Integrals

Definitions
Definite Integral: Suppose f ( x ) is continuous Anti-Derivative : An anti-derivative of f ( x )
on [ a, b] . Divide [ a, b ] into n subintervals of is a function, F ( x ) , such that F ¢ ( x ) = f ( x ) .
width D x and choose x from each interval. Indefinite Integral : ò f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + c
*
i
¥
b
f (x )D x . where F ( x ) is an anti-derivative of f ( x ) .
ò a f ( x ) dx = nlim å
*
Then i
®¥
i =1

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Part I : If f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b ] then Variants of Part I :
d u( x)
f ( t ) dt = u ¢ ( x ) f éëu ( x ) ùû
dx ò a
x
g ( x ) = ò f ( t ) dt is also continuous on [ a, b ]
a
d x d b
and g ¢ ( x ) = () ( ) ò f ( t ) dt = -v¢ ( x ) f éëv ( x ) ùû
dx ò a
f t dt = f x .
dx v( x )

Part II : f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b ] , F ( x ) is d u( x)
f ( t ) dt = u ¢ ( x ) f [ u ( x ) ] - v¢ ( x ) f [ v ( x ) ]
dx ò v( x )
an anti-derivative of f ( x ) (i.e. F ( x ) = ò f ( x ) dx )
b
then ò f ( x ) dx = F ( b ) - F ( a ) .
a
Properties
ò f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx ± ò g ( x ) dx ò cf ( x ) dx = c ò f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
b b b b b
ò a f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ò a f ( x ) dx ± ò a g ( x ) dx ò a cf ( x ) dx = c ò a f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
a b
ò a f ( x ) dx = 0 ò c dx = c ( b - a )
a
b a b b

ò a f ( x ) dx = -òb f ( x ) dx ò f ( x ) dx £ ò f ( x )
a a
dx
b c b
ò f ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx + ò f ( x ) dx for any value of c.
a a c
b b
If f ( x ) ³ g ( x ) on a £ x £ b then ò f ( x ) dx ³ ò g ( x ) dx
a a
b
If f ( x ) ³ 0 on a £ x £ b then ò f ( x ) dx ³ 0
a
b
If m £ f ( x ) £ M on a £ x £ b then m ( b - a ) £ ò f ( x ) dx £ M ( b - a )
a

Common Integrals
ò k dx = k x + c ò cos u du = sin u + c ò tan u du = ln sec u + c
ò x dx = n+1 x + c, n ¹ -1 ò sin u du = - cos u + c ò sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c
n 1 n +1

ò x dx = ò x dx = ln x + c ò sec u du = tan u + c ò a + u du = a tan ( a ) + c

-1 1 2 1 u 1 -1
2 2

ò a x + b dx = a ln ax + b + c
1 1
ò sec u tan u du = sec u + c ò a - u du = sin ( a ) + c
1
2 2
u -1

ò ln u du = u ln ( u ) - u + c ò csc u cot udu = - csc u + c

ò e du = e + c ò csc u du = - cot u + c
u u 2

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 Standard Integration Techniques
Note that at many schools all but the Substitution Rule tend to be taught in a Calculus II class.

( )
ò a f ( g ( x ) ) g ¢ ( x ) dx = ò g (a ) f ( u ) du
b g b
u Substitution : The substitution u = g ( x ) will convert using

du = g ¢ ( x ) dx . For indefinite integrals drop the limits of integration.

cos ( x3 ) dx cos ( x3 ) dx = ò
2 2 8
Ex. ò 1 5x
2
ò 1 5x
2 5
1 3
cos ( u ) du
u = x 3 Þ du = 3x 2 dx Þ x 2 dx = 13 du ( sin (8) - sin (1) )
8
= 53 sin ( u ) 1 = 5
3
x = 1 Þ u = 1 = 1 :: x = 2 Þ u = 2 = 8
3 3

b b b
Integration by Parts : ò u dv = uv - ò v du and ò a u dv = uv a
- ò v du . Choose u and dv from
a

integral and compute du by differentiating u and compute v using v = ò dv .

ò xe
-x 5
Ex. dx Ex. ò3 ln x dx
u=x dv = e- x Þ du = dx v = -e - x u = ln x dv = dx Þ du = 1x dx v = x
ò xe dx = - xe + ò e dx = - xe - e
-x -x -x -x -x
+c
ln x dx = x ln x 3 - ò dx = ( x ln ( x ) - x )
5 5 5 5
ò3 3 3

= 5ln ( 5) - 3ln ( 3) - 2

Products and (some) Quotients of Trig Functions

For ò sin n x cos m x dx we have the following : For ò tan n x sec m x dx we have the following :
1. n odd. Strip 1 sine out and convert rest to 1. n odd. Strip 1 tangent and 1 secant out and
cosines using sin x = 1 - cos x , then use
2 2 convert the rest to secants using
the substitution u = cos x . tan 2 x = sec 2 x - 1 , then use the substitution
2. m odd. Strip 1 cosine out and convert rest u = sec x .
to sines using cos 2 x = 1 - sin 2 x , then use 2. m even. Strip 2 secants out and convert rest
the substitution u = sin x . to tangents using sec2 x = 1 + tan 2 x , then
3. n and m both odd. Use either 1. or 2. use the substitution u = tan x .
4. n and m both even. Use double angle 3. n odd and m even. Use either 1. or 2.
and/or half angle formulas to reduce the 4. n even and m odd. Each integral will be
integral into a form that can be integrated. dealt with differently.
Trig Formulas : sin ( 2 x ) = 2sin ( x ) cos ( x ) , cos 2 ( x ) = 2 (1 + cos ( 2 x ) ) , sin ( x ) = 2 (1 - cos ( 2 x ) )
1 2 1

ò tan sin5 x
ò cos x dx
3
Ex. x sec5 x dx Ex. 3

ò tan x sec5 xdx = ò tan 2 x sec 4 x tan x sec xdx

3 5 4 2 2
(sin x ) sin x
ò cos x dx = ò cos x dx = ò cos x dx
sin x sin x sin x
3 3 3

= ò ( sec2 x - 1) sec 4 x tan x sec xdx (1- cos x ) sin x 2 2

=ò
cos x
dx 3( u = cos x )
= ò ( u 2 - 1) u 4 du ( u = sec x ) 2 2
= - ò (1-u ) du = - ò 1-2u +u du
2 4
u 3 u 3
= 17 sec7 x - 15 sec5 x + c
= 12 sec2 x + 2 ln cos x - 12 cos 2 x + c

