shown in the following tables
represents the minimum thickness required in the absence of unusual stresses placed on the
casing in the course of installation, bore development, or use.

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 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR CASING OF BORES (continued)

The minimum acceptable wall thickness for steel casing or steel tube is listed in Table 9.4.
Table 9.4 Minimum acceptable wall thicknesses for steel casing or steel tubes
Outside Minimum Outside Minimum
diameter wall thickness diameter wall thickness
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
101 3.86 250 7.79
127 4.76 273 7.79
152 4.76 323 9.53
168 4.80 355 9.53
203 6.35 457 12.70
219 6.35 508 12.70

R9.4 uPVC bore casing: The class of plastic casing used shall conform to the requirements
listed in Table 9.5. Class 9 uPVC pressure pipe shall be the minimum class allowable for use as
bore casing. Class 6 uPVC pipe, uPVC sewer or drainage pipe shall not be used as bore casing.
Type P solvent cement (AS/NZS 3879) for pressure pipe applications must be used for joining
uPVC piping/casing. Applications are to be applied evenly to both spigot and socket ends,
applied to the socket end first.

Table 9.5 Maximum potential pressure differential (i)

for PVC bore casing (head difference)
Class Unconsolidated Consolidated
formation/clays formation (ii)
(metres head) (metres head)
9 26 60
12 56 110
15 100 200
18 200 300
Note:
(i) uPVC should be derated in pressure rating when temperature exceeds 20°C.
(ii) The maximum difference in metres between external and internal water level.
Includes fully grouted and gravel pack.

It should be noted that PVC is approximately This example is provided as a guide only within
1.25 times stronger than ABS for collapse the normal limits of sizes and depths used by
pressure and approximately two thirds as rigid most drillers. It should not be regarded as a
as GRP. Thus, as an example, the equivalents to substitute for proper bore casing design.
150 mm Class 12 PVC (which has a wall
thickness of 8.8 mm), would be 8.8 x 1.25 = 11
mm for ABS and 8.8 x 2/3 = 5.6 mm for GRP.

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10.0 GROUTING (CEMENTING)
T
•
he purpose of cement grouting the casing in
an artesian or flowing bore is to:
seal off the annular space between the casing
and the borehole above high-pressure aquifers
so that the flow can be controlled, and there is
no surface or down-hole lateral leakage
• seal the annular space in the casing and the
borehole between high-pressure and low-
pressure aquifers preventing transfer of water
between the two zones
• seal off poor-quality aquifers
• protect the casing from corrosive soils.
Some of the water authorities have maps which
delineate known areas of strata and water that
are corrosive to steel casing.
In these areas the authority may request as a
bore construction requirement or licence
condition the use of plastic type casing or the
grouting of steel casing.
The purpose of grouting the casing in a sub-
artesian or non-flowing bore is to:
• seal the annular space between the casing and
the borehole between high and low standing
water level aquifers thus preventing the
transfer of water between the two
• seal off aquifers with poor water quality
• protect the casing from corrosive soils and
waters
• prevent surface runoff or shallow subsoil
contamination or pollution from reaching the
aquifers
• prevent lateral leakage.
(a) Effective cementing
To be effective, the cement grout should provide
a continuous dense lining which completely
surrounds the casing. To ensure that this occurs:
• The hole must have been drilled large enough
to provide adequate clearance between
borehole wall and casing.
• The casing should be centred in the hole by
means of mechanical centralisers.
• Free circulation down the casing and up the
annulus must be obtained.
• The drilling fluid in the hole must be
conditioned to be as fluid and as low in
viscosity as possible to avoid channelling.
• Grout should be pumped into place as quickly
as possible.
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• Direct contact between a cement grout and a
viscous bentonite-based drill or hole fluid
should be avoided. Pump a volume of clean
water ahead of the grout to provide a spacer
between the cement grout and bentonite mud.
• Be aware a low-viscosity but dense cement
grout will channel a high-viscosity but less
dense bentonite mud. If the viscosity of the
hole fluid cannot be reduced before cementing
add some bentonite to the cement grout
because there is less chance of a dense grout
or fluid channelling a lighter or less dense
fluid if they have similar viscosity.
• Efficient mud control throughout the drilling
process is necessary to avoid the
accumulation of excessive wall cake and mud
rings in the drilled hole. Where this has
occurred or is suspected, proper conditioning
of the hole is necessary prior to cementing to
remove unwanted drill mud residues that
would otherwise contaminate the cement
mixture and/or jeopardise the effectiveness of
the cementing program.
In corrosive water areas centralisers should be of
inert material and there should be no metal
contact between steel casing strings.
In general, positive placement of grout by tremie
pipe or pressure cementing is to be used for all
bores where the grout is to be placed under water
or where the void to be filled is not easily
accessible from the surface.
An outer casing pressure cementing normally
involves placing the casing into the hole and
testing for circulation by pumping fluid into the
casing to the bottom and back to the surface via
the annular space between casing and borehole.
A calculated volume plus allowances for
washouts or formation loss of cement grout
sufficient to fill the annular space is then mixed
and pumped into the bore casing.
Sufficient fluid, again a calculated volume but
this time to fill the casing only, is then pumped
into the casing behind the grout to displace the
grout from the bore casing.
A valve between the pump and the casing is then
closed to hold this fluid within the bore casing
while the cement sets.
A neat-fitting, drillable bottom plug should be
used to separate the drilling fluid and the grout
when casing diameter is greater than 100 mm.
Alternatively, a slug of clean water may be used
to separate the drilling fluid from the grout.
If a tremie pipe is used for cementing, the base of
the pipe should be accurately placed before
proceeding with the cementing operation.
Intercasing cementing can be carried out by
normal pressure cementing techniques or by
reverse circulation.
Reverse circulation cementing involves pumping
a calculated volume of cement grout directly into
the annulus between the inner and outer casings
while controlling the discharge and holding the
pressure of hole fluid from the inner casing.
When all of the grout has been pumped, the
valve controlling the hole fluid discharge is
closed and the grout allowed to set. The
discharge fluid can be measured to further
ensure that no grout has been pumped inside the
inner casing. Always ensure the water bed, if
exposed, is protected before any inner casing
cementing is carried out. If the water bed is
mudded off, pressure test the bore to the
anticipated pressure to hold the cement column
in place before cementing.
Some accelerating or retarding admixtures (for
example calcium chloride) can cause corrosion of
steel and should not be added to the grout. In
most cases use of chlorides is not permitted.
Prior to the use of accelerators, retarders or other
admixtures, competent profesional advice should
be sought.
Care should be taken with mixing water as
poor water quality may extend the setting time
for grout.
Cement grout should be allowed at least 24 hours
setting time before any further work is carried
out. Recommended cement–water and cement–
bentonite–water mixes are listed in Tables 10.1
and 10.2.
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10.1 DECREASING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY
10.1.1 Bentonite
Bentonite is commonly added to a cement mix to
decrease its specific gravity. Bentonite is a
naturally occurring clay material which has the
ability to absorb many times its own weight of
water and swell to many times its original
volume. As an admixture to cement, common
bentonite allows the use of much more mixing
water in the slurry before water separation
occurs. It provides lower specific gravity, an
increase in slurry yield per bag of cement, a
smooth grout and reduced shrinkage in the
cement as it sets in the bore.
Bentonite also gives the slurry better sealing
properties in porous formation openings. These
benefits are partly offset by decreased strength of
the set mix. However this does not greatly affect
the finished job when only a seal is required.
Recommended practice is to mix the bentonite in
the water first then add cement after hydration.
10.1.2 Hollow spheres
Hollow spheres are microscopic mineral
additives that look just like a powder to the
naked eye. They are a relatively recent product
to come on the market as an admixture to cement
grouts, but can achieve much lower specific
gravities than powdered bentonite when added
to grout mixes.
Such products can maintain high compressive
strength at low specific gravity, even under high
temperature conditions. Similar reduced
shrinkage can be achieved to that of bentonite–
cement mixes.
Hollow spheres are generally a mixture of a
combination of naturally occurring chemicals with
a similar nuisance dust classification to bentonite
products for health and safety purposes.
Typical chemical properties (by weight):
Silica 55.0%
Alumina 43.1%
Iron (as Fe2O3) 0.5%
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) 1.4%
Table 10.1 Recommended range of cement–water mixes

Number of 40 kg Litres of Litres of Specific Gravity

bags of cement mixing water(ii) grout (SG)
1 30 42.67 1.64
1 25 37.67 1.72
1 20 32.67 1.83 (i)
Notes: (i) Plasticiser cement additive can be used to improve and extend the workability
of the mix and reduce friction while pumping high SG grouts.
(ii) Cement will settle out of the grout if a mix ratio greater than 38 litres of water
per 40 kg of cement is used without other additives.

Table 10.2 Recommended cement–bentonite–water mixes

Cement % Mass of Volume SG Yield Firmness
40 kg Bentonite bentonite of water (kg/L) per
bags in mix(i) (kg) (litres)(ii) bag of
cement
(litres)
1 1 0.4 35 1.57 47.83 Hard
1 2 0.8 40 1.52 52.99
1 3 1.2 45 1.48 58.15 V Firm
1 4 1.6 50 1.45 63.31
1 5 2.0 55 1.42 68.47
1 6 2.4 60 1.39 73.63
1 10 4.0 90 1.28 104.27 Malleable to plastic
Notes: (i) A 10% or greater bentonite mix is not recommended for normal cementing operations.
(ii) Bentonite mixes can be affected by the quality of water used.

10.2 INCREASING SPECIFIC GRAVITY These admixtures should be used at the dosage
rates recommended by the supplier. These rates
A common additive used to increase the specific should not be exceeded as excess quantities can
gravity is barium sulphate (barite), which has a sometimes cause a retarding effect.
specific gravity of 4.3. One 25 kg bag of barite
has a volume of 5.8 litres when added to fluid
and requires 5.7 litres of mix water. 10.4 INCREASING SETTING TIME
When cementing deep bores with higher
10.3 REDUCING SETTING TIME pressures and temperatures there is always a
danger, especially when using small capacity
Accelerators are used to reduce the time taken for pumps, that the grout will take an initial set
the cement grout to set. before being pumped into its final position.
Chemical admixtures are available which help
Calcium chloride is one such accelerator but is inhibit flashsetting. They are also used to retard
corrosive to steel and should not be used as an or increase the setting time of the grout to allow
accelerator when steel bore casing is used. Most placement over a longer time period or retard
cement additive supply companies have setting in higher temperature bores.
chloride-free admixtures for accelerating the
setting time of cement.

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 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR GROUTING

R10.1 Cement used for grouting shall be to Australian Standards AS 3972–1997 for Portland
and Blended Cement. Note: Portland cement is commonly marked as G.P. or General Purpose
cement. Blended cement is marked as G.B. or Builders cement.

The driller shall use fresh cement free from lumps in the proportion of one bag (40 kg) of
cement to not more than 30 litres of fresh water or such other grout mixes as may be approved
by the licensing authority in special circumstances. See Tables 10.1 and 10.2 for recommended
cement mixes.

In certain circumstances, special grades of cement may be required when strata or groundwater
having a high sulphate content is encountered.

R10.2 Water
Water shall be free from contaminants harmful to cement and steel bore casing.
Note:
Water can be expected to meet the above requirements if it is:
(a) potable; or
(b) clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, organic materials and
other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or steel.

R10.3 Additives
Contractors shall have on hand manufacturer's guidelines and safety data sheets for all
additives and materials used. These should list instructions for handling, recipes, use, any
potential hazard and any disposal requirements for the product or container.

R10.4 Great Artesian Basin

Bores constructed in the Great Artesian Basin must be constructed to the requirements of the
local state licensing authorities which may be more stringent in some requirements than these
minimum construction requirements.

