Proceedings of the Twentieth (2010) International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference

Beijing, China, June 2025, 2010

Copyright © 2010 by The International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers (ISOPE)
ISBN 978-1-880653-77-7 (Set); ISSN 1098-6189 (Set); www.isope.org

A Study on Ship Speed Loss of Non Ballast-Water Crude Oil Carrier in High Winds
Tsutomu Momoki, Seiki Onishi, Yoshiho Ikeda
Graduate school of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University
Sakai, Osaka, Japan

This study examines the effect of wind on the speed of a conventional

ABSTRACT very large crude oil carrier (VLCC) under the conditions of a full load,
a light-condition with ballast water, and a light-condition without
In recent years, environmental problems such as discharge of CO2 have ballast water. Methods for maintaining the service speed are examined
become very serious for future society. Moreover, the ballast water of and a new design concept for reducing the main engine power is
vessels clearly plays a critical role in the conservation or destruction of proposed. Finally, data from a simulation of wind conditions on the
global sea's ecosystems. As a solution of these problems, next open sea are employed to calculate the speed and the propulsion power
generation vessels without ballast water are developed in Osaka of the new concept vessel on round trips between Tokyo and Bahrain.
Prefecture University. However, the draft of the ship of a light
condition without ballast water becomes very shallow, and the project HULL TYPE AND COORDINATE SYSTEM
area above sea level becomes large. Therefore, the wind pressures
acting on such ships are desired to be minimized in terms of economic Principle Particulars of the VLCC
operation and safety, and countermeasures against the speed reduction
should be developed. A 300,000DW conventional VLCC is selected in this analysis. Table 1
shows the principal particulars of the ship in full-load, ballast, and non-
In this study, a crude oil carrier is a target for research. Firstly, the ballast conditions.
characteristic of speed loss due to high winds is examined for three load
conditions of the crude oil carrier. Secondly, a new concept ship with Table 1 Principal particulars of the VLCC
sails for reducing effective horsepower in high winds is proposed. Full load Ballast Non-
Thirdly, the influence of high winds on the horsepower and speed loss
of a new concept ship with sails is estimated. Finally, the performance ballast
of the new concept crude oil carrier in a real sea voyage is simulated. LOA m 352.25
LPP m 336.30
KEY WORDS: Crude Oil Carrier; Non-Ballast condition; Wind Breadth m 60.92
Pressure Characteristics; Speed Reduction; Propulsion power; Sails.
Draft m 20.27 10.08 2.87
INTRODUCTION Wetted surface area m2 28400 21400 16200
CB 0.804 0.766 0.702
In recent investigations of methods to improve the fuel efficiency of Service Speed knot 15.0
shipping and mitigate marine environmental concerns involved in
Height above surface m 30.9 41.1 48.3
exchanging ballast water, some researchers have developed new
designs of next-generation ships that eliminate ballast water completely. Frontal projected area m2 1200 1790 2210
If ballast water is eliminated, however, it leaves vessels with a very ( bridge & funnel : 515 )
shallow draft and increases the projected area above the waterline Side projected area m2 4710 8160 10600
during light load conditions. There have been many researches into the
( bridge & funnel : 615 )
influence of wind on container ships and pure car carriers, which have
large projected areas above the waterline. It is well known for such
ships that ship speeds are significantly reduced by high winds, and this Fig. 1 shows a schematic view of the VLCC and the drafts for the three
suggests that the proposed ships will also be subject to severe speed conditions. It can easily be imagined from Fig. 1 that the propeller
reductions under high wind. would be exposed above water under the non-ballast condition of this

863
crude oil carrier. One of the authors proposed a non-ballast tanker with calculations for the ballast condition are carried out by assuming the
vertically deployable podded propulsors to keep enough propeller depth same conditions as in the full loaded condition mentioned above.
Fujiwara’s equation (2005) is used to calculate the wind forces on the
in the condition. vessel.