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Trig Substitutions : If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and
formula to convert into an integral involving trig functions.
a 2 - b 2 x 2 Þ x = ab sin q b 2 x 2 - a 2 Þ x = ba sec q a 2 + b 2 x 2 Þ x = ab tan q
cos 2 q = 1 - sin 2 q tan 2 q = sec 2 q - 1 sec2 q = 1 + tan 2 q

òx ó ( 23 cos q ) dq = ò sin122 q dq
16
Ex. dx 16
2
4 -9 x 2 õ 4 sin 2 q ( 2cosq )
9
x = 23 sin q Þ dx = 23 cos q dq
= ò 12 csc 2 dq = -12 cot q + c
4 - 9x 2 = 4 - 4sin q = 4 cos q = 2 cos q
2 2
Use Right Triangle Trig to go back to x’s. From
Recall x 2 = x . Because we have an indefinite substitution we have sin q = 32x so,
integral we’ll assume positive and drop absolute
value bars. If we had a definite integral we’d
need to compute q ’s and remove absolute value
bars based on that and,
ì x if x ³ 0 4 -9 x 2
x =í From this we see that cot q = 3x
. So,
î- x if x < 0
4 -9 x 2
òx dx = - 4 +c
16
In this case we have 4 - 9x = 2 cos q .
2 2
4 -9 x 2 x

P( x )
Partial Fractions : If integrating ò Q( x) dx where the degree of P ( x ) is smaller than the degree of
Q ( x ) . Factor denominator as completely as possible and find the partial fraction decomposition of
the rational expression. Integrate the partial fraction decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the
denominator we get term(s) in the decomposition according to the following table.

Factor in Q ( x ) Term in P.F.D Factor in Q ( x ) Term in P.F.D

A A1 A2 Ak
ax + b ( ax + b )
k
+ +L +
ax + b ax + b ( ax + b ) 2
( ax + b )
k

Ax + B A1 x + B1 Ak x + Bk
+L +
( ax + bx + c )
2 k
ax 2 + bx + c ax + bx + c ( ax 2 + bx + c )
2 k
ax + bx + c
2

7 x2 +13 x +C A( x2 + 4) + ( Bx + C ) ( x -1)
Ex. ò ( x -1)( x 2
+4)
dx 7 x2 +13 x
2
( x -1)( x + 4 )
= A
x -1 + Bx
x2 + 4
= ( x -1)( x 2 + 4 )

7 x2 +13 x Set numerators equal and collect like terms.

ò ( x -1)( x2 + 4 )
dx = ò x4-1 + 3xx2++164 dx
7 x 2 + 13x = ( A + B ) x 2 + ( C - B ) x + 4 A - C
= ò x4-1 + 3x
x2 + 4
+ 16
x2 + 4
dx Set coefficients equal to get a system and solve
= 4 ln x - 1 + 32 ln ( x 2 + 4 ) + 8 tan -1 ( x2 ) to get constants.
A+ B = 7 C - B = 13 4A - C = 0
Here is partial fraction form and recombined.
A=4 B=3 C = 16

An alternate method that sometimes works to find constants. Start with setting numerators equal in
previous example : 7 x 2 + 13x = A ( x 2 + 4 ) + ( Bx + C ) ( x - 1) . Chose nice values of x and plug in.
For example if x = 1 we get 20 = 5A which gives A = 4 . This won’t always work easily.

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 Applications of Integrals
b
Net Area : ò a f ( x ) dx represents the net area between f ( x ) and the
x-axis with area above x-axis positive and area below x-axis negative.

Area Between Curves : The general formulas for the two main cases for each are,
b d
y = f ( x) Þ A = ò éupper function ù
ë û - éëlower function ùû dx & x = f ( y) Þ A = ò é right function ù
ë û - éëleft function ùû dy
a c
If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be found individually. Here are some
sketches of a couple possible situations and formulas for a couple of possible cases.

d
A = ò f ( y ) - g ( y ) dy
b c b
A = ò f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx c A = ò f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx + ò g ( x ) - f ( x ) dx
a a c

Volumes of Revolution : The two main formulas are V = ò A ( x ) dx and V = ò A ( y ) dy . Here is

some general information about each method of computing and some examples.
Rings Cylinders
(
A = p ( outer radius ) - ( inner radius)
2 2
) A = 2p ( radius ) ( width / height )
Limits: x/y of right/bot ring to x/y of left/top ring Limits : x/y of inner cyl. to x/y of outer cyl.
Horz. Axis use f ( x ) , Vert. Axis use f ( y ) , Horz. Axis use f ( y ) , Vert. Axis use f ( x ) ,
g ( x ) , A ( x ) and dx. g ( y ) , A ( y ) and dy. g ( y ) , A ( y ) and dy. g ( x ) , A ( x ) and dx.

Ex. Axis : y = a > 0 Ex. Axis : y = a £ 0 Ex. Axis : y = a > 0 Ex. Axis : y = a £ 0

outer radius : a - f ( x ) outer radius: a + g ( x ) radius : a - y radius : a + y

inner radius : a - g ( x ) inner radius: a + f ( x ) width : f ( y ) - g ( y ) width : f ( y ) - g ( y )

These are only a few cases for horizontal axis of rotation. If axis of rotation is the x-axis use the
y = a £ 0 case with a = 0 . For vertical axis of rotation ( x = a > 0 and x = a £ 0 ) interchange x and
y to get appropriate formulas.

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Work : If a force of F ( x ) moves an object Average Function Value : The average value
b
b of f ( x ) on a £ x £ b is f avg = 1
ò f ( x ) dx
in a £ x £ b , the work done is W = ò F ( x ) dx b-a a
a

Arc Length Surface Area : Note that this is often a Calc II topic. The three basic formulas are,
b b b
L = ò ds SA = ò 2p y ds (rotate about x-axis) SA = ò 2p x ds (rotate about y-axis)
a a a
where ds is dependent upon the form of the function being worked with as follows.