R10.5 Flowing bores

Unless authorised by licence or permit, the supply from artesian bores shall be drawn from one
primary formation only. All aquifers and permeable zones other than the intended production
zone shall be adequately cemented off to prevent interconnection or wastage between zones of
differing pressure or water quality.

The outer surface or control casing shall be placed to a minimum depth to allow control of the
bore during drilling and seated 10 metres into competent impermeable strata and cemented
from the shoe to the surface.

The inner production casing shall be cemented as stated in the licence or permit or so that the
supply of water can be drawn from one primary formation only. All other aquifers and
permeable zones shall be cemented off.

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 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR GROUTING (continued)

Should saline or poor quality water or a permeable or porous formation or a formation

suspected of being capable of yielding or taking water be located during drilling below the
cemented surface casing and above the water production aquifer, the second cementing shall be
extended to seal and protect the production casing from that formation.

Note: In some States or Territories the minimum depth of any intercasing cementing
requirements will be specified on the bore permit as may the requirement for onsite
monitoring/supervision of cementing operations.

Annular thickness: The surface casing shall be sheathed with cement grout having a minimum
annular thickness of 20 mm above maximum dimension of casing (for example coupling or
shoe). This can be obtained by the use of inert centralisers.

Inner cementing: Inner casing or casing liners shall be sheathed with a minimum of 15 mm of
cement grout.

R10.6 Non–flowing bores (single aquifer)

In determining the specific grouting requirements of a non-flowing bore at a designated site,
consideration must be given to existing surface conditions, especially the location of sources of
pollution, and to subsurface geological and hydrological conditions. To protect against
contamination or pollution by surface waters or shallow subsurface waters (such as effluent
from septic tanks) the annular space shall be sealed from the surface to whatever depth is
necessary to protect the bore.

R10.7 Non–flowing bores (multiple aquifer)

Formations which yield polluted water or water of an undesirable quality must be
adequately sealed off to prevent pollution or contamination of the overlying or underlying
water-bearing zones.

Note: Deeper bores penetrating multiple aquifers may have a licence requirement or target
aquifer requirement to allow tapping of one aquifer only with all other aquifers of differing
water quality, yield or water level to be excluded from the bore by pressure cementing.

The properties of the slurry may be varied to meet the requirements of the particular cementing
procedure which is used and to provide acceptable results.

The casing shall be sheathed with a minimum cement cover of 20 mm of cement. This can be
obtained by the use of inert centralisers.

R10.8 Supervision of cementing. The bore licensing authority may require onsite monitoring
or supervision of all cementing operations by an authorised officer. This requirement may be
stated in the bore licence or permit document.

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11.0 WATER ENTRY

The entry of water from the water bed to the bore

can be by the following mechanisms:
• open hole
• slotted or perforated casing
• screens
• gravel pack
• gravel stabilisation.

11.1 OPEN HOLE

The cheapest method of completing low-yield
bores, but one which will work only if the
underlying rock and water bearing formation are
consistently firm and stable, is to case the bore
with only a surface string of casing to the top of
the rock formation. The remainder of the hole is
then left uncased. Where this method is used,
care must be taken to ensure that the surface
casing is firmly seated into the rock, and grouted
to protect from possible surface run-off and any
undesirable sub-surface seepage.

It is good practice to always case a bore to such a

depth that no part of the pump or column is
exposed to open hole conditions.

Considering the total investment in the bore and

associated equipment, the generally small saving
in the cost of additional casing is outweighed by
the risks of bore failure that could result from the
hole being left uncased.
11.2 SLOTTED CASING
Often a water-bearing formation is reasonably
stable but is tiered or layered and interspersed
with friable or soft materials such as clays or
sands. In time, these strata are likely to collapse
and bridge the hole. This can result in jamming
of the pump, restricting water entry to the
pump or causing damage from pumping solids.
Under these conditions it is necessary to provide
some form of support for the strata, while at the
same time allowing adequate entry of water into
the bore.
The cheaper method of construction is to fully
case the hole and use slots cut into the casing
opposite the water bearing zone(s) to allow water
to enter the bore.
Slots made in the casing can be cut on site using
an oxyacetylene kit, in the case of steel casing, or
Figure 11.1 Example of open-hole bore construction
an electric drill or saw in the case of plastic
casing. The preferred method is to use factory
machine slotted, drilled or perforated casing with
a regular series of fine or small perforations. A
length of slotted casing which corresponds to the
thickness of the aquifer is normally used. The
use of numerous short, narrow slots located to
maintain maximum compressive strength in the
casing rather than a few large slots is preferable.
Suitably placed perforations such as small-
diameter round holes may also be used.
Examples of slotting are shown in Figure 11.2.
A major problem in using slotted casing is
finding the optimum size and shape of slot which
will permit adequate flow but continue to retain
the water-bearing strata over time. Slots alone
may not be sufficient in relatively fine, loose
formations — in which case, the placing of a
suitable graded well-rounded (not crushed)
gravel envelope in the annulus between the
casing and hole wall will assist in retaining the
strata while allowing the free passage of water.
This technique is called gravel packing. If gravel
packing or gravel stabilisation is used, the
bottom open end of the casing must be capped to
prevent the entry of gravel into the casing.

41
The slots should be narrow enough to hold out
the gravel.
The slotting of casing in low-yielding formations
above the main aquifer is not good practice.
greater than four times the graded size of the
gravel, that is for 6 mm gravel the hole size must
be at least 48 mm larger than the largest outside
diameter on the casing used, usually found to be
at the joint, to avoid bridging.

Where gravel fill is to be placed in and above a

slotted zone or screens, the annulus must be

Figure 11.2 Examples of perforated and slotted casing

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR SLOTTED CASING

R11.1 The casing shall be slotted to maintain as much strength in the casing as possible.
Numerous short narrow slots in a regular pattern with short sections left unslotted between are
required rather than long, wide randomly placed slots.

R11.2 Short horizonal slots or small round perforations shall be used for unreinforced plastic
type casing. Vertical slots may be squeezed shut by external pressure and should not be used in
this casing type.

R11.3 Design the slots to suit the yield of the bore. For high-yield bores the total open area of
the slots should be at least twice the cross-sectional open area of the casing to limit water
entrance velocity through the slots.

R11.4 The slots shall allow water to enter over the full circumference of the bore.

R11.5 Slotted casing shall not be placed against any nonaquifer material to reduce the risk of
silting and generally the slotted interval should finish within the top one metre of the aquifer.

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11.3 SCREENS Figure 11.3 Stacked set of sieves used to
provide grain distribution curve
Many of the larger supplies of bore water are
obtained from loose, unconsolidated formations
such as sands or gravels, which must be
supported if a bore constructed in them is to
remain open. Generally, they are not suited to
open hole or slotted casing methods of
construction. In these cases a bore screen is used.

Screens are normally manufactured from

galvanised or stainless steel but are also available
in plastic materials in a number of designs.

Screens usually consist of wedge-shaped wires

wound around a frame of axial rods of open
cylindrical form. The gap or slot between
adjacent turns of the winding is adjusted during
manufacture to provide the desired aperture size.

The screen is placed into the borehole within a

string of casing and adjacent to the water-bearing
formation. It provides support for the formation
material and retains an open framework of sand
or gravel particles naturally occurring in the
formation or deliberately placed around the
screen. This arrangement provides for maximum
water entry and thus the most efficient bore.

Careful sampling of the water-bearing formation

must be carried out during drilling in order to
determine the appropriate construction procedure,
screen aperture or gravel pack size. It should be
noted that any loss of fines to hole fluids can be
deleterious to the accuracy of the sample test
results. The samples should be checked and if
necessary dried and sieved through a nest of
sieves so that an accurate analysis of grain size of
the formation can be made.

This involves the stacked set of brass or stainless

steel sieves of usually 200 mm diameter which
are shaken. During the sieving process each
sieve filters out a particular grain size. This
represents a certain percentage of the entire
sample, the finest material collecting in the
bottom pan. A plot is then made of the
percentage (weight) of each sample to the whole
to provide an indication of the physical makeup
of the sample. A stacked set of sieves is shown in
Figure 11.3. An example of a grain distribution 10 per cent fine sand. For this type of formation
plot is shown in Figure 11.4. and construction it is usual to select a screen
aperture size which will retain approximately
A hole drilled only slightly larger than the casing 40 per cent to 60 per cent of the sieved water bed.
and screen diameter is satisfactory if the water Sometimes a screen is selected with a number of
bed is a reasonable mix of sand, coarse sand and different aperture sizes to match finer or coarser
gravels with no silt or clay layers and less than layers in the water bed.

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Figure 11.4 Example of sieve analysis report

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This allows the fines within the formation, which
slow and restrict water entry, to be flushed
through the screen into the bore and be removed
during subsequent development of the bore.
This creates a zone of higher material
permeability around the screen and increases the
yield of water from the bore.
Screens should always be sealed at the bottom.
The screen diameter is either that which permits
a slide fit inside the selected casing for a
telescopic setting or the same outside diameter as
the bore casing, where the hole can be drilled first
and then the casing and screen run into the hole
as a continuous string.
When using telescopic screens care should be
taken with all down-hole measurements as they
are critical for the success of the bore. The hole
bottom should be accurately measured and be
clean and proven to be stable enough to support
the screen. The sealing tube on the screen should
be designed to overlap into the casing by at least
one metre. Overexposure of the screen seal tube
can result in loss of the screen or loss of the bore.
If the water bed is thick enough the screen length
is calculated by checking the ability of the
selected screen (diameter and aperture) to allow
the desired water supply into the bore at a
reasonable entrance velocity. The recommended
design entrance velocity of water through the
screen is 30 mm per second.
The screen is usually set in the lower, more
permeable sands but tests may be required to
locate the most productive zones. Salinity may
also be a factor in determining where screens
are set.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR SCREENS

R11.6 Material: The material commonly used for screen manufacture is stainless steel with
screens manufactured from plastic materials also available.

The material should be AS Type 304 stainless steel unless otherwise specified.

R11.7 Design: Screens should be designed for each bore to minimise the possibility of damage
during installation, development and use. A copy of the sieve analysis or screen design carried
out on a bore should be attached to the drill log.

11.4 GRAVEL PACKING
A gravel filter pack is recommended where the
water bed material is so fine, silty or layered that
the aperture of a screen issued on its own would
be so small that it would severely affect the flow of
water into the bore or where additional support
for the aquifer zone and strata above is needed.
The grain size and gradation of the filter are
selected to stabilise the aquifer material and to
permit only the fine fractions to move into the
bore during development (see Section 12). Thus
after proper development, a correctly filtered
bore should be sand-free, and the permeability of
the narrow annulus of the formation adjacent to
the filter greatly increased.
The filter pack (gravel pack) should consist of
washed, well-rounded gravel of selected grain
size and gradation which is uniformly placed in
the annular space between the screen and the
wall of the borehole. The filter should have a
larger average grain size than the aquifer
material. This permits use of a larger screen
aperture size and consequent larger area of
opening resulting in reduced entrance velocity
and head losses in the bore. The filter has a
considerably higher permeability than the
formation so that the effective diameter of the
bore is significantly increased. Both these factors
tend to increase the efficiency and specific
capacity of a bore and also tend to reduce the
possibility of excess sand production.

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 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR GRAVEL PACKING

R11.8 Material: Materials shall conform to the following:

The gravel pack should consist of washed, well-rounded, pea-like alluvial gravel of selected
grain size and gradation. Crushed stone or rock is not recommended.

Non-round pieces. Thin, flat or elongated pieces, the maximum dimensions of which
exceeds three times the minimum, shall not be in excess of two per cent by weight.

Acid solubles. No more than five per cent of the gravel shall be soluble in hydrochloric acid.