Calculation Results

Speed, oblique angle, rudder angle in full load condition

Fig. 1 Schematic view of the VLCC and drafts in three load conditions
Coordinate System
Fig. 3 shows the speed of the vessel at true wind speeds of 10 and 20
m/s when the ship keeps a constant engine power for 15 knots in calm
water. Under 10 m/s winds, there is little change from the windless
condition. Under a 20 m/s headwind, however, the ship speed decreases
by approximately 3 knots. This is caused by the relative wind speed of
approximately 27 m/s and by the large frontal projected areas of the
bridge, funnel and other superstructures. On the contrary, ship speed
increases about 1 knot in following winds.
18

The coordinate system used in this study is shown in Fig. 2. All force 16

Ship speed [knot]

directions are specified with respect to a coordinate system fixed to the
hull. 14

wind 12
αS Wind speed 0m/s
rudder Mz ψ 10 Wind speed 10m/s
Wind speed 20m/s
δ sail β Fx 8
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Wind direction [deg.]
Fy traveling direction
Fig. 3 Ship speed in full load condition in wind
Fig. 2 Coordinate system
10
CALCULATION OF SHIP SPEED Wind speed 0m/s
Oblique angle [deg.]

8 Wind speed 10m/s

Propulsive Power Wind speed 20m/s
6
The oblique angle β, rudder angle δ and ship speed V of a tanker can be
calculated by following equations of motion in three degrees of 4
freedom:
2
X = X H0 + X H + X P + X R + X A
0
Y = YH + YR + Y A (1)
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
N = NH + NR + NA Wind direction [deg.]
Fig. 4 Oblique angle in full load condition in wind
The subscripts H, P, R and A on the characters indicating the
hydrodynamic forces show the force on the hull, the forces from the 5
propeller and the rudder, and the wind forces on the structure above the 4 Wind speed 0m/s
waterline, respectively. XH0 represents the resistance to the hull in the Wind speed 10m/s
Rudder angle [deg.]

3 Wind speed 20m/s

forward direction in calm water, and XH is the variation in the
2
hydrodynamic forces due to the lee angle β.
1
Since the Froude number is 0.13 the wave resistance is very low and 0
frictional resistance is dominant. Therefore XH0 is estimated using the -1 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Prandtl-Schlichtling formula equation. Oblique hydrodynamic forces -2
are calculated using Inoue’s equation (1979) for hydrodynamic forces
-3
during oblique sailing. The increase of drag due to oblique sailing is Wind direction [deg.]
estimated on the basis of experimental results for a model with a similar Fig. 5 Rudder angle in full load condition in wind
hull shape. The propulsion exerted by the propeller is determined from
the force that is necessary to drive the fully loaded vessel at 15 knot in Fig. 4 shows the variation of oblique angle, which is a maximum of
calm water without any winds. The hydrodynamic forces acting on the only about 1 degree even under the high 20 m/s winds. This may be
rudder are estimated by Kijima’s equation (1990). Here, the because a large volume beneath the waterline of the VLCC causes the

864
large resistance to sway and yaw motions.
Fig. 5 shows the variation of counter rudder angle. This is only about 1
degree even under the high 20 m/s winds. It can be safely said that no
significant effect on vessel handling can be seen.
Speed, oblique angle, rudder angle in ballast condition
Fig. 6 shows the speed of the vessel at true wind speeds of 10 and 20
m/s when the ship keeps a constant engine power for 15 knots in calm
water at ballast condition. Although speed variation in a ballast
condition shows the same tendency as a full load condition, the amount
of speed variation in a light condition is larger than that of a full load
condition. It should be noted that the main engine of a VLCC in a
ballast condition has remaining power because the resistance acting on
the hull in the condition is much lower than that in a full load condition.
18
16
Ship speed [knot]
Since the horsepower of a main engine is usually determined to be
balanced with the hull resistance in a full load condition, the propulsion
power of a VLCC can be almost maintain the service speed in a
ballasted condition. Therefore propulsion powers for the VLCC to sail
with the service speed can be calculated. In the calculations, however,
the maximum propulsion power is assumed to be the power for which
the ship in full load condition keeps the service speed in calm water.
Figs. 7~8 show the calculated speed and the propulsion power of the
vessel. The results demonstrate that the VLCC can maintain a service
speed for almost all wind direction except in head wind conditions.
Under a 20 m/s headwind, however, the ship can not sail in the service
speed and the ship speed decreases by approximately 2.5 knots.
Fig. 9 shows the calculated results of lee angle due to oblique sailing,
which is a maximum of about 5 degree even under 20 m/s winds. These
results are much larger than those in a full load condition shown in Fig.
4. This may be because the project area above the waterline of the
VLCC becomes large and a volume beneath the waterline of the hull
becomes small in ballast condition.

Fig. 10 shows the calculated rudder angle, which is a maximum of

14 about 3 degree under the high 20 m/s winds. These results show that the
VLCC in ballast condition is strongly influenced by winds as compared
12 with the VLCC in full load condition.
Wind speed 0m/s
10 Wind speed 10m/s 10
Wind speed 20m/s Wind speed 0m/s
8

Oblique angle [deg.]