( ) ( dxdt ) ( )
2 2
dx if y = f ( x ) , a £ x £ b dt if x = f ( t ) , y = g ( t ) , a £ t £ b
dy 2 dy
ds = 1 + dx
ds = + dt

1+ ( ) ds = r 2 + ( ddrq ) dq if r = f (q ) , a £ q £ b
2 2
ds = dx
dy
dy if x = f ( y ) , a £ y £ b
With surface area you may have to substitute in for the x or y depending on your choice of ds to
match the differential in the ds. With parametric and polar you will always need to substitute.

Improper Integral
An improper integral is an integral with one or more infinite limits and/or discontinuous integrands.
Integral is called convergent if the limit exists and has a finite value and divergent if the limit
doesn’t exist or has infinite value. This is typically a Calc II topic.

Infinite Limit
¥ t b b
1. ò f ( x ) dx = lim ò f ( x ) dx 2. ò¥ f ( x ) dx = lim ò f ( x ) dx
a t ®¥ a - t ®-¥ t
¥ c ¥
3. ò ¥ f ( x ) dx = ò ¥ f ( x ) dx + ò
- - c
f ( x ) dx provided BOTH integrals are convergent.
Discontinuous Integrand
b b b t
1. Discont. at a: ò f ( x ) dx = lim+ ò f ( x ) dx 2. Discont. at b : ò f ( x ) dx = lim- ò f ( x ) dx
a t ®a t a t ®b a
b c b
3. Discontinuity at a < c < b : ò f ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx + ò f ( x ) dx provided both are convergent.
a a c

Comparison Test for Improper Integrals : If f ( x ) ³ g ( x ) ³ 0 on [ a, ¥ ) then,

¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
1. If ò f ( x ) dx conv. then ò g ( x ) dx conv. 2. If ò g ( x ) dx divg. then ò f ( x ) dx divg.
a a a a
¥
Useful fact : If a > 0 then òa dx converges if p > 1 and diverges for p £ 1 .
1
xp

Approximating Definite Integrals

b
For given integral ò a f ( x ) dx and a n (must be even for Simpson’s Rule) define Dx = b-na and

divide [ a, b] into n subintervals [ x0 , x1 ] , [ x1 , x2 ] , … , [ xn -1 , xn ] with x0 = a and xn = b then,

ò f ( x ) dx » Dx éë f ( x ) + f ( x ) + L + f ( x )ùû , xi is midpoint [ xi -1 , xi ]
b
* * * *
Midpoint Rule : 1 2 n
a

b Dx
Trapezoid Rule : ò f ( x ) dx » 2 éë f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + +2 f ( x ) + L + 2 f ( x ) + f ( x ) ùû
a
0 1 2 n -1 n

b Dx
Simpson’s Rule : ò f ( x ) dx » 3 éë f ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + L + 2 f ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) + f ( x ) ùû
a
0 1 2 n-2 n -1 n

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7001_ThomasET_BTIpT1-T6.qxd 11/3/09 12:17 PM Page 1

A BRIEF TABLE OF INTEGRALS

Basic Forms
xn+1
1. k dx = kx + C sany number kd 2. x n dx = + C sn Z - 1d
L L n + 1
dx
3. x = ln ƒ x ƒ + C 4. e x dx = e x + C
L L
ax
5. a x dx = + C sa 7 0, a Z 1d 6. sin x dx = - cos x + C
L ln a L
7. cos x dx = sin x + C 8. sec2 x dx = tan x + C
L L
9. csc2 x dx = - cot x + C 10. sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
L L
11. csc x cot x dx = - csc x + C 12. tan x dx = ln ƒ sec x ƒ + C
L L
13. cot x dx = ln ƒ sin x ƒ + C 14. sinh x dx = cosh x + C
L L
dx x
15. cosh x dx = sinh x + C 16. = sin-1 a + C
L L 2a - x 2 2

` a ` + C
dx 1 x dx 1 x
17. = a tan-1 a + C 18. = a sec-1
La + x L x2x 2 - a 2
2 2

dx x dx x
19. = sinh-1 a + C sa 7 0d 20. = cosh-1 a + C sx 7 a 7 0d
L 2a 2 + x 2 L 2x 2 - a 2

Forms Involving ax  b
sax + bdn + 1
21. sax + bdn dx = + C, n Z -1
L asn + 1d
sax + bdn + 1 ax + b
c d + C,
b
22. xsax + bdn dx = - n Z - 1, -2
L a2 n + 2 n + 1
1 x b
23. sax + bd-1 dx = a ln ƒ ax + b ƒ + C 24. xsax + bd-1 dx = a - 2 ln ƒ ax + b ƒ + C
L L a

c ln ƒ ax + b ƒ + d + C = ln ` ` + C
1 b dx 1 x
25. xsax + bd-2 dx = 26.
L L
2 ax + b xsax bd b ax + b
a +

2 A 2ax + b B
n+2

A 2ax + b B
n 2ax + b dx
27. dx = a + C, n Z -2 28. x dx = 22ax + b + b
L n + 2 L L x2ax + b

T-1
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T-2 A Brief Table of Integrals

ln ` ` + C
dx 1 2ax + b - 2b dx 2 ax - b
29. (a) = (b) = tan-1 + C
L x2ax + b 2b 2ax + b + 2b L x2ax - b 2b A b
2ax + b 2ax + b a dx dx 2ax + b a dx
30. dx = - x + + C 31. = - - + C
L 2 L x2ax + b L x 2ax + b 2b L x2ax + b
2 2 bx
x

Forms Involving a2  x2
dx 1 x dx x 1 x
32. = a tan-1 a + C 33. = + tan-1 a + C
La + x L sa + x d
2 2 2 2 2
2a 2sa 2 + x 2 d 2a 3

= sinh-1 a + C = ln A x + 2a 2 + x 2 B + C
dx x
34.
L 2a 2 + x 2

ln A x + 2a 2 + x 2 B + C
x a2
35. 2a 2 + x 2 dx = 2a 2 + x 2 +
L 2 2

ln A x + 2a 2 + x 2 B + C
x a4
36. x 2 2a 2 + x 2 dx = sa 2 + 2x 2 d2a 2 + x 2 -
L 8 8

dx = 2a 2 + x 2 - a ln ` ` +C
2a 2 + x 2 a + 2a 2 + x 2
37. x x
L

dx = ln A x + 2a 2 + x 2 B -
2a 2 + x 2 2a 2 + x 2
38. x + C
L
2
x

ln A x + 2a 2 + x 2 B +
x2 a2 x2a 2 + x 2
39. dx = - + C
L 2a + x 2 2 2 2

= - a ln ` ` + C
dx 1 a + 2a 2 + x 2 dx 2a 2 + x 2
40. x 41. = - + C
L x2a 2 + x 2 L x 2 2a 2 + x 2 a 2x