Washed material. The material shall be washed and free of shale, mica, clay, dirt, loam and
free of organic impurities of any kind.

R11.9 Gravel pack design: Selection of the gravel pack grain size and thickness surrounding
the screen is dependent on the individual aquifer characteristics.

Filter packs shall be 50–120 mm thick although about 100 mm size is recommended as the
minimum annular thickness to allow for proper placement of the gravel pack material for a
high-yield, large–diameter bore. From a practical viewpoint the maximum gravel pack annular
thickness is about 100–200 mm. The minimum hole diameter to maximum casing joint diameter
difference shall not be less than eight times the nominal gravel pack size, to assist in the
prevention of bridging during gravel packing.

The grading of the gravel pack material must be correctly chosen in relation to the grain size of
the aquifer sand. The pack must be much more permeable than the formation material and
have a grain size uniformly larger than the aquifer grain size, but at the same time fine enough
to control the sand. It must support the formation without sand movement at the maximum
pumping rate.

The pack must be developed after installation to allow some movement of grains from the
aquifer into the pack material so that the change from the aquifer to the pack is gradual.

Procedure for determining pack material grain size:

1. From the aquifer sieve analysis tabulation, note the sieve size (in millimetres) that retained
the greatest mass (this is known as the modal size, and is often found to occur at the 70–80 per
cent progressive mass total of sand retained on the sieves. The modal size is the best
comparison point for the selection of the artificial pack grain size).

(Note: the test procedures for conducting a sieve analysis on an aquifer sand sample are detailed in the
ADITC 'Drilling – The Manual', and are covered in the ADITC 'Screens and Gravel Packs' course
and the ADIA 'Wellscreens, Sieve Analysis and Gravel Packing' course.)

2. Multiply the modal value obtained above by 5, to obtain the desirable modal size of the
pack material (in millimetres). A factor of 5 has been chosen because laboratory experiments
and field practice have shown that the gravel pack material should be four to six times larger
than the grain size of the formation sand.

3. From the sieve analysis results of the available packing sand or gravel, select a material that
has a modal grain size close to the desired figure.

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 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR GRAVEL PACKING (continued)

As gravel packs are generally used against uniformly graded fine sands, the grain size of the
packing material should also be uniform, that is there should not be much material either
smaller or larger than the pack modal value size.

The screen to be run in an artificial packed bore must have a slot size designed to retain
80–100 per cent of the pack material.

R11.10 Gravel pack location: The gravel pack material shall be placed in the annular space
slightly below and adjacent to the bore screens and shall extend above the screen to allow for
settlement during development. A gravel pack top-up pipe may be incorporated into the
annulus to provide annular sealing.

R11.11 Centralisers: Centralisers shall be used on the screen assembly and be constructed of
inert material or the same material as the screen. They shall be placed at the top and bottom of
the screen and at not greater than six-metre intervals for long lengths so as to reasonably ensure
that the screened area is covered by a uniform thickness of gravel pack.

R11.12 Method of sampling: Methods of sampling shall be according to AS 1141.

R11.13 Placement: Gravel shall be placed with care and without stoppages to ensure
continuity of the gravel pack without bridging, voids or segregation.

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12.0 BORE DEVELOPMENT

B ore development consists of the application

of appropriate techniques which are
designed to bring a bore to its maximum
production capacity by optimising the bore
efficiency, specific capacity, stabilisation of
aquifer material, and control of suspended solids.
The development usually involves the use of
various chemical and/or mechanical agitation
methods, the selection of which depends on the
type of drill plant available, the mechanical
construction of the bore and the aquifer type.
Figure 12.1 Improving bore permeability through development
During development the fines drawn through the
screen are periodically removed from within the
screen assembly. A small increase in permeability
in the vicinity of the screen can result in
considerably less drawdown in the bore for the
same pumping rate. In fact, twofold increases in
yield as a result of development are not
uncommon.
The development process should involve
techniques which progress from gentle to
vigorous agitation using care to maintain
hydraulic continuity between the bore and
aquifer. Rapid dewatering of the bore should be
avoided in the early stages of development as it
may collapse the screen or casing or in the case of
a telescopic screen, relocate the screen to a higher
and undesirable location inside the casing.

As well as increasing the production capacity of a

bore, development also stabilises the formation
which acts as a filter to prevent the pumping of
sand which would otherwise result in serious
damage to pumps and fittings.

In most formations the application of appropriate

development techniques will result in a virtually
sand/silt-free bore.

Where the aquifer material is very fine, a

compromise may have to be reached in achieving
an acceptable flow rate and a relatively sand-free
supply.
12.1 USE OF CHEMICALS
Chemical methods include the use of proprietary
brand dispersants and detergents to wet, break Figure 12.2 Commencing development of a bore
down and carry clayey materials and fines out of
the formation. Final development is usually by
mechanical means.

12.2 USE OF MECHANICAL METHODS

Mechanical methods applicable to a rotary
drilling rig include the use of compressed air or
an air–water mix to jet the screen and carry water
from the bore and/or some form of pumping or
bailing equipment. A cable tool plant can be
used to bail and surge the bore.

Whatever method is used, the aim is to remove

from the annulus, between screen and hole wall,
clays or compacted material resulting from the
drilling operations as well as the fine material
from the water bed itself. This results in a
rearrangement of the remaining water-bearing
material to form a coarser but stable filter which
retains the aquifer.
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12.3 SAND CONTENT However, this is not always attainable, especially
from high-yield bores in unconsolidated
The normal expectation of a client is that the
formations. A more realistic statement would be
water from a properly constructed bore should
sand-free within acceptable and practical limits.
be sand-free.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DEVELOPING BORES

R12.1 Development technique: The development process of a bore shall employ techniques
which progress from gentle to vigorous agitation using care to maintain hydraulic continuity
between the bore and aquifer. Rapid dewatering of the bore should be avoided in the early stages
of development as it may collapse the screen or casing or move a telescopic screen.

Note: records should be kept of observations during development work including any changes
in standing water level, yield, sand content or water colour. Too much development or too
harsh a technique in the early stages of development can result in reduced yield.

R12.2 Sand content: The development of a high-yield bore shall not be concluded before a
continuous clean, silt- and sand-free supply of water is obtainable at the full flow capability of
the bore. After development, the bore shall be left clean and free of silt or sand and any other
obstructions for the full depth. A sand-free supply can be regarded as having a sand content
of no more than one teaspoon per 1000 litres.
R12.3 Pump development: A test pump should be used for final development and test of a high-
yield bore.
(a) The pump should have the capacity to pump the bore to maximum drawdown within a
reasonable time (one hour).
(b) The pump unit or its discharge control should permit adjustable pumping flow rates.
(c) Pump discharge should be equipped with an orifice meter or other devices to accurately
measure flow.
(d) Water levels in the bore, static, drawdown and recovery levels shall be measured to one cm
accuracy while pumping and after the pump has stopped in accord with Australian
Standard AS 2368–1990.
R12.4 Development test: Development shall be considered satisfactory when the following have
been achieved:
(a) Operation of the final mechanical development procedure being used that is either jetting
of the screen assembly or mechanically surging in or just above the screen for a one hour
period produces no further noticeable sand or silt.
(b) Water is relatively clear when bailed or pumped from the bore.
(c) There is no sand in the bottom of the screen sump after the one-hour development period.
(d) There shall be no increase in specific capacity of the bore during a four-hour pump test.

R12.5 Testing for sand content in bores: The sand content shall be determined by averaging
the results of five water samples collected at the following times during the final pumping test.

1. 15 minutes after start.

2. After one quarter of total planned test time.
3. After half of total planned test time.
4. After three quarters of total planned test time.
5. Near the end of test.

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 REQUIREMENTS FOR DEVELOPING BORES (continued)

The minimum recommended volume of water sample collected for testing for sand content
shall be the test pump rate of flow in litres per second multiplied by three with a maximum
volume of 100 litres. The minimum volume required for bores tested at less than six litres per
second shall be 20 litres.

The sample shall be allowed to settle not less than ten minutes before liquid is decanted.

A log or record shall be included with the test pumping results showing time, type of operation,
specific volume sampled during pumping, pumping rate and sand content measured and
recorded for each test.

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13.0 DISINFECTION OF WATER BORES
A fter completing the construction and testing
of a water bore and prior to supply
commissioning of a bore, both the bore and
equipment to be placed in the bore (that is pump
and column) should be disinfected. This is
necessary to remove the potential for
contamination of the water supply as a result of
bacteria being introduced to the bore and aquifer
from the drilling and testing operation.
Disinfection of all bores used for potable use (that
is human consumption) is considered a
minimum requirement. However, it is
considered good practice to disinfect all water
bores at the completion of drilling and testing
operations. Disinfection is carried out with the
aim of inactivating organisms such as bacteria,
viruses and cysts which are pathogenic and
transferable in water. Generally aquifers
contain very limited numbers of such
organisms. However, the drilling operation can
create both a favourable environment for these
limited numbers to expand by providing
nutrient sources not normally available in the
aquifer and by introducing organisms not
normally found in groundwater.
Various nutrient and bacterial sources can be
introduced into a bore through the normal use of
drilling fluids including air and mud, cement,
tool oil, grease and simple physical manual
contact of equipment placed into the bore. In
some instances there are sufficient naturally
occurring bacteria that the introduction of minor
nutrient sources, such as make-up water with
organic material (that is that drawn from ponded
surface water, or small residual levels of drilling
mud), will be sufficient to enable bacterial
blooms to occur. These may lead to a range of
public health and supply infrastructure problems.
The best drilling approach would be to not
introduce any foreign material to the bore or
aquifer, thus minimising exposure of the
completed bore to any other contamination
pathway for organic organisms. But in practice,
it is not always possible to avoid all
contamination pathways. However, with careful
bore siting and adherence to good drilling and
construction practice (that is ensuring good
surface and casing seat sealing together with
water-tight casing joints) such potential can be
minimised. There will always be some
introduction of foreign material during any work
over the bore, hence the need to ensure bore
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disinfection and use of clean drilling equipment
at all times.
Even the most rigorous bore disinfection can be
rendered useless if contaminated pumping
equipment is installed. Generally, all pumping
equipment should be thoroughly cleaned and
sterilised prior to being installed in a bore.
However, bore disinfection immediately
following the installation of thoroughly cleaned
pumping equipment should be considered as
the minimum recommended practice.
Chlorination should not be used to treat waters
which have a high organic content because of the
possible formation of organochlorides.
13.1 DISINFECTION PRACTICE
(a) Proprietary chemicals
A number of proprietary chemicals exist on the
market which have been produced specifically
for bore disinfection.
The major benefits claimed for these chemicals
over chlorine are that they are non-corrosive,
safer to handle and more environmentally
friendly. Manufacturers can assist you with
technical data relating to their products.
(b) Chlorine
Chlorine is by far the most commonly used
disinfectant in the world today. It exists in three
main forms: gaseous chlorine, calcium
hypochlorite and sodium hypochlorite.
Sodium hypochlorite is liquid chlorine and is
readily available throughout Australia. It
generally has 10–12 per cent available chlorine
and is relatively cheap and safe to use. However,
it is somewhat unstable, and over time in storage
may lose a significant percentage of its useful
chlorine. For safety reasons, liquid chlorine is
recommended for bore disinfection rather than
gaseous chlorine or calcium hypochlorite.
Disinfection may be achieved by dosing the bore
with liquid chlorine to a level where there are
50 milligrams per litre (mg/L) of free chlorine in
solution in the bore. As a guideline, to have
50 mg/L free chlorine in solution, assuming we
are using 12.5 per cent sodium hypochlorite
(swimming pool chlorine), one litre is mixed with
2500 litres of water. As chlorine is highly
corrosive to metals, care should be taken to avoid
unnecessary contact with metallic fittings. When
determining the size of the dose, allowance
should be made for:
• dilution of the dose with the water in the
aquifer
• chlorine being taken up by sediment in the
newly completed bore.
The actual groundwater chemistry will affect
both the amount required of the disinfection
agent to produce sufficient available chlorine and
the type of agent required to achieve this.
Therefore, reference should be made to the
relevant licensing authority in the first instance.
Once the disinfection solution is prepared in
accordance with any specific handling
instructions for the chemical agents, the solution
is introduced into the bore from the surface via a
pipe or tube seated on the bore base and is then
well mixed, paying attention to the equipment
and casing above the water level. The solution is
then left standing in the bore for up to 12 hours
after which it is then pumped from the bore until
such time as the pumped water is free of any
noticeable chlorine odour.
Note: The pumped disinfection solution will
require careful disposal as it may cause die-off of
any vegetation with which it comes in contact.
Should this inadvertently occur, the solution
should be washed off thoroughly. In no instance
should the solution be disposed of into surface
water systems. In some areas, the disposal of the
disinfection solution may require statutory
clearance and advice.
(c) Iron bacteria
Drillers should make inquiries to determine
whether an area in which they propose to work
has an iron bacteria problem.
In areas of known iron bacteria problems, bore
and drilling equipment disinfection forms an
important part of the overall management of the
problem. However, disinfection cannot be
regarded as a total solution on its own for
treating bores which have become fouled with
iron bacteria. This is because iron bacteria shield
themselves with a film that needs to be broken
down before the use of chlorine can be effective.
Specific treatments of bores fouled by iron
bacteria are best tailored to the groundwater
chemistry, hydrogeology and pumping regimes.
This often requires single bore or regional
consideration. In all instances, reference should
be made to the local water statutory agency prior
to commencing any treatment of bores suspected
of being fouled by iron bacteria.
In areas of known iron bacterial infestation,
specific instructions regarding bore and
equipment disinfection exist. In these specific
areas the disinfection is focused toward
minimising the introduction of nutrient sources
into bores and the spread of such a source from
bore to bore.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DISINFECTING BORES