8 Wind speed 10m/s
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 Wind speed 20m/s
Wind direction [deg.] 6
Fig. 6 Ship speed in ballast condition with constant engine power in
wind 4

18 2

16 0
Ship speed [knot]

0 30 60 90 120 150 180

14 Wind direction [deg.]
Fig. 9 Oblique angle in ballast condition
12
Wind speed 0m/s 5
10 Wind speed 10m/s 4 Wind speed 0m/s
Wind speed 20m/s Wind speed 10m/s
Rudder angle [deg.]

3 Wind speed 20m/s

8
2
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Wind direction [deg.] 1
Fig. 7 Ship speed in ballast condition when engine power is adjusted to 0
maintain the service speed. -1 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
-2
200000
Wind speed 0m/s -3
Wind direction [deg.]
Wind speed 10m/s
150000 Wind speed 20m/s Fig. 10 Rudder angle in ballast condition
Thrust [kgf]

Ship speed, oblique angle, rudder angle in non-ballast condition

100000
The speed and propulsion power of the vessel in non-ballast-water
50000 condition are calculated. Figs. 11~12 show the calculated ship speed
and the propulsion power with wind direction at true wind speeds of 0,
0 10 and 20 m/s.
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Wind direction [deg.] The dependence of ship speed on wind direction is nearly the same as
that for the ballast condition. There is a significant decrease in the
Fig. 8 Propulsion power in ballast condition to maintain the service
required propulsion power compared with that in ballast condition,
speed of 15 knots
demonstrating the lower resistance of the ship in non-ballast-water

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condition. These results show that a decrease of hull resistance is larger oblique angle reaches up to 35 degree when the wind speed and
than the wind resistance under 20 m/s winds. direction are 20 m/s and 35 degree, respectively. Also, the rudder angle
is the maximum to be about 4.5 degree. These results warn that the
18 existing VLCC in non-ballast-water condition would severely degrade
the course stability and maneuverability performances.
16
Ship speed [knot]

NEW SHIP DESIGN

14
Bow House Structure
12
Wind speed 0m/s Conventional crude oil carriers have a very large box-shaped house
10 Wind speed 10m/s with a funnel near the stern. This causes high wind resistance. In a new
Wind speed 20m/s ship concept proposed here, the house is much lower and is placed in
8 the forward portion in order to lessen air resistance. Here, the problem
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 that regulations prohibit building living quarters above oil tanks is
Wind direction [deg.] resolved by selecting an electric podded propulsion system supplied by
Fig. 11 Ship speed in non-ballast condition diesel generators, which allows the main engines, like the bridge house,
to be placed in a forward location. Table 2 and Fig. 15 show data on the
200000 house size and a schematic view of the proposed vessel.
Wind speed 0m/s
Wind speed 10m/s Table 2 Main specifications of a bridge and funnel
150000
Wind speed 20m/s Conventional type New type
Thrust [kgf]

Length m 17.0 42.0

100000
Breadth m 27.2 51.0
Height m 30.6 5.0
50000 Frontal projected area m2 515 196
Side projected area m2 615 210
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Wind direction [deg.]
Conventional ship
Fig. 12 Propulsion power in non-ballast condition to maintain the
service speed of 15 knots
New ship
40
Wind speed 0m/s Fig. 15 Schematic view of conventional and new crude oil carriers
35 Wind speed 10m/s
Oblique angle [deg.]

30 Wind speed 20m/s Performance of the new non-ballast-water VLCC in high winds is
25 investigated. Fig. 16 shows the estimated power necessary to cruise at
20 15 knots and ship speed. Under a 20 m/s headwind, the ship speed
15 reduction of a new ship becomes smaller 1 knot than that of a
conventional ship. At relative wind angles of about 20~60 degrees, the
10
required propulsion power reduces. The required propulsion power is
5 increased, however, under winds from further behind, at angles above
0 70 degree. This result shows that the advantage conferred by following
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 winds has been reduced. These may be because the influence of winds
Wind direction [deg.] becomes small when a bridge structure becomes low.
Fig. 13 Calculated oblique angle under winds in non-ballast condition
180000 20
5 conventional ship (thrust)
160000 19
4 Wind speed 0m/s new ship (thrust)
Wind speed 10m/s 140000 convetional ship (speed)
Rudder angle [deg.]