Forms Involving a2  x2

ln ` x - a ` + C ln ` x - a ` + C
dx 1 x + a dx x 1 x + a
42. = 43. = +
La - x 2a L sa - x d
22 2
2 2 2 2 2 3
2a sa - x d 4a
dx x x a 2 -1 x
44. = sin-1 a + C 45. 2a 2 - x 2 dx = 2a 2 - x 2 + sin a + C
L 2a 2 - x 2 L 2 2
4
a x 1
46. x 2 2a 2 - x 2 dx = sin-1 a - x2a 2 - x 2 sa 2 - 2x 2 d + C
L 8 8

dx = 2a 2 - x 2 - a ln ` ` + C 48.
2a 2 - x 2 a + 2a 2 - x 2 2a 2 - x 2 x 2a 2 - x 2
47. x x dx = - sin-1 a - x + C
L L
2
x

= - a ln ` ` + C
x2 a 2 -1 x 1 dx 1 a + 2a 2 - x 2
49. dx = sin a - x2a 2 - x 2 + C 50. x
L 2a 2 - x 2 2 2 L x2a 2 - x 2

dx 2a 2 - x 2
51. = - + C
L x 2 2a 2 - x 2 a 2x

Forms Involving x2  a2
dx
52. = ln ƒ x + 2x 2 - a 2 ƒ + C
L 2x - a 2 2

x a2
53. 2x 2 - a 2 dx = 2x 2 - a 2 - ln ƒ x + 2x 2 - a 2 ƒ + C
L 2 2
7001_ThomasET_BTIpT1-T6.qxd 11/3/09 12:17 PM Page 3

A Brief Table of Integrals T-3

x A 2x 2 - a 2 B
n

A 2x - a B dx = A 2x 2 - a 2 B dx,
2 2 n na 2 n-2
54. - n Z -1
L n + 1 n + 1L
x A 2x 2 - a 2 B
2-n
dx n - 3 dx
L A 2x - a B sn - 2da 2 L A 2x 2 - a 2 B n - 2
55. = - , n Z 2
2 2 n s2 - nda 2

A 2x 2 - a 2 B
n+2

56. x A 2x - a 2
B dx =
2 n
+ C, n Z -2
L n + 2

x a4
57. x 2 2x 2 - a 2 dx = s2x 2 - a 2 d2x 2 - a 2 - ln ƒ x + 2x 2 - a 2 ƒ + C
L 8 8

dx = 2x 2 - a 2 - a sec-1 ` a ` + C
2x 2 - a 2 x
58. x
L
2x 2 - a 2 2x 2 - a 2
59. dx = ln ƒ x + 2x 2 - a 2 ƒ - x + C
L
2
x
x2 a2 x
60. dx = ln ƒ x + 2x 2 - a 2 ƒ + 2x 2 - a 2 + C
L 2x - a
2 2 2 2

= a sec-1 ` a ` + C = a cos-1 ` x ` + C
dx 1 x 1 a dx 2x 2 - a 2
61. 62. = + C
L x2x 2 - a 2 L x 2 2x 2 - a 2 a 2x

Trigonometric Forms
1 1
63. sin ax dx = - a cos ax + C 64. cos ax dx = a sin ax + C
L L
x sin 2ax x sin 2ax
65. sin2 ax dx = - + C 66. cos2 ax dx = + + C
L 2 4a L 2 4a

sinn - 1 ax cos ax n - 1
67. sinn ax dx = - na + n sinn - 2 ax dx
L L
cosn - 1 ax sin ax n - 1
68. cosn ax dx = na + n cosn - 2 ax dx
L L
cossa + bdx cossa - bdx
69. (a) sin ax cos bx dx = - - + C, a2 Z b2
L 2sa + bd 2sa - bd
sinsa - bdx sinsa + bdx
(b) sin ax sin bx dx = - + C, a2 Z b2
L 2sa - bd 2sa + bd
sinsa - bdx sinsa + bdx
(c) cos ax cos bx dx = + + C, a2 Z b2
L 2sa - bd 2sa + bd
cos 2ax sinn + 1 ax
70. sin ax cos ax dx = - + C 71. sinn ax cos ax dx = + C, n Z -1
L 4a L sn + 1da
cos ax 1 cosn + 1 ax
72. dx = a ln ƒ sin ax ƒ + C 73. cosn ax sin ax dx = - + C, n Z -1
L sin ax L sn + 1da
sin ax 1
74. cos ax dx = - a ln ƒ cos ax ƒ + C
L
sinn - 1 ax cosm + 1 ax n - 1
75. sinn ax cosm ax dx = - + sinn - 2 ax cosm ax dx, n Z -m sreduces sinn axd
L asm + nd m + nL

sinn + 1 ax cosm - 1 ax m - 1
76. sinn ax cosm ax dx = + sinn ax cosm - 2 ax dx, m Z -n sreduces cosm axd
L asm + nd m + nL
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T-4 A Brief Table of Integrals

tan-1 c tan a - b d + C,
dx -2 b - c p ax
77. = b2 7 c2
L b + c sin ax 2
a2b - c 2 A b + c 4 2

ln ` ` + C,
dx -1 c + b sin ax + 2c 2 - b 2 cos ax
78. = b2 6 c2
L b + c sin ax a2c 2 - b 2 b + c sin ax