R13.1 Disinfection of drilling equipment: The driller shall ensure that his drilling tools are
cleaned and disinfected before working on a new site. Equipment should be chlorine washed or
steam cleaned after being used in an area where iron bacteria is known or suspected to occur.

R13.2 Potable supplies: All bores constructed to supply water for potable use shall be
disinfected. The complete bore and any equipment to be installed in the bore shall be
disinfected by chlorine or proprietary chemical solution immersion or steam cleaning as
appropriate.

R13.3 Disposal of waste: Care shall be taken with any waste disposal of the disinfection agent
from the bore on completion. The driller shall ensure that on completion, a bore is left in such a
state that it is not harmful to users, pumps or the bore itself.

R13.4 EPA requirements: The driller shall ensure that any bore disinfecting and disposal of
waste complies with the requirements of the Environmental Protection Agency in the State or
Territory in which they are carrying out the works.

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14.0 TEST PUMPING OF BORES

Test pumping of an irrigation bore

14.1 TESTING OF BORES BY DRILLERS

S uch tests are usually conducted using the

drilling equipment available and are not
meant to replace formal long-term pump tests.
In all cases the test involves removing a known
volume of water from the bore whilst monitoring
the effects it has on the water level. This is done
on completion using drill stems and compressed
air (air test), or bailing water from the bore (bailer
test) or free-flowing an artesian bore and
measuring the pressure using a pressure gauge.
(a) Air testing
This method is generally used in conjunction
with rotary or air drilling and can be performed
during drilling on the partly completed open
hole but the final test must be on the fully
completed, cased, slotted and screened
production bore. The results of most air tests
give an indication only of the available supply as
there are many physical aspects of the method
which can vary the results. Some are:
• hole and drill stem annulus size
• air volume and pressure available
• depth of drill stem submergence.
Air lift pumping without sufficient submergence
may not be efficient, therefore air testing may not
always produce the full supply available in the
bore. Test results to be recorded are:
• standing water level prior to testing
• depth to bottom drill stems
• air pressure to lift water
• air pressure during pumping after initial lift
• duration of test
• discharge rate measured as accurately as
possible at regular intervals throughout the
test, particularly at the end
• water sample collected when water becomes
clean and clear. Minimum volume required is
one litre.
(b) Bail testing
More commonly used with cable tool drilling and
involves lowering a 'bailer' into the water,
allowing it to fill, withdrawing and emptying it at
surface. The procedure is repeated for the
duration of the test. The pump rate produced is
then calculated by multiplying the number of
bailers removed in one hour by the volume of the
bailer. By dividing the bail rate by the metres of
drawdown the yield of the bore can be calculated.
Test results to be recorded are:
• standing water level prior to testing
• bail rate
• drawdown during bailing
• final drawdown water level
• test duration

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14.1.1 Required measuring equipment
Air testing: The water discharged should be
impounded within an earth drain or similar and
measured over a weir board of suitable
dimensions to accept the discharge rate. If the
flow can be diverted through a pipe or fluming,
a measuring tank or bucket and stop watch may
be used.
Bailer testing: A baler of known volume with no
valve leaks should be used.
Test duration: This may vary depending on the
type of bore, bore depth, available supply and
intended use, but should be long enough to
prove the bore is producing clear, clean, silt-free
water. The water level should be monitored after
the test to ensure the bore is recovering and the
aquifer has not been de-watered.
14.2 TEST PUMPING OF BORES
A pumping test is a means of obtaining
quantitative information about groundwater
systems and the bores which access the water
within them. The test is based on a period of
pumping and recovery during which the
pumping rate, water level in the bore, and
elapsed time are measured.
The test can be used to:
(a) assess the hydraulic behaviour of a bore
and so determine its usefulness as a source
of water, predict its performance under
different pumping regimes, and enable
determination of the most suitable pump
and optimum intake depth
(b) determine the hydraulic properties of the
groundwater system penetrated by the
bore, that is the transmissivity, storativity,
and the presence, type and distance of any
hydraulic boundaries.
A pumping test also provides an opportunity
to obtain information on water quality and its
variation with time and perhaps with
discharge rate.
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It needs to be understood, however, that to
predict the long-term effects of abstraction, other
information will be required, particularly about
factors affecting recharge to the groundwater
system such as seasonal or long-term regional
effects and possible interference from other bores.
A pumping test provides a basis from which
quantitative information on aquifer properties
can be obtained and proper decisions can be
made for equipping and using a bore as the
source for a water supply. Wrong decisions can
lead to the selection of incorrect pumps, less-
than-optimum pumping schedules, and in the
extreme, failure of the bore to provide the
expected quantity of water. Many bore owners
tend to save costs by skimping on the pumping
test, or even deciding not to have one carried out.
This can be a risky and imprudent course of
action. Expenditure on the test pumping will
usually be a small proportion of the cost of
constructing and equipping a bore, and will be
small compared with the cost of failure to deliver
at the expected rate after it has been put into
production. Bore owners are encouraged to
allocate sufficient funds for a comprehensive
pumping test which can be used as a reliable
basis for prediction of future performance.
For low-yield bores a test to give some indication
of supply available can be carried out by the
driller after the bore is completed, using a bailer
or an air compressor and string of pipe. In
carrying out these tests flow measurement
should be made using a flow measuring device
for example bucket of known capacity and
stopwatch or v-notch weir, or as appropriate.
However, a properly conducted test using a
pump is recommended. Tests may be carried out
by pump consultants or water agencies on a
contractual basis. Tests carried out before the
bore is completed, for example uncased hole
tests, are not acceptable for pump selection.
 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR TESTING OF BORES BY DRILLER

R 14.1 Testing of bores by driller: On completion of any production bore, adequate testing
should be carried out by the driller to provide the client with a reasonable indication of the
capacity of the bore. This test will also demonstrate to the client that the bore has been
constructed properly and is therefore capable of producing clean water.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR PUMP TESTING

R14.2 Pumping test standards: Pumping tests are recommended to determine pumped bore
capacity and to obtain data from which to design a permanent production pump. Where tests
are conducted they shall be performed according to AS 2368 – 1990 Test Pumping of Water
Wells. The recorded results of any test shall be attached to the driller's log.

R14.3 Duration of pumping test: The duration of the pumping test for specific purposes shall
be as shown in Table 14.1

R14.4 In areas known to contain iron bacteria where a test pumping unit is transferred from
bore to bore, the unit's components which come in contact with the borehole shall be disinfected
to avoid the introduction of iron bacteria to uncontaminated bores. See Section 13 for methods
of disinfection.

Table 14.1 Type and duration of pumping test

Purpose of bore Type of test Duration of Duration of
pumping recovery
(hours) (hours)
Low usage facility (for example general Constant discharge or 4 to 6 2
stock watering or household) variable discharge (See Note 1)
Medium or high usage (capital Step and constant 24 to 100 8
intensive support, for example discharge (See Note 2) (See Note 1)
intense stock watering, mining,
irrigation, industrial,
municipal supply)
Aquifer investigation Constant discharge Depends on Depends on
(other tests may be nature of nature of
appropriate) investigation investigation
Notes:
1. Recovery duration is until a trend is definitely established or to at least 80% of full recovery.
2. The reliability of the prediction of well performance will increase with the duration of the test.
A test duration nearer the upper limit is recommended if the consequences of failure to
perform as predicted are severe.

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15.0 RECORDING AND REPORTING DATA

I n a continent as dry as Australia it is vital that

water resources are utilised effectively and
sustainably. By their nature of occurrence
groundwater resources are costly to explore and
develop. It is most important therefore that
when bores are drilled an accurate and complete
record be made of the drilling process even for
abandoned test holes. These records must be
submitted to the water authority to be added to
other data so that knowledge of the nature and
extent of the groundwater resource can be built up.
The driller should keep a record of drilling
observations in a field book while drilling
progresses. These observations should include
the following:
• accurate location of the bore site
• bore identification number — unique
identification of the bore site by number or
name
• drill string inventory
• bit types and sizes
• strata details
• aquifer details and yield
• materials used
•
•
•
casing lengths and sizes
penetration log
drilling method over any particular zone
• hole behaviour
• observed drilling fluid changes and depth.
The information so obtained is of value not
only to the client but to drillers and water
authorities responsible for the development and
management of the resource. It is for these
reasons that water authorities require that
accurate records and reports be made and
submitted. Most water authorities have a Drill
Log form they supply to drillers which details
information required. As the details required to
be submitted may vary between authorities,
drillers should check on the requirements of the
particular State or Territory in which they work.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR RECORDING AND REPORTING

R15.1 Drilling logs: A drilling log shall be compiled from the field log for each bore drilled
including test holes.

The log shall quote identification number and give a complete and accurate description of the
bores completed, construction details, location, type and location of strata passed through
during drilling, and shall describe in particular all water supplies encountered even if such
supplies are inadequate for the purpose for which the bore is required. An example of a drill
log is shown on pages 63 and 64. Guidelines for soil and rock classifications and descriptions
are shown in Tables 15.1 and 15.2.

R15.2 Details to be provided: Complete construction details of the bore must be provided.
These include:
• bore identification or licence number
• start and finish dates
• the name and address of the client
• the name of the driller
• type of drilling method used
• diameters and depth of hole drilled (continued next page)

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 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR RECORDING AND REPORTING (continued)

• complete strata details

• details of any water supplies
• casing type and diameter (OD), class of pipe and/or wall thickness, position within the hole and
how it is secured and sealed
• cement grouting details
• water entry to the bore, for example length of slotted sections and locations, screen type,
dimensions and location, gravel pack material and size
• any pump test details and water quality description
• geophysical logging tools that were run
• bore development procedure and record
• location sketch of the bore site showing a north point, distances from two adjacent property
boundaries or other topographical features, and the real property description, including GPS
coordinates
• bore disinfection procedures used.