= - a tan a - b + C = a tan a + b + C
dx 1 p ax dx 1 p ax
79. 80.
L 1 + sin ax 4 2 L 1 - sin ax 4 2

tan-1 c tan d + C,
dx 2 b - c ax
81. = b2 7 c2
L b + c cos ax 2
a2b - c 2 A b + c 2

ln ` ` + C,
dx 1 c + b cos ax + 2c 2 - b 2 sin ax
82. = b2 6 c2
L b + c cos ax a2c 2 - b 2 b + c cos ax
dx 1 ax dx 1 ax
83. = a tan + C 84. = - a cot + C
L 1 + cos ax 2 L 1 - cos ax 2
1 x 1 x
85. x sin ax dx = sin ax - a cos ax + C 86. x cos ax dx = cos ax + a sin ax + C
L a2 L a2
xn n xn n
87. x n sin ax dx = - a cos ax + a x n - 1 cos ax dx 88. x n cos ax dx = a sin ax - a x n - 1 sin ax dx
L L L L
1 1
89. tan ax dx = a ln ƒ sec ax ƒ + C 90. cot ax dx = a ln ƒ sin ax ƒ + C
L L
1 1
91. tan2 ax dx = a tan ax - x + C 92. cot2 ax dx = - a cot ax - x + C
L L
n-1
tan ax cotn - 1 ax
93. tann ax dx = - tann - 2 ax dx, n Z 1 94. cotn ax dx = - - cotn - 2 ax dx, n Z 1
L asn - 1d L L asn - 1d L
1 1
95. sec ax dx = a ln ƒ sec ax + tan ax ƒ + C 96. csc ax dx = - a ln ƒ csc ax + cot ax ƒ + C
L L
1 1
97. sec2 ax dx = a tan ax + C 98. csc2 ax dx = - a cot ax + C
L L
secn - 2 ax tan ax n - 2
99. secn ax dx = + secn - 2 ax dx, n Z 1
L asn - 1d n - 1L
cscn - 2 ax cot ax n - 2
100. cscn ax dx = - + cscn - 2 ax dx, n Z 1
L asn - 1d n - 1L
secn ax cscn ax
101. secn ax tan ax dx = na + C, n Z 0 102. cscn ax cot ax dx = - na + C, n Z 0
L L

Inverse Trigonometric Forms

1 1
103. sin-1 ax dx = x sin-1 ax + a 21 - a 2x 2 + C 104. cos-1 ax dx = x cos-1 ax - a 21 - a 2x 2 + C
L L
1
105. tan-1 ax dx = x tan-1 ax - ln s1 + a 2x 2 d + C
L 2a
xn+1 a x n + 1 dx
106. x n sin-1 ax dx = sin-1 ax - , n Z -1
L n + 1 n + 1 L 21 - a 2x 2
xn+1 a x n + 1 dx
107. x n cos-1 ax dx = cos-1 ax + , n Z -1
L n + 1 n + 1 L 21 - a 2x 2

xn+1 a x n + 1 dx
108. x n tan-1 ax dx = tan-1 ax - , n Z -1
L n + 1 n + 1 L 1 + a 2x 2
7001_ThomasET_BTIpT1-T6.qxd 11/3/09 12:17 PM Page 5

A Brief Table of Integrals T-5

Exponential and Logarithmic Forms

1 1 b ax
109. e ax dx = a e ax + C 110. b ax dx = a + C, b 7 0, b Z 1
L L ln b

e ax 1 n
111. xe ax dx = sax - 1d + C 112. x ne ax dx = a x ne ax - a x n - 1e ax dx
L a2 L L
n ax
x b n
113. x nb ax dx = - x n - 1b ax dx, b 7 0, b Z 1
L a ln b a ln b L
e ax
114. e ax sin bx dx = sa sin bx - b cos bxd + C
L a + b2
2

e ax
115. e ax cos bx dx = sa cos bx + b sin bxd + C 116. ln ax dx = x ln ax - x + C
L a2 + b2 L
x n + 1sln axdm m
117. x nsln axdm dx = - x nsln axdm - 1 dx, n Z - 1
L n + 1 n + 1 L
m+1
sln axd dx
118. x -1sln axdm dx = + C, m Z - 1 119. = ln ƒ ln ax ƒ + C
L m + 1 L x ln ax

Forms Involving 22ax  x2, a>0

= sin-1 a a b + C
dx x - a
120.
L 22ax - x 2

sin a a b + C
x - a a 2 -1 x - a
121. 22ax - x 2 dx = 22ax - x 2 +
L 2 2
sx - ad A 22ax - x 2 B
n

A 22ax - x B dx = A 22ax - x 2 B dx
2 n na 2 n-2
122. +
L n + 1 n + 1L
sx - ad A 22ax - x 2 B
2-n
dx n - 3 dx
L A 22ax - x B sn - 2da 2 L A 22ax - x 2 B n - 2
123. = +
2 n sn - 2da 2

sx + ads2x - 3ad22ax - x 2
sin a a b + C
a 3 -1 x - a
124. x22ax - x 2 dx = +
L 6 2

dx = 22ax - x 2 + a sin-1 a a b + C
22ax - x 2 x - a
125. x
L

- sin-1 a a b + C
22ax - x 2 2a - x x - a
126. dx = - 2
L x2 A x

= a sin-1 a a b - 22ax - x + C
x dx x - a 2 dx 1 2a - x
127. 128. = -a + C
L 22ax - x 2
L x22ax - x 2 A x

Hyperbolic Forms
1 1
129. sinh ax dx = a cosh ax + C 130. cosh ax dx = a sinh ax + C
L L
sinh 2ax x sinh 2ax x
131. sinh2 ax dx = - + C 132. cosh2 ax dx = + + C
L 4a 2 L 4a 2
n-1
sinh ax cosh ax n - 1
133. sinhn ax dx = na - n sinhn - 2 ax dx, n Z 0
L L
7001_ThomasET_BTIpT1-T6.qxd 11/3/09 12:17 PM Page 6

T-6 A Brief Table of Integrals

coshn - 1 ax sinh ax n - 1
134. coshn ax dx = na + n coshn - 2 ax dx, n Z 0
L L
x 1 x 1
135. x sinh ax dx = a cosh ax - 2 sinh ax + C 136. x cosh ax dx = a sinh ax - 2 cosh ax + C
L a L a
xn n xn n
137. x n sinh ax dx = a cosh ax - a x n - 1 cosh ax dx 138. x n cosh ax dx = a sinh ax - a x n - 1 sinh ax dx
L L L L
1 1
139. tanh ax dx = a ln scosh axd + C 140. coth ax dx = a ln ƒ sinh ax ƒ + C
L L
1 1
141. tanh2 ax dx = x - a tanh ax + C 142. coth2 ax dx = x - a coth ax + C
L L
n-1
tanh ax
143. tanhn ax dx = - + tanhn - 2 ax dx, n Z 1
L sn - 1da L
cothn - 1 ax
144. cothn ax dx = - + cothn - 2 ax dx, n Z 1
L sn - 1da L