R15.3 Decommissioning report: A detailed report including diagram of bore shall be prepared
by the driller on the decommissioning of any bore or test hole.

R15.4 After completion of the bore the completed drill log shall be mailed or delivered direct to
the relevant regional office of the water licensing authority within the time specified in the bore
licence or in legislation.

60
Table 15.1 Guidelines for soil classification and description

Soil types Descriptive terms

Select appropriate words

Texture Colour Consistency

(washed sample) (drillability)
Small TOP SOIL Examples: Examples: Examples:
particle
size 1) CLAYS
CLAY clayey
(particles not visible to eye; black very soft
can be moulded)
soft
white
SILT silty
puggy
(0.1 mm) grey
(cannot be moulded) sticky
FINE SAND sandy red firm
(0.1–0.2 mm)
brown stiff
MEDIUM SAND hard
(0.2–0.5 mm) orange
very hard
COARSE SAND yellow
(0.5–1.0 mm)
green
VERY COARSE SAND 2) SANDS
(1.0–2.0 mm) blue very loose
FINE GRAVEL gravelly (etc.) loose
(2.0–4.0 mm)
medium dense
GRAVEL dense
(4.0–8.0 mm)
very dense
COARSE GRAVEL
(8.0–63 mm)
Large
COBBLES
particle
(63–200 mm)
size
BOULDERS
(> 200 mm)
Example descriptions CLAY, sandy CLAY, sandy CLAY, sandy
red/brown red/brown, stiff

61
Table 15.2 Guidelines for rock classification and description

Rock types - Examples Example descriptive terms

Sedimentary Metamorphic Igneous Weathering Strength
(composed of (changed as (volcanic or
cemented a result of plutonic origin)
particles) pressure or heat)

Small ACID BASIC Extremely high

grain/ (light- (dark- Fresh
crystal LIMESTONE MARBLE coloured) coloured)
size High
CLAYSTONE SLATE RHYOLITE BASALT Slightly weathered

SHALE PHYLLITE Medium

MICRO- DOLERITE Moderately weathered
SILTSTONE SCHIST GRANITE
Low
Large SANDSTONE QUARTZITE Extremely weathered
grain/ GRANITE GABBRO
crystal CONGLOMERATE GNEISS Extremely low
size

62
Figure 15.1(a) Example of a drilling log (front of form)

63
Figure 15.1(b) Example of a drilling log (back of form)

64
chapter

16.0 HEADWORKS AND COMPLETION OF BORE SITE

A fter a bore has been drilled and tested as

required it is most important that further
works be carried out which ensure the
satisfactory long-term operation of the bore and
the protection of both the works and the aquifer
and surrounding environment. These include:
• installation of headworks and controls which
enable the flow from the bore to be
adequately controlled (artesian bores)
• sealing and capping to protect the aquifer
from the ingress of surface water which may
contain pollutants (subartesian)
• protection of the bore from environmental
conditions such as flooding or sunlight
• disposal of waste or hazardous materials from
the site
• restoration of the site.
16.1 HEADWORKS
All bores or wells should be positioned so that
the headworks can be protected from normal
flooding and surface water drainage. If the bore
has to be located in an area of potential flooding,
the casing should be raised above flood level or,
if this is not feasible, completely sealed to prevent
the entry of flood water.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR HEADWORKS

R16.1 Bore identification: Before leaving the site the contractor, if required by the bore licence
condition, shall ensure that the bore number as issued by the State regulatory agency is clearly
and permanently displayed on the bore.

R16.2 Non-flowing bores: At all times during the progress of the work, the contractor shall use
reasonable precautions to prevent either tampering with the bore or the entrance of foreign
material or surface water into the bore.

R16.3 Height of casing above ground: The water-tight casing shall extend not less than 0.3 m
above the natural ground surface unless otherwise authorised.

R16.4 Sealing: The annular space between the casing and the borehole in all bores and wells
and especially those to be used for domestic use shall be effectively sealed with grout from the
surface to a depth deemed necessary by the water authority and/or driller with consideration of
strata and water soakage areas penetrated. The minimum depth of the seal is five metres,
although sealing to a greater depth may be required in some areas.

The borehead construction must ensure that no surface runoff or potential subsurface
contaminated soakage can enter the bore or bore annulus.

The cement seal should be mounded around the casing to prevent water from ponding against
the casing. Earth around the borehead should be levelled and sloped away from the bore.

All holes or openings should be sealed in the headworks to prevent possible entry of foreign
material or small animals or insects. Note that an airtight seal on a pumped bore may not be
desirable. Venting to atmosphere could be screened or filtered.

R16.5 Temporary capping of the bore: On completion of the bore, the contractor shall install a
suitable threaded, flanged or welded cap or compression seal to prevent surface pollutants from
entering the bore.

R16.6 Protection of plastic casing: All plastic bore casing shall be protected at the surface with
a steel cover pipe from the top of the bore casing and cemented to a depth not less than 0.5 m or
unless otherwise approved.

65
 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR HEADWORKS (continued)

R16.7 Water level measurement: To enable the measurement of static and pumping water
levels an access should be provided by either airline or plug attachment to the side of the
casing, which can be sealed when not in use.

R16.8 Flowing bores:

Headworks design: All flowing bores (artesian) shall be fitted with a headworks of an
approved design and the bore equipped in such a way as to allow control of the natural
pressure flow of water. Inert material may be used for headworks only when it has been
approved by the licensing authority.

Provision for testing: Provision must be made in the headworks for artesian bores to be tested,
for both pressure and flow, without having to interfere with reticulation or pumping systems.

Headworks construction: Headworks shall be of flange-jointed construction. Lead annular

seals and screw-jointed headworks are not acceptable. All gate valves used in headworks shall
be of first grade quality and shall be rated to handle the pressure and temperature of the bore.

Screwed casing protectors shall not be used in any part of an artesian bore headworks.

When water temperature exceeds 50°C or flow exceeds 15 litres per second (1300 cubic metres per
day), a main isolating valve of equivalent diameter to the inner casing shall be incorporated in the
headworks between the bore casing proper and the distribution outlets from the headworks.

An example of an approved headworks design is shown in Figure 1.4.

16.2 DISPOSAL OF WASTES AND tools, machinery, utensils, board, fencing,

MATERIALS FROM THE SITE
It is important both for health and safety reasons
that any unused materials and waste products be
disposed of carefully and responsibly and always
in accordance with the manufacturer's data sheet.
As soon as the work is completed the contractor
shall, at his own expense, clear away all plant,
rubbish, construction waste and any materials
and things belonging to the contractor that may
be lying about the site or on the property and
shall do everything necessary to finish all work
in a complete and businesslike manner. The site
should be returned, as far as reasonably
practicable, to the pre-drilling condition.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DISPOSAL OF WASTE MATERIALS

R16.9 Disposal of waste: All chemicals, cement or drilling additive containers or bags shall be
disposed of in such a way as to cause minimum impact on the environment and in accordance
with the requirements of the respective state or local authority and in accord with the relevant
manufacturer's directions and specifications.

Any well development chemicals shall be neutralised or otherwise disposed of in a safe manner.

R16.10 EPA requirements: The driller shall ensure that any bore disinfecting and disposal of
waste complies with the requirements of the Environmental Protection Agency in the State or
Territory in which they are carrying out the works.

66
Restoring a bore

16.3 RESTORATION OF DRILLING SITE should be left tidy and the casing, casing clamps,
bed logs, temporary seal, headworks, annulus
When all works are completed and the driller
cement seal and ground immediately around the
leaves the site, the only visible result the client can
bore should be completed and finished off in a
see for the large expenditure incurred is often a
competent and professional manner.
short length of casing protruding above the ground.

The work below ground or out of sight may be

excellent. However, the client could be expected to
have concern if the work site is left with earthworks
upheaval, flooding and rubbish lying about.

Drillers have a responsibility to restore and tidy

the drilling site. The visible remains of the work

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR

RESTORING THE SITE AFTER BORE CONSTRUCTION

R16.11 Restoration of site: On completion of works, the driller shall ensure that drill and other
fluids used in constructing a bore are disposed of safely and that the site is restored to a
reasonable condition. Mud pits, if used, shall be drained and filled in or arrangements made for
the work to be carried out.

R16.12 Damage to property: Any damage during access to gates, fences or grids and any
earthworks at the drill site that can be reasonably repaired shall be rectified as soon as possible
after completion of works or arrangements made for the work to be carried out.

R16.13 Site conditions: Any onsite drilling camp shall be kept clean and tidy and camp waste
and rubbish stored in sealed bins and disposed of in pits, if allowed, or taken to local refuse tips.

67
 Pa
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68
ely
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chapter
17.0 RECONDITIONING OF BORES
17.1 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
P roblems often encountered with nonflowing
bores include reduced supply, dirty water,
pumping of sand and deteriorating water quality.
Before any reconditioning work is carried out on a
bore every effort should first be made to identify
the cause of the problem. A lot of time and money
can be wasted on rehabilitation works which do
not target the cause of the problem.
Broadly, problems encountered with bores fall
into three categories:
• state of the resource
• physical condition of the bore
• condition of pumping equipment.
17.1.1 State of resource
If drought conditions exist or demands on the
aquifer system are excessive, then a fall in water
level can occur which is likely to result in a
decrease in bore yield. A direct measure of an
aquifer’s performance is the position of the water
level — if it is lower than normal, there is less
water to pump and the supply will decrease.
Where there is a large number of bores tapping
an aquifer or there are nearby bores being
pumped, a reduction in individual bore yields
may result.
Generally, if the supply has diminished but the
standing water level is normal, the fault is likely
to lie with the bore or pump.
17.1.2 Physical condition of bore
Many problems arise when the condition of a
bore deteriorates. Corrosion of the bore casing or
screens (or casing slots) can allow sediment to
enter the bore; screens (or slots) can be blocked
by chemical deposits or bacterial slime; and poor
screen design or slot size may allow fines to enter
the bore. Build-up of clayey particles adjacent to
screens or slots can also occur. Any of these
problems can reduce or stop the entry of water
into the bore.
Problems can also occur where corroded casing
allows poor quality water from a previously
untapped, higher aquifer to enter the bore.
17.1.3 Condition of pumping equipment
A check should be made on the condition of the
pump if water supply problems occur. As a first
step, the pump, motor and delivery systems
should be checked to see that they are operational.
69
Pump impellers wear, inlets become blocked and
holes form in pump casings. Any of these can
lead to reduced or complete loss of supply.
17.2 CLEANING
In certain groundwater environments,
encrustations of various types can occur on bore
casings, screens and within pumps. The end
result is a deterioration in performance of the
bore as water entry to the bore or pump is
restricted. Encrustations may be chemical
deposits such as carbonates and manganese, or
biological build-up such as iron bacteria.
Chemical encrustations result from the
precipitation of carbonates of calcium and
magnesium or their sulphates and from chemical
deposits of iron and manganese.
Biological deposition is caused by iron and
manganese bacteria. These produce slimes
which foul screens or slot openings and pumps
and piping. They form encrustations which can
be difficult to remove.
A third type of fouling that may occur is through
clayey or finer particles blocking screens, slots
and openings within the water-bearing
formation.
Most of the encrustations and blockages that
form cannot successfully be cleaned up solely by
mechanical means. Chemicals are needed,
usually in conjunction with mechanical actions.
17.2.1 Chemicals in use
The tabulation below shows various chemicals
used in the treatment of bores and the type of
problems they target. A number of proprietary
products have been developed specifically to
treat bores. They often contain one or more of
the listed chemicals, although the particular
formulation is often not publicised.
Used in the correct manner at the right dosage,
these chemicals should have little impact on the
groundwater resources or the handler.
Acids: All are corrosive, dangerous to handle
and release toxic fumes, particularly on contact
with water.
Chlorine: Of the three forms of chlorine that are
available (gaseous, granulated or liquid), liquid
chlorine or sodium hypochlorite is the safest to use,
due to its relatively low concentration of chlorine.
 Table 17.1 Chemicals used in the treatment of bores
Chemical
Chlorine (derived from calcium hypochlorite
or sodium hypochlorite)
Hydrogen peroxide
Copper sulphate
Potassium permanganate
Acid (hydrochloric, phosphoric, sulphamic)
Polyphosphates
Sodium hexametaphosphate
(‘Calgon’)
Proprietary products* (usually acid-based with
a disinfectant
* Proprietary products usually incorporate an inhibiting agent to lower corrosiveness
and a wetting agent to assist infiltration of chemicals
Chlorine as a gas or in solution is very corrosive
and toxic. Safe handling and storage practices
should be strictly observed. Do not use or store
chlorine near petroleum products. Do not mix
chlorine with acids.
Polyphosphates: These are safe to handle and
are relatively mild compared to chlorine and
acid. Phosphates require care in use as they can
promote algal growth.
Many groundwater resources are under pressure
from rural, industrial and urban activities. Using
chemicals to rehabilitate bores adds to this impact
unless it is done responsibly. All the chemicals
referred to above have the potential to affect
neighbouring water supplies if left in the ground.
17.2.2 Selection of correct chemicals
for treatment
Before chemically treating a bore it is wise to
determine the nature and cause of the problem in
the first place. This allows the specific problem
to be targeted and the appropriate treatment to
be carried out. Treating a bore with the incorrect
chemical is a waste of time and money. For
example, using a disinfecting agent to treat an
encrustation will not result in any improvement
in the bore’s performance.
Each of the chemicals listed above treats a
particular problem. Proprietary products
containing a combination of chemicals can be
useful when the nature of the problem cannot be
determined with any certainty. These products
are also designed to inhibit corrosive effects
where acid and chlorine have the potential to
cause damage to pumps and steel casing. They
70
Use
Disinfectant
Scale/encrustation removal
Dispersing agent for treating clay
A number of products are available
which target all of the above
are a viable alternative to use in lieu of chlorine
or acid.
Have a water analysis carried out to determine if
iron bacteria are present if this problem is
suspected, but not obvious.
Measure pH and conductivity of the water before
any treatment is commenced. This is to ensure
that there is little or no residual chemical
remaining in the bore on completion of the work.
Disconnect the supply from the reticulation
system to ensure that water is not available for
consumption during treatment.
17.2.3 Treatment
The following points are important to remember
when a bore is being treated with chemicals.
• Ensure that the manufacturer’s directions are
followed and that appropriate safety
precautions are taken. They should be used
only by experienced personnel, particularly
where no directions for use in water bores are
provided.
• On completion of treatment the quality of the
discharge water should be tested and be
similar to that tested prior to treatment.
The pH should be within 0.5 units and
conductivity within 10 per cent of
pretreatment readings, before reconnection of
the supply is made to the reticulation system.
• All discharged wastewater should be
disposed of, away from stock watering areas.
17.3 REHABILITATION OF
ARTESIAN BORES
At present many artesian bores flow uncontrolled.
Some of these bores discharge large volumes of
water into watercourses and swamps to be lost
through evaporation and seepage.
The Great Artesian Basin Sustainability Initiative
is aimed at reconditioning some of these bores so
that water flows can be controlled by gate and
float valves to the actual level required and used
only when needed. This will ensure the long-
term viability of this vital resource.
Many old bores in the basin have now reached
the stage where casing collapse has occurred for
one reason or another. Collapse is more
prevalent in some areas because of the corrosive
water that is present. The necessity for better
construction methods and the use of non-
corrosive materials is now generally recognised.
Reconditioning by relining and cementing is
more widely used.
Reconditioning of old bores presents many more
problems than in the drilling and cementing of
new replacement bores due in part to
uncertainties concerning the condition of the
existing casing.
Some bore reconditioning and cementing jobs
can be undertaken without the use of a drill rig
— but in general, a rig is necessary especially if
there are obstructions in the bore or a new liner
has to be inserted.
Provided that access for a drilling plant over the
bore is available or can be constructed at
reasonable cost, and unless total collapse has
taken place, most old flowing bores can be
reconditioned by relining with smaller casing
and pressure cementing. This will result in
reduced water flow from the bore and this may
be unacceptable to the client. In some cases, it is
also possible to recondition bores where the
casing is not evident at the surface, but the water
is just discharging from a crater. The first
objective in this case is of course to find where
the bore has been drilled. The above statements
have to be balanced against cost.
The remedial measures required to recondition a
bore with a large crater, badly corroded casing
and fluid communication between the different
zones (or surface) are both difficult and
71
expensive. In many instances it would be
cheaper to plug and fill the old bore with cement
grout, redrill and complete a replacement rather
than attempt rehabilitation. Landholders should
always be advised of this fact. Accurate costing
of a planned reconditioning is very difficult as
there can be unpredictable factors.
Large flows, hot water, no visible evidence of
surface casing, craters around the borehole full of
water — all can be dealt with if tackled in a
careful manner and with appropriate equipment.
However, it must be remembered that when it
comes to the cementing phase of a reconditioning
program, completely new conditions and
problems are presented from those encountered
when cementing new bores. Seldom will it be
found that any two jobs are alike.
The first essential requirement is a thorough
investigation of the bore, especially the casing or
casings, before attempting any cementing. This
investigation should also cover the past history
of the bore and other bores in the vicinity. It is
essential that the inner casing condition be
thoroughly explored and any holes be
determined and accurately located. (Geophysical
logging, dye testing, down-hole camera
exploration etc.)
The production aquifer or water bed must be
protected by mud or bridges before any
cementing operations are undertaken.
Provided the inner casing is sound or the bore
can be relined, a satisfactory cementing job is
usually practicable, regardless of the condition of
the outer casings. Holes at a shallow depth in the
casing may be overcome so the bore can be
mudded off by the use of a short temporary liner
and packer, but if holes in the inner casings occur
at numerous levels extending to considerable
depth, it becomes necessary to use an inner
casing liner. In this case the new liner should be
installed to a depth to cover all known saline
water or other problem areas in the bore.
Where the inner casing is sound or a new liner
has been run, every effort should be made while
cementing this casing to also seal any potential
leakage paths and cavities outside the old
casings. To do this the inner casing or liner is
flanged or welded to the old casing and a socket
welded on the old casing below the join so that
discharge can be controlled.
Cement calculations are made to allow for extra
grout to be forced into any cavities. A normal
cement job is then carried out with discharge
control open. When grout returns to the surface
in the casing annulus this control is restricted and
pumping is continued forcing grout into any
cavities.
Unlike new bores, bores which are being
reconditioned are generally old and because of
the fact they need reconditioning they may also
have cavities adjacent to the casing. For these
reasons, it is not always possible to determine
accurately the volume of cement or mud required
for any particular job. It is better to have to
dispose of excess cement than to have the whole
job fail as a result of an insufficiency. No attempt
has been made to go into all the various methods
of reconditioning bores as each reconditioning
job should be considered on the basis of the
particular conditions and circumstances.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR RECONDITIONING BORES

R17.1 Prior information check: Before any actual work is done a thorough prior information
check shall be carried out on the bore(s). All known details of the bore should be researched.

R17.2 Diagnosis: A process of elimination by measurements and tests should be carried out so
that the actual problem with the bore is defined, for example, a pump failure. A log shall be
kept of all work done on a bore, record all operations and results obtained, any chemicals used
and materials and tools removed or installed or lost down the hole.

A rehabilitated artesian bore with new stainless steel headworks

72
chapter

18.0 DECOMMISSIONING OF BORES (ABANDONMENT)

U nsealed abandoned test holes, bores and

wells constitute a potential hazard to public
health and safety, and to the preservation of the
quantity and quality of the groundwater
resource. The sealing of such boreholes presents
a number of problems, the nature of which
depends upon the construction of the bore, the
geological formations encountered, and the
hydrological conditions. To seal an abandoned
water bore properly, several requirements must
be met. These include the following:
• elimination of any physical hazard
• prevention of groundwater contamination
• conservation of yield and maintenance of
hydrostatic head of aquifers
• prevention of the intermingling of desirable
and undesirable waters.
The basic concept in decommissioning bores is
the restoration, as far as feasible, of aquifer
isolation that existed before the bore was drilled
and constructed. An improperly abandoned bore
hole might serve as an uncontrolled invasion
point for contaminated and polluted water.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR DECOMMISSIONING BORES

R18.1 Sealing: Any bore that is to be permanently decommissioned shall be completely sealed
and filled in such a manner that vertical movement of water within the bore, including water
within the annular space surrounding the casing, is prevented and the water is permanently
confined to the specific zone in which it originally occurred.

All test holes, decommissioned water bores and wells should be sealed in such a way that will
ensure protection of any aquifers penetrated. The sealing material should not have any
potential health risk and should be more impervious than the material encountered during the
drilling of the bore. Supervision of this work by the relevant water authority may be required in
some areas. Figures 18.1, 18.2 and 18.3 show the arrangements which should be used to
decommission the most common types of bore. Bores are to be filled, plugged and sealed. No
part of the decommissioned bore shall remain as an open hole.

R18.2 Sealing materials and placement: Concrete, cement grout, or bentonite grout shall be
used as primary sealing materials and shall be placed from the bottom upward by methods that
will avoid segregation or dilution of material and unnecessary contamination of the aquifer
zone.

R18.3 Fill materials and placement: Fill material should consist of clean or disinfected sand,
coarse stone, clay or drill cuttings.

R18.4 Flowing bores: Groundwater discharge from flowing bores must be controlled before
sealing. Cement grout shall be used for sealing bores that encounter high groundwater
pressures, that is bores with significant flow or significant head above the top of the aquifer
zone(s). The length of grout plugs shall be of sufficient length to stop the discharge of
groundwater and shall be not less than 20 metres unless the flow originates from less than 20 m.

R18.5 Surface caps: All bores shall be sealed with concrete, cement grout or bentonite cement
grout from a depth of five metres to the surface, or to 300 mm below the surface where a native
soil topping is required. The soil topping shall be compacted and mounded to prevent ponding
of surface water above the bore.

R18.6 Grout bridges: Although it is preferable to completely grout bores, bridges may be used
in bores where this is not practicable. A minimum of ten metres of cement grout plug
(20 metres for flowing bores) shall be set for a bridge. Bridges, if approved by the water
authority, shall be set in impermeable strata immediately above and below each aquifer
formation in the bore.

73
 REQUIREMENTS FOR DECOMMISSIONING BORES (continued)

R18.7 Surface casing: Surface casing that has been pressure-cemented and appears or is
tested sound shall be bridged in accord with requirement 18.6, with cement grout at the casing
shoe and at the top of the casing.

R18.8 Single rock type sites: Bores that intersect only one rock type shall be sealed to prevent
entry of water and objects down the borehole. The bore shall be filled or sealed and surface
capped in accord with requirement 18.1.

R18.9 Multiple rock types: Sealing of single confined and multiple aquifer systems shall
confine water to the aquifer in which it occurs. The bore shall be sealed over its entire length, or
selectively sealed, plugged, filled and surface capped as per requirement 18.1.

R18.10 Standards: Most water authorities have a standard for the decommissioning of bore
holes and in those States or areas drillers should obtain a copy of the standard and ensure all
decommissioning work meets the water authority standard.

R18.11 Records: Complete and accurate records shall be kept of the entire decommissioning
procedure for future reference and to verify that the hole was properly sealed. Details of bore
cementing shall be recorded on a bore completion report.