csch ax dx = a ln ` tanh ` + C
1 1 ax
145. sech ax dx = a sin-1 stanh axd + C 146.
L L 2
1 1
147. sech2 ax dx = a tanh ax + C 148. csch2 ax dx = - a coth ax + C
L L
n-2
sech ax tanh ax n - 2
149. sechn ax dx = + sechn - 2 ax dx, n Z 1
L sn - 1da n - 1L
cschn - 2 ax coth ax n - 2
150. cschn ax dx = - - cschn - 2 ax dx, n Z 1
L sn - 1da n - 1L
sechn ax cschn ax
151. sechn ax tanh ax dx = - na + C, n Z 0 152. cschn ax coth ax dx = - na + C, n Z 0
L L

c d + C,
e ax e bx e -bx
153. e ax sinh bx dx = - a2 Z b2
L 2 a + b a - b

c d + C,
e ax e bx e -bx
154. e ax cosh bx dx = + a2 Z b2
L 2 a + b a - b

Some Definite Integrals

q q
2 1 p
155. x n - 1e -x dx = ≠snd = sn - 1d!, n 7 0 156. e -ax dx = , a 7 0
L0 L0 2A a
1 # 3 # 5 # Á # sn - 1d # p
, if n is an even integer Ú2
p>2 p>2 2#4#6# Á #n 2
157. n
sin x dx = cos x dx = d # # # Á #
n
L0 L0 2 4 6 sn - 1d
#
3 5 7 # # Á #n , if n is an odd integer Ú3
7001_ThomasET_Last3Bkpgs 11/3/09 12:22 PM Page 2

Trigonometry Formulas tan A + tan B

tan sA + Bd =
1 - tan A tan B
y tan A - tan B
1. Definitions and Fundamental Identities tan sA - Bd =
1 + tan A tan B
y 1
Sine: sin u = r = P(x, y)
sin aA - b = - cos A, cos aA - b = sin A
csc u r p p
y 2 2
x 1 ␪
Cosine: cos u = r = x
sin aA + b = cos A, cos aA + b = - sin A
sec u 0 x p p
2 2
y 1
Tangent: tan u = x = 1 1
cot u sin A sin B = cos sA - Bd - cos sA + Bd
2 2
2. Identities 1 1
cos A cos B = cos sA - Bd + cos sA + Bd
2 2
sin s -ud = - sin u, cos s -ud = cos u
1 1
sin2 u + cos2 u = 1, sec2 u = 1 + tan2 u, csc2 u = 1 + cot2 u sin A cos B = sin sA - Bd + sin sA + Bd
2 2
sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u, cos 2u = cos2 u - sin2 u sin A + sin B = 2 sin
1 1
sA + Bd cos sA - Bd
2 2
1 + cos 2u 1 - cos 2u
cos2 u = , sin2 u = 1 1
2 2 sin A - sin B = 2 cos sA + Bd sin sA - Bd
2 2
sin sA + Bd = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
1 1
sin sA - Bd = sin A cos B - cos A sin B cos A + cos B = 2 cos sA + Bd cos sA - Bd
2 2
cos sA + Bd = cos A cos B - sin A sin B 1 1
cos A - cos B = - 2 sin sA + Bd sin sA - Bd
2 2
cos sA - Bd = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
y y
y  sin x y  cos x

Trigonometric Functions x x
–␲ – ␲ 0 ␲ ␲ 3␲ 2␲ –␲ – ␲ 0 ␲ ␲ 3␲ 2␲
Radian Measure Degrees Radians 2 2 2 2 2 2
y  sinx
Domain: (–, ) Domain: (–, )
45 ␲ Range: [–1, 1] Range: [–1, 1]
4
s 兹2 1 兹2 1
θ ␲ ␲
1 y y
45 90 4 2 y  tan x y  sec x
r 1 1
Un
it cir cl
e

1
r x x
– 3␲ –␲ – ␲ 0 ␲ ␲ 3␲ – 3␲ –␲ – ␲ 0 ␲ ␲ 3␲
C ir s
cle of ra diu
␲ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
30
6
2 兹3 2 兹3
Domain: All real numbers except odd Domain: All real numbers except odd
integer multiples of ␲/2 integer multiples of ␲/2
␲ ␲
60 90 3 2 Range: (–, ) Range: (–, –1] h [1, )
1 1
s u s y y
r = 1 = u or u = r , y  csc x y  cot x
The angles of two common triangles, in
180° = p radians . degrees and radians.
1 1
x x
–␲ – ␲ 0 ␲ ␲ 3␲ 2␲ –␲ – ␲ 0 ␲ ␲ 3␲ 2␲
2 2 2 2 2 2

Domain: x  0, ␲, 2␲, . . . Domain: x  0, ␲, 2␲, . . .

Range: (–, –1] h [1, ) Range: (–, )
7001_ThomasET_Last3Bkpgs 11/3/09 12:22 PM Page 3

SERIES

Tests for Convergence of Infinite Series

1. The nth-Term Test: Unless an : 0, the series diverges.
2. Geometric series: g ar n converges if ƒ r ƒ 6 1; otherwise it
diverges.
3. p-series: g 1>n p converges if p 7 1; otherwise it diverges.
4. Series with nonnegative terms: Try the Integral Test, Ratio
Test, or Root Test. Try comparing to a known series with the
Comparison Test or the Limit Comparison Test.
5. Series with some negative terms: Does g ƒ an ƒ converge? If
yes, so does gan since absolute convergence implies con-
vergence.
6. Alternating series: gan converges if the series satisfies the
conditions of the Alternating Series Test.

Taylor Series
q
1
= 1 + x + x 2 + Á + x n + Á = a x n, ƒxƒ 6 1
1 - x n=0
q
1
= 1 - x + x 2 - Á + s -xdn + Á = a s - 1dnx n, ƒxƒ 6 1
1 + x n=0
q
x2 xn xn
ex = 1 + x + + Á + + Á = a , ƒxƒ 6 q
2! n! n = 0 n!

x3 x5 x 2n + 1
q
s - 1dnx 2n + 1
sin x = x - + - Á + s -1dn + Á = a , ƒxƒ 6 q
3! 5! s2n + 1d! n = 0 s2n + 1d!

x2 x4 x 2n
q
s - 1dnx 2n
cos x = 1 - + - Á + s -1dn + Á = a , ƒxƒ 6 q
2! 4! s2nd! n=0 s2nd!
x2 x3 xn
q
s - 1dn - 1x n
ln s1 + xd = x - + - Á + s -1dn - 1 n + Á = a n , -1 6 x … 1
2 3 n=1

= 2 tanh-1 x = 2 ax + + Á b = 2a
q
1 + x x3 x5 x 2n + 1 x 2n + 1
ln + + Á + , ƒxƒ 6 1
1 - x 3 5 2n + 1 n = 0 2n + 1

x3 x5 x 2n + 1
q
s - 1dnx 2n + 1
tan-1 x = x - + - Á + s -1dn + Á = a , ƒxƒ … 1
3 5 2n + 1 n=0 2n + 1

Binomial Series
msm - 1dx 2 msm - 1dsm - 2dx 3 msm - 1dsm - 2d Á sm - k + 1dx k
s1 + xdm = 1 + mx + + + Á + + Á
2! 3! k!