Figure 18.1 Requirements for decommissioning a flowing bore

74
Figure 18.2 Requirements for decommissioning
a single aquifer non-flowing bore

75
Figure 18.3 Requirements for decommissioning a multiple aquifer non-flowing bore

76
chapter
19.0 MONITORING BORES
M onitoring bores are important because they
provide the data for regional groundwater
management plans, catchment initiatives and site
remediation action plans. These bores are the
basis on which important decisions are made
about aquifer characteristics, trends, likely
human and ecological impacts and strategies for
protection or clean up.
As a consequence, these bores should be
constructed to a high standard, protected during
their life to ensure ongoing and reliable data, and
be properly decommissioned when no longer
required or being replaced.
19.1 MONITORING BORES
'Monitoring bore' has been used as the standard
terminology through this chapter as it is this term
that is in most common usage in environmental
investigations throughout Australia. Other terms
often substituted are monitoring, or observation
well and piezometer.
Tens of thousands of monitoring bores are
constructed around Australia each year to
monitor the impacts of development on
groundwater systems. Other networks are
installed to monitor regional aquifer
characteristics, for example water level and water
quality changes and specialised catchment
attributes like salinity networks.
Examples of land uses that can have a substantial
impact on groundwater systems include landfills
and other waste disposal areas, hydrocarbon and
chemical storages, leaking pipelines and dams,
various industrial sites, mine sites and intensive
agricultural or livestock sites.
Many of these bores are constructed into perched
water bearing zones less than ten metres from
surface, while others monitor the regional aquifer
systems and can be in excess of 200 metres deep.
Some bores are specifically constructed for just
one monitoring event while others are expected
to last for decades.
When constructing a monitoring bore it is
importantant to understand which part of the
groundwater profile is being targeted with the
bore. Exampes could include a perched aquifer,
the water table and the top of the regional aquifer
system. Other bores might target a semi-
confined or confined aquifer or part of a multiple
aquifer system.
77
Boreholes need to be constructed to minimise the
cross-contamination of aquifers, to protect local
ecosystems and to protect regional aquifer systems.
19.2 SCOPE
These requirements apply to the construction of
bores for monitoring groundwater levels and
groundwater quality. They apply where bores
are being established prior to the development of
a project for the collection of baseline data as well
as for long-term monitoring purposes and for
monitoring of contaminated sites.
19.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
General considerations when planning the
locations and construction of groundwater
monitoring bores include:
• the geology and hydrogeology of the area
• the local beneficial uses of groundwater such
as a town water supply
• the target aquifer depth and characteristics
• the purpose of the bore and expected life
• licensing requirements — this includes
registration of the bore or network, and the
driller being appropriately licensed to carry
out the work
• the contaminants of concern — their physical
properties and hazards associated with each
site such as nutrients, bacterial, heavy metals,
landfill gas, hydrocarbons and similar
contaminants.
19.4 DRILLING TECHNIQUES
The drilling technique used to construct each
monitoring bore must ensure that the monitoring
bore upon completion is fit for its intended
purpose and its life expectancy.
The application of inappropriate drilling
techniques can commonly result in reduced
groundwater or contaminant flow to the bore,
and the cross-contamination of aquifer zones.
Drilling should be undertaken by appropriately
licensed drillers who have undertaken adequate
safety training in the conditions expected,
especially for work on contaminated sites.
The usual drilling techniques for unconsolidated
soils are hollow flight auger, dual wall reverse
circulation, cable tool, push tube, or similar low
impact techniques. For hard rock areas, down-
hole hammer or rotary air techniques are
usually required.
Contamination of the borehole and its surrounds 19.6 MONITORING BORE DESIGNS
is to be avoided during drilling and completion
Screen and gravel pack intervals should not be
of the bore. Water contaminant, lubricants, oil,
installed across different geological units or
grease, solvents, coatings and corrodible
water-bearing zones.
materials may affect the suitability of the bore for
groundwater monitoring, especially when
Care should be taken with perched water zones
monitoring for contaminants.
to ensure that these zones are not directly
connected via improperly constructed bores with
When monitoring for the presence of
the regional water table.
contaminants, all drilling and sampling
equipment should be thoroughly cleaned before
Bore construction will vary according to the
commencing drilling. Casing, drilling fluids and
purpose of monitoring and the hydrogeology of
any material used in the bore also needs to be
the site.
free of contaminants. Casing and screens should
be kept in their protective covers until required
In fractured rock areas, it may be necessary to vary
for installation.
the drilling techniques and construction details
where aquifer boundaries are not clearly defined.
Monitoring bores, depending on drilling
technique, formation and depth drilled should
Refer to Section 1.3.1 and Appendix C for typical
have a sump to collect siltation material, and to
bore construction details.
ensure silt material does not interfere with the
screened area.
19.7 DRILL CORE SAMPLES AND BORE
As a guideline the minimum sump length is one LOGGING
metre, with a desired length of between two and
An accurate bore log should be kept during
six metres.
drilling and a clean representative sample of the
soil profiles collected when required by the bore
The length of the sump should increase for
permit or client.
deeper bores and aquifers where siltation is
considered a potential problem.
Refer to Section 6 for additional requirements.
Refer to Section 4 for further details.
19.8 BORE CASING
19.5 DRILLING FLUIDS Casing material will be determined by the
required bore diameter, bore depth and
If drilling fluids are used, these must be selected to
monitoring requirements including the type of
avoid any contamination or alteration of the
contaminants that may be monitored.
groundwater or the soils surrounding the borehole.
uPVC, stainless steel and fibreglass are suitable
The preferred fluid for augering, cable tool and
for monitoring most organic substances.
coring is clean water from the formation or local
town water. Where drilling fluid is required, the
uPVC or fibreglass are suitable to monitor
type selected should be inert in respect to the
most inorganic substances, particularly in
aquifer chemistry or suspected contaminants.
corrosive waters.
On contaminated sites, the compressor output
Steel casing may be suitable for some applications.
must be free from oil contamination and no
hydrocarbon lubricants should be used for
Where monitoring for organic material, bore
hammers and other drill equipment.
casing should have mechanical joints to avoid
contamination by solvents such as uPVC solvent
Refer to Section 7 for further details.
cleaner and cement. Organic-based lubricants
(such as hydrocarbons) should not be used on
casing joints, drilling rods or equipment.

78
All monitoring bores should have casing of at
least 50 mm internal diameter. Bore casing of
smaller diameter may be acceptable where used
only for water level monitoring or suitably sized
submersible sampling pump, or alternative
sampling equipment is available.
The bore casing should extend at least 500 mm
above the ground surface, to prevent surface
contaminants entering the bore. Alternative
ground flush monitoring headworks should only
be used where traffic or safety considerations
require it.
The bottom of the casing must be sealed with a
cement grout or cap. Any overdrilling below the
bottom of the casing should be backfilled with a
sealing grout.
Refer to Table 9.3 for further details.
19.9 SCREEN OR SLOTTED CASING
Screens should have the following properties:
• corrosion resistance to groundwater or
expected contaminants
• screen aperture size suited to the monitoring
purpose and aquifer type.
Generally slotted uPVC will have at least 100
horizontal machine-cut slots every metre. Slot
length should be about 50 mm. Slot aperture will
vary according to the material size being
screened, ranging from 0.2 to 1 mm. External
filter socks may be used to exclude very fine soil
from the casing.
Refer to Section 11 for additional requirements.
19.10 GRAVEL PACKING
A gravel pack may be used to avoid siltation
occurring when fine-grained aquifers are
encountered. The bore annulus should be
carefully and evenly filled to a level
approximately one metre above the screened
interval with a graded gravel pack.
Refer to Section 11.4 for gravel pack design details.
19.11 SEALING OF ANNULUS ABOVE OR
BETWEEN MONITORED INTERVALS
A cement or bentonite seal at least one metre
thick should be placed on top of the graded
gravel pack to prevent water movement from the
surface or between aquifers. A bentonite seal may
be constructed using pellets slowly inserted
79
down the annulus. Bentonite pellets should not
be used above the water table, as they may not
hydrate and seal the annulus.
Refer to Section 10 for grouting details.
19.12 CENTRALISING CASING
The casing should be fitted with inert centralisers
to ensure the casing remains centrally located in
the borehole.
19.13 DEVELOPMENT
For monitoring bores, bore development is
usually achieved by pumping, surging or
airlifting. Generally, the following should be
observed when developing bores:
• New monitoring bores should be developed
once the bore has been completely installed
and any bentonite plugs or grouting have
cured.
• Prior to development, the depth to the bottom
of the bore and the surface of the groundwater
should be measured.
• During bore development, on-site
measurements of water quality (including pH,
temperature and conductivity) should be
taken.
• Bore development should continue until:
– the water produced is free of turbidity,
sand or silt
– a minimum of ten bore volumes of
groundwater have been removed
– three consecutive field water quality
readings produce similar results.
Refer to Section 12 for further details.
19.14 DECOMMISSIONING BORES
The decommissioning of monitoring bores is
important, especially in areas that may contain
contaminants.
The sealing process must ensure that there is no
potential for cross-contamination between
aquifers or from contaminants at the surface from
entering the bore after decommissioning.
Bores should be decommissioned in accordance
with Section 18.
 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR MONITORING BORE CONSTRUCTION

In addition to all other requirements in these specifications, the following are specific to
monitoring bores.

R19.1 Specification for construction and bore completion: The driller must be provided with a
design or specification for borehole construction and monitoring bore completion in advance of
the drilling program. This would include all the drilling techniques, material types and the
development techniques. This should be supplied by either the client or the supervising
consultant, or be stipulated in the bore licence approval to drill and construct the works.

R19.2 Contaminants and likely depths: If the site is a contaminated site, the driller must be
advised of the contaminants of concern, likely depth and concentrations in advance of the
drilling program. This is a legal requirement under Duty of Care legislation. It is essential that
the correct procedures are in place to optimise the drilling and bore completion and to protect
workers and the local environment. This will be set out in the Site Safety Plan.

R19.3 Unusual drilling results: If any unusual drilling results are obtained there should be
immediate action to amend the drilling technique, specification or bore completion
methodology to avoid human health or environmental impacts.

R19.4 Cross-contamination: The cross-contamination of water-bearing zones must be avoided.

This will apply to all types and depths of monitoring bores. It is particularly important where
perched groundwater is present. It is critical that drilling does not allow any contaminants in
shallow zones to percolate to deeper aquifers.

R19.5 Decommissioning: All boreholes and monitoring bores should be properly abandoned
once the project requirements are complete.

80
chapter

A APPENDIX

DEFINITIONS AND METRIC CONVERSIONS

The following definitions may be useful in understanding this document:

ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

Acidising The process of introducing acid into a bore or surrounding formations

Air line A small-diameter pipe installed in the bore and charged with air for the purpose of
measuring the water level

Alignment The horizontal deviation between the actual bore centre-line and a straight line
representing the ideal centre-line

Annular space The ring-like space between the bore casing and the outer bore casing or borehole

Aquifer A geological formation, group of formations, or part of a formation capable of

transmitting and yielding significant quantities of water

Aquitard A saturated, but relatively poorly permeable, bed, formation or group of formations
that does not transmit or yield water freely

Artesian bore A bore in an aquifer where the groundwater is confined under pressure, so that
the water level in the bore will rise above the top of the aquifer and ground level (a flowing
bore)

Bailer A tube made from pipe with a valve in the bottom, used to remove cuttings or sediments from
the hole

Bore (well) A hole sunk into the ground and completed for the abstraction of water or for water
observation purposes

Bore efficiency (E) The formation loss (head loss required to produce flow) divided by the total
drawdown observed in the bore. This quotient is expressed as a percentage (from Jacob’s method)

Cake thickness The thickness of filter cake deposited against porous media by the drilling fluid

Capillarity The action by which the surface of a liquid, where it contacts a solid, is elevated or
depressed because of the relative attraction of the molecules of the liquid for each other and for those
of the solid

Capillary fringe The zone immediately above the water table in which water is held by capillarity

Casing A tube used as temporary or permanent lining for a bore

Centraliser A tool used to centre the casing in the hole

CO2 Carbon dioxide

Coefficient of transmissivity See transmissivity

Cone of depression (confined aquifers) The depression, roughly conical in shape produced in the
pressure surface (piezometric surface) by a bore or bores pumping in a confined aquifer

Cone of depression (water table) The depression, roughly conical in shape, produced in the water
level by a bore or bores pumping in an unconfined aquifer

81
Confined groundwater A completely saturated aquifer in which the upper and lower boundaries are
relatively impermeable layers (aquitards or aquicludes). The groundwater is contained under
sufficient pressure to cause it to rise above the aquifer if the top of the impermeable layer is breached.