= 1 + a a b x k,
q
m
ƒ x ƒ 6 1,
k=1 k
where

a b = m, a b = a b =
m m msm - 1d m msm - 1d Á sm - k + 1d
, for k Ú 3.
1 2 2! k k!
7001_ThomasET_Last3Bkpgs 11/3/09 12:23 PM Page 4

VECTOR OPERATOR FORMULAS (CARTESIAN FORM)

Formulas for Grad, Div, Curl, and the Laplacian

The Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals
Cartesian (x, y, z)
i, j, and k are unit vectors 1. Let F = Mi + Nj + Pk be a vector field whose components are
in the directions of continuous throughout an open connected region D in space. Then
increasing x, y, and z. there exists a differentiable function ƒ such that
M, N, and P are the 0ƒ 0ƒ 0ƒ
F = §ƒ = i + j + k
0x 0y 0z
scalar components of B
F(x, y, z) in these if and only if for all points A and B in D the value of 1A F # dr is inde-
pendent of the path joining A to B in D.
directions.
2. If the integral is independent of the path from A to B, its value is
0ƒ 0ƒ 0ƒ
Gradient §ƒ = i + j + k B
0x 0y 0z
F # dr = ƒsBd - ƒsAd.
LA
0M 0N 0P
Divergence §#F = + +
0x 0y 0z
Green’s Theorem and Its Generalization to Three Dimensions
i j k
Normal form of Green’s Theorem: F # n ds = § # F dA
§ * F = 4
0 0 0 4
Curl
0x 0y 0z F 6
C R
M N P
Divergence Theorem: F # n ds = § # F dV
6 9
0 2ƒ 0 2ƒ 0 2ƒ S D
Laplacian §2ƒ = 2
+ 2
+ 2
0x 0y 0z Tangential form of Green’s Theorem: F # dr = § * F # k dA
F 6
C R
Vector Triple Products
Stokes’ Theorem: F # dr = § * F # n ds
su * vd # w = sv * wd # u = sw * ud # v F 6
C S
u * sv * wd = su # wdv - su # vdw

Vector Identities
In the identities here, ƒ and g are differentiable scalar functions, F, F1 , and F2 are differentiable vector fields, and a and b are real
constants.
§ * s§ƒd = 0 § # sF1 * F2 d = F2 # § * F1 - F1 # § * F2
§sƒgd = ƒ§g + g§ƒ
§ * sF1 * F2 d = sF2 # §dF1 - sF1 # §dF2 +
§ # sgFd = g§ # F + §g # F s§ # F2 dF1 - s § # F1 dF2
§ * sgFd = g§ * F + §g * F
§ * s§ * Fd = §s § # Fd - s § # §dF = §s§ # Fd - §2F
§ # saF1 + bF2 d = a§ # F1 + b§ # F2 1
s§ * Fd * F = sF # §dF - §sF # Fd
2
§ * saF1 + bF2 d = a§ * F1 + b§ * F2

§sF1 # F2 d = sF1 # §dF2 + sF2 # §dF1 +

F1 * s§ * F2 d + F2 * s§ * F1 d
7001_ThomasET_EPp01-07 11/3/09 12:18 PM Page 3

BASIC ALGEBRA FORMULAS

Arithmetic Operations
a#c ac
asb + cd = ab + ac, =
b d bd
a c ad + bc a>b a d
+ = , = #c
b d bd c>d b
Laws of Signs
-a a a
-s - ad = a, = - =
b b -b
Zero Division by zero is not defined.
0
If a Z 0: a = 0, a 0 = 1, 0a = 0

For any number a: a # 0 = 0 # a = 0

Laws of Exponents

A2 aBm
n n
a ma n = a m + n, sabdm = a mb m, sa m dn = a mn, a m>n = 2a m =
If a Z 0,
am 1
= a m - n, a 0 = 1, a -m = .
an am

The Binomial Theorem For any positive integer n,

nsn - 1d n - 2 2
sa + bdn = a n + na n - 1b + a b
1#2
nsn - 1dsn - 2d n - 3 3
+ a b + Á + nab n - 1 + b n .
1#2#3
For instance,
sa + bd2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2, sa - bd2 = a 2 - 2ab + b 2

sa + bd3 = a 3 + 3a 2b + 3ab 2 + b 3, sa - bd3 = a 3 - 3a 2b + 3ab 2 - b 3.

Factoring the Difference of Like Integer Powers, n>1
a n - b n = sa - bdsa n - 1 + a n - 2b + a n - 3b 2 + Á + ab n - 2 + b n - 1 d
For instance,
a 2 - b 2 = sa - bdsa + bd,
a 3 - b 3 = sa - bdsa 2 + ab + b 2 d,
a 4 - b 4 = sa - bdsa 3 + a 2b + ab 2 + b 3 d.

Completing the Square If a Z 0,

au = x + sb>2ad, C = c - b
b2
ax 2 + bx + c = au 2 + C
4a
The Quadratic Formula If a Z 0 and ax 2 + bx + c = 0, then
-b ; 2b 2 - 4ac
x = .
2a
7001_ThomasET_EPp01-07 11/3/09 12:18 PM Page 4

GEOMETRY FORMULAS

A = area, B = area of base, C = circumference, S = lateral area or surface area,

V = volume

Triangle Similar Triangles Pythagorean Theorem

c c' a' a c
b
h b'

b b a
a' b' c'
abc a2  b2  c2
A  1 bh
2

Parallelogram Trapezoid Circle

a
h
h
r A  ␲r 2,
b C  2␲r
b
A  bh
A  1 (a  b)h
2

Any Cylinder or Prism with Parallel Bases Right Circular Cylinder

r

h
h
h

B V  Bh
B
V  ␲r2h
S  2␲rh  Area of side

Any Cone or Pyramid Right Circular Cone Sphere

h h
h s
r

V  1 Bh B V  1 ␲r2h V  43 ␲r3, S  4␲r2

3 3
B S  ␲rs  Area of side
7001_ThomasET_EPp01-07 11/3/09 12:18 PM Page 5

LIMITS

General Laws Specific Formulas

If L, M, c, and k are real numbers and If Psxd = an x n + an - 1 x n - 1 + Á + a0 , then
lim Psxd = Pscd = an c n + an - 1 c n - 1 + Á + a0 .
lim ƒsxd = L and lim gsxd = M, then x:c
x:c x:c

Sum Rule: lim sƒsxd + gsxdd = L + M

x:c

Difference Rule: lim sƒsxd - gsxdd = L - M If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Qscd Z 0, then
x:c

Product Rule: lim sƒsxd # gsxdd = L # M Psxd Pscd

x:c lim = .
x:c Qsxd Qscd
Constant Multiple Rule: lim sk # ƒsxdd = k # L
x:c

ƒsxd L
Quotient Rule: lim = , M Z 0
x:c gsxd M
If ƒ(x) is continuous at x = c, then
The Sandwich Theorem
lim ƒsxd = ƒscd.
x:c
If gsxd … ƒsxd … hsxd in an open interval containing c, except
possibly at x = c, and if

lim gsxd = lim hsxd = L,

x:c x:c sin x 1 - cos x
lim x = 1 and lim x = 0
then limx:c ƒsxd = L. x:0 x:0

Inequalities L’Hôpital’s Rule

If ƒsxd … gsxd in an open interval containing c, except possibly If ƒsad = gsad = 0, both ƒ¿ and g¿ exist in an open interval I
at x = c, and both limits exist, then containing a, and g¿sxd Z 0 on I if x Z a, then

lim ƒsxd … lim gsxd. ƒsxd ƒ¿sxd

x:c x:c lim = lim ,
x:a gsxd x:a g¿sxd

Continuity assuming the limit on the right side exists.

If g is continuous at L and limx:c ƒsxd = L, then

lim g(ƒsxdd = gsLd.

x:c
7001_ThomasET_EPp01-07 11/3/09 12:18 PM Page 6

DIFFERENTIATION RULES

General Formulas Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Assume u and y are differentiable functions of x. d 1 d 1
ssin-1 xd = scos-1 xd = -
d dx 21 - x 2 dx 21 - x 2
Constant: scd = 0
dx
d du dy d 1 d 1
Sum: su + yd = stan-1 xd = ssec-1 xd =
dx dx
+
dx dx 1 + x2 dx ƒ x ƒ 2x 2 - 1
d du dy d 1 d 1
Difference: su - yd = - scot-1 xd = - scsc-1 xd = -
dx dx dx dx 1 + x2 dx ƒ x ƒ 2x 2 - 1
d du
Constant Multiple: scud = c
dx dx
d dy du Hyperbolic Functions
Product: suyd = u + y
dx dx dx d d
ssinh xd = cosh x scosh xd = sinh x
du dy dx dx
y - u
a b =
d u dx dx d d
Quotient: stanh xd = sech2 x ssech xd = - sech x tanh x
dx y y2 dx dx
d n
Power: x = nx n - 1 d d
dx scoth xd = - csch2 x scsch xd = - csch x coth x
dx dx
d
Chain Rule: sƒsgsxdd = ƒ¿sgsxdd # g¿sxd
dx
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Trigonometric Functions
d 1 d 1
ssinh-1 xd = scosh-1 xd =
d d dx 21 + x 2 dx 2x - 1
2
ssin xd = cos x scos xd = - sin x
dx dx
d 1 d 1
d d stanh-1 xd = ssech-1 xd = -
stan xd = sec2 x ssec xd = sec x tan x dx 1 - x2 dx x21 - x 2
dx dx
d d d 1 d 1
scot xd = - csc2 x scsc xd = - csc x cot x scoth-1 xd = scsch-1 xd = -
dx dx dx 1 - x2 dx ƒ x ƒ 21 + x 2
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Parametric Equations
d x d 1 If x = ƒstd and y = gstd are differentiable, then
e = ex ln x = x
dx dx
dy dy>dt d 2y dy¿>dt
d x d 1 y¿ = and .
a = a x ln a sloga xd = dx
=
dx>dt dx 2
=
dx>dt
dx dx x ln a
7001_ThomasET_EPp01-07 11/3/09 12:18 PM Page 7

INTEGRATION RULES

General Formulas
a
Zero: ƒsxd dx = 0
La
a b
Order of Integration: ƒsxd dx = - ƒsxd dx
Lb La
b b
Constant Multiples: kƒsxd dx = k ƒsxd dx sAny number kd
La La
b b
-ƒsxd dx = - ƒsxd dx sk = - 1d
La La
b b b
Sums and Differences: sƒsxd ; gsxdd dx = ƒsxd dx ; gsxd dx
La La La
b c c
Additivity: ƒsxd dx + ƒsxd dx ƒsxd dx =
La Lb La
Max-Min Inequality: If max ƒ and min ƒ are the maximum and minimum values of ƒ on [a, b], then
b
min ƒ # sb - ad … ƒsxd dx … max ƒ # sb - ad.
La
b b
Domination: ƒsxd Ú gsxd on [a, b] implies ƒsxd dx Ú gsxd dx
La La
b
ƒsxd Ú 0 on [a, b] implies ƒsxd dx Ú 0
La

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

x
Part 1 If ƒ is continuous on [a, b], then Fsxd = 1a ƒstd dt is continuous on
[a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) and its derivative is ƒ(x);
x
d
F¿(x) = ƒstd dt = ƒsxd.
dx La
Part 2 If ƒ is continuous at every point of [a, b] and F is any antiderivative of ƒ
on [a, b], then
b
ƒsxd dx = Fsbd - Fsad.
La

Substitution in Definite Integrals Integration by Parts

b gsbd
ƒsxd g¿sxd dx = ƒsxdgsxd D a -
b b
ƒsgsxdd # g¿sxd dx = ƒsud du b
ƒ¿sxdgsxd dx
La Lgsad La La