Confining bed A layer of relatively impermeable material underlying, overlying, or adjacent to one
or more aquifers

Consolidated formation Hard rock-material strata of sedimentary-igneous, or a metamorphic-type

rock, which can be porous and permeable to provide an aquifer

Contractor The party that enters into a contract or agreement with the purchaser to furnish the work
and materials according to the provisions of this standard

Decommissioned bore A bore, the purpose and use of which have been permanently discontinued

Development The removal of sand and other fines (including drilling mud) from the aquifer
immediately surrounding the bore and creating a filter zone around the bore that prevents further
movement of aquifer particles into the bore

Discharge The volume of water pumped or flowing from a bore per unit of time, expressed in litres
per second.

Drawdown The difference between the observed water level during pumping and the water level
before pumping commenced

Drilling fluid. A medium, typically composed of a mixture of bentonite clay and water, used to
hydraulically remove the drill cuttings from the hole as drilling takes place

Drive shoe A special steel collar, with a cutting edge, fastened onto the bottom of the steel casing to
protect the lower edge of the casing as it is driven

Effective size The sieve-size opening that will pass ten per cent of a representative sample of the filter
material; for example, if the size distribution of the particles is such that ten per cent of a sample is
finer than 0.45 mm, the filter material has an effective size of 0.45 mm

Electrolyte A chemical that dissociates into positive and negative ions when dissolved in water,
increasing the electrical conductivity of the water

Filtration properties Ability of the drilling fluid to form a controlled filter cake on the wall of the hole
under virtually static conditions

Flowing bore A bore from which groundwater is discharged at the ground surface without the aid of
pumping

FRP Fibre reinforced plastic

Gravel pack (filter pack). Granular material introduced into the annulus between the borehole and a
casing or perforated lining to prevent or control the movement of finer particles from the aquifer into
the bore

Groundwater Subsurface water contained within the saturated zone

Groundwater divide A line on a potentiometric surface on each side of which the potentiometric
surface slopes downward in a direction away from the line

82
Grout A fluid mixture of Portland cement and water of a consistency that can be forced through a
pipe and placed as required. Various additives, such as bentonite, are included in the mixture to meet
certain requirements

GRP Glass fibre reinforced plastic

Head Energy contained in a water mass, produced by elevation, pressure or velocity

Heterogeneous Highly stratified materials consisting of non-uniform characteristics when interpreted

on a vertical scale

Homogeneous Materials having essentially uniform characteristics of composition, texture and

appearance

Hydraulic conductivity The rate at which water at the prevailing kinematic viscosity will move
under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area measured perpendicular to the direction of flow,
expressed in metres per day
Note: This definition assumes medium in which the pores are completely filled with water.

Hydraulic gradient The change in static head per unit of distance in a given direction

Hydrogeological properties The properties of formations that control the movement and storage of
groundwater

Laminar flow Flow under conditions where forces due to viscosity are more significant than forces
due to inertia
Note: Laminar flow may be unsteady, but is completely free from turbulent mixing. Poiseuille flow is
an example of steady laminar flow in a circular pipe.

Liner A casing, screen or other device inserted into a larger casing, screen or open hole as a means of
sealing off undesirable material or maintaining the structural integrity of the well

O2 Oxygen

Packer A device placed in a well that plugs or seals the well at a specific point. It is not acceptable to
use materials, such as lead, that may be toxic

Perched water Unconfined groundwater separated from an underlying body of groundwater by an

unsaturated zone and supported by an aquitard or aquiclude

Perforations A series of openings in a bore casing

Permeability The capacity of a porous medium for transmitting water

pH Index of acidity or alkalinity of water

Piezometer A pipe in which the elevation of the water level or potentiometric surface can be
determined. The pipe is sealed along its length and open to water flow at the bottom

Plumbness The horizontal deviation (drift) of the bore centre-line from true vertical

Potentiometric surface A surface which represents that standing or total hydraulic head
Note:
1. In an aquifer system, it represents the levels to which water will rise in tightly cased bores.
2. The water table is the potentiometric surface of an unconfined aquifer

Pumping level The water level in the bore when pumping is in progress

83
Purchaser The party entering into a contract or agreement for the purchase of any materials or work
to be performed in accordance with the provisions of this standard. A purchaser may or may not be
the owner

Recovery The difference between the observed water level during the recovery period after cessation
of pumping and water level measured immediately before pumping stopped

Safe yield The average annual amount of groundwater that could be extracted from a groundwater
basin (or reservoir) over a long period of time without causing long-continuing reduction of
groundwater quantity, quality and other undesirable bore effects

Screen A special form of bore liner used to stabilise the aquifer or gravel pack while allowing the flow
of water through the bore into the casing and permitting development of the screened formation by an
appropriate process

Semi-confined (or leaky) aquifer An aquifer confined by a layer of moderate permeability (aquitard)
that allows vertical leakage of water into or out of the aquifer

Sorting A measure of uniformity of grain sizes

Spear point Generally a shallow bore drilled by simple methods (self-jetted, lowered in augured
holes or driven) in unconsolidated sediments for groundwater extraction

Specific capacity The ratio of the discharge to the drawdown it produces, measured inside the bore
(L/min/m of drawdown)

Specific gravity The weight of a given volume of material compared to the weight of an equal
volume of water at a reference temperature under standard conditions

Standing water level The level of groundwater standing in a bore uninfluenced by pumping in
that bore

Static head The height, relative to an arbitrary reference level, of a column of water that can be
supported by the static pressure of the aquifer at a given point

Storativity The volume of water an aquifer releases or takes into storage per unit surface area per unit
change in head
Note:
1. In an unconfined aquifer, it is normally referred to as specific yield.
2. In a confined aquifer, it may be referred to as storage coefficient.

Telescoping A method of fitting or placing one casing inside another or introducing a screen through
a casing diameter larger than the diameter of the screen

Test hole Hole used only to obtain information on groundwater quality and/or geological and
hydrological conditions

Test bore Completed bore for pumping to obtain information on capacity, groundwater quality,
geological and hydrological conditions, and related information

Total dissolved salt The quantity of dissolved salts in a sample of water, expressed as mg/L

Transmissivity The rate at which water of the prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted through a
unit width of an aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient, expressed in square metres per day
Note: Transmissivity is equal to the hydraulic conductivity times the thickness of the aquifer

Tremie pipe A device or small diameter pipe that carries materials to a designated depth in the hole

84
Unconfined aquifer An aquifer in which the upper boundary of the saturated zone is at
atmospheric pressure

Unconsolidated formation Loose, soft rock-material strata of sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic-

type rock, which includes sand, gravel and mixtures of sand and gravel. These formations are widely
distributed and can possess good storage and water transmissivity characteristics.

Uniformity coefficient A ratio of the sieve-size opening that will just pass 60 per cent of a
representative sample of the filter material divided by the sieve-size opening that will just pass
10 per cent of the material.

uPVC Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride

Water table The surface of saturation in an unconfined aquifer at which the pressure of the water is
equal to that of the atmosphere

Zone of aeration The zone above the water table in which the interstices are partly filled with air,
including the capillary fringe. Equivalent terms are 'vadose zone' or 'unsaturated zone'.

Zone of saturation The zone below the water table in which all interstices are filled with groundwater
(phreatic zone)

METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS

This standard uses the following conversion factors:

Unit Conversion Factor Metric Equivalent

barrels US x 158.9 = litres
feet (ft) x 0.305 = metres (m)
feet per second (ft/s) x 0.305 = metres per second (m/s)
gallon (US gal) x 3.785 = litre (L)
gallons per minute (gpm) x 4.55 = litres per minute (L/min)
gallons per second (gps) x 4.55 = litres per second (L/s)
inch (in.) x 25.4 = millimetre (mm)
pound (lb) x 0.45 = kilogram (kg)
pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3) x 16.02 = kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
pounds per square inch (psi) x 6.89 = kilopascals (kPa)

85
chapter

B APPENDIX

LIST OF REFERENCES

– AS 1579–2001 Arc welded steel pipes and fittings for water and wastewater
– AS 1396–2000 Steel water bore casing
– AS 3518.1 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipes and fittings for pressure applications — Pipes
– AS/NZS 1477 Unplasticised PVC (uPVC) pipes and fittings for pressure applications
– AS/NZS 3879–1995 Solvent cements and priming fluids for use with unplasticised PVC (uPVC) pipes and
fittings
– AS 3972–1997 Portland and blended cements
– AS 1141 Methods for sampling and testing aggregates
– AS 2368–1990 Test pumping of water wells
Further information on drilling methods and applications, or on the design and construction of water
bores, can be found in the following industry publications.

Drilling – The Manual Johnson's Groundwater and Wells

Available from: Available from:

Australian Drilling Industry Association Australian Drilling Industry Association
PO Box 3020 PO Box 3020
FRANKSTON EAST VIC 3194 FRANKSTON EAST VIC 3194
ph: (03) 9781 2229 fax: (03) 9781 2699 ph: (03) 9781 2229 fax: (03) 9781 2699

Australian Drilling Industry Training Committee Johnson Screens

PO Box 742 PO Box 85
LANE COVE NSW 2066 VIRGINIA MAIL CENTRE QLD 4014
ph: (02) 9428 3444 fax: (02) 9428 3555 ph: (07) 3867 5555 fax: (07) 3265 2768

86
chapter

C APPENDIX
TYPICAL BORE TYPES

Figure C1 Monitoring bore with bentonite seal and Figure C2 Gravel packed bore with casing cemented
backfill to surface in place and gravel envelope terminated
above the top of screen with gravel feed
pipe

Figure C3 Gravel packed bore with telescoped Figure C4 Naturally developed bore with telescoped
screen, casing cemented in place and screen, pumphousing casing driven or
gravel envelope terminated above the top jacked into place, and the conductor
of screen sealed

87
Figure C5 Naturally developed bore with inline Figure C6 Naturally developed bore with telescoped
screen screen, temporary casing driven or jacked
into place, and the pumphousing casing
sealed in to prevent contamination

Figure C7 Bore with open hole completion in Figure C8 Bore with telescoped slotted casing liner
consolidated rock and casing driven then completion in consolidated rock and
either cemented or backfilled into place casing cemented in place either from shoe
to surface or sealed at shoe

88
Figure C9 Gravel packed bore completed in
consolidated rock with casing cemented in
place
Figure C11 Naturally developed non-flowing bore in
unconsolidated formation where the
hydraulic properties of the formations
are different and need permanent
separation
89
Figure C10 Slotted casing or screened bore
completion in an artesian aquifer where
the piezometric level is above the ground
elevation
Figure C12 Naturally developed bore in
unconsolidated formation where
hydraulic and quality properties are
similar and can be joined
Figure C13 Permanent headworks for non-flowing Figure C14 Temporary headworks for non-flowing
bore with concrete pad and steel bore
protecting pipe

90