3 Wind speed 20m/s 18 Ship speed[knot]

120000 new ship (speed)
Thrust [kgf]

2 17
100000
1
80000 16
0
60000
-1 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 15
40000
-2 14
20000
-3
Wind direction [deg.] 0 13
Fig. 14 Calculated rudder angle under winds in non-ballast condition 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Wind direction [deg.]
Figs. 13~14 show the calculated oblique angle and the rudder angle, Fig. 16 Propulsion power and ship speed for conventional/new tanker
respectively. Since the VLCC is in very shallow draft condition, the in non-ballast condition (at true wind speed of 20 m/s)

866
 45 Conventional ship (oblique angle)
6 found to reduce the needed propulsion power by up to 30% at 20 m/s
New ship (oblique angle) wind. Fig. 20 shows the oblique angle and rudder angle. The rudder
40 5
Conventional ship (rudder angle) angle is almost unchanged, but the oblique angle increases somewhat,
35 4
Oblique angle [deg.]
New ship (rudder angle)

Rudder angle [deg.]

due to the lateral force from the wind.
30 3
25 2 45 without sails (oblique angle)6
with sails (oblique angle)
20 1 40 5
without sails (rudder angle)
15 0 35 4

Oblique angle [deg.]

with sails (rudder angle)

Rudder angle [deg.]

10 -1 30 3
5 -2 25 2
0 -3 20 1
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 15 0
Wind direction [deg.] 10 -1
Fig. 17 Oblique and rudder angle for conventional and new tankers in 5 -2
non-ballast condition (wind speed=20 m/s)
0 -3
Fig. 17 shows the calculated oblique angle and the rudder angle in a 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
true wind speed of 20 m/s. Since the lateral projected area has also been Wind direction [deg.]
reduced, the oblique angle diminishes a little. However, the counter Fig. 20 Oblique and rudder angle for new VLCC without/with sails in
rudder angle is larger than conventional VLCC. This may be because non-ballast condition (wind speed=20 m/s).
the yaw moment is increased due to the shift in its point of application.
Since the Fujiwara's formula takes no thought of the burble etc., SIMULATION OF SHIP SPEEDS IN OPEN SEA
however, these results may not have satisfied the real phenomenon.
A simulation sailing on the open sea with and without the sail system is
Exploiting Wind Force with Sails carried out. The passages are between Tokyo (TK) and Bahrain (BH),
along the navigation shown in Fig. 21. The VLCC is unloaded on the
Application of a sail system to a new concept VLCC is proposed. Fig. passages from TK to BH and fully loaded on the return passages from
18 shows a schematic view of the new crude oil carrier with sails. The BH to TK. The meteorological data for the passages were provided by
sail is a flat-plate sail to reduce initial cost and maintenance cost and Dr. Shingo Watanabe of the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science
rotatable through 360 degree about their center axis. The height of a and Technology (JAMSTEC), assuming passages in January, April,
sail is 10 m and the breadth of a sail is 5 m. The angle of the sails with July and October. The course is divided spatially into 128 cells for
respect to the wind is controlled to account for several factors: longitude (approximately 2.8 degrees in equal divisions) and 64 cells
propulsion by the wind, increase resistance due to the oblique angle of for latitude (from northern latitude of 87.864 degrees to south latitude
the hull to the wind, and increase resistance due to rudder angle. of 87.864 degrees in unequally-spaced divisions). The assumed course
passes through a total of 29 cells. Each cell of the grid is assumed to
have uniform wind speed and direction.
Side view

Top view
Fig. 18 Schematic view of the new crude oil carrier with sails

180000 20
160000 without sails
(thrust) 19
140000
with sails 18
Ship speed[knot]

120000 (thrust)
Thrust [kgf]

100000 17
80000 16 Fig. 21 Assumed course
60000
15 Figs. 22~23 show the ship speeds on the passage from BH to TK. And,
40000
14 Figs. 24~27 show both the speeds and the propulsion power require to
20000 maintain a speed of 15 knot on the passage from TK to BH. Table 3
0 13 shows the calculated navigation time.
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Wind direction [deg.] Fig. 22 shows the ship speeds from BH to TK in winter. In the passage
Fig. 19 Propulsion power for new VLCC without/with sails in non- from Bahrain to the Strait of Malacca (101 degrees of east longitude),
ballast condition (wind speed=20 m/s) there is almost no benefit from using sails, except during the eastward
course past the southern tip of India. Since in the passage from the
The change in propulsion power due to the sails is calculated. Fig. 19 Strait of Malacca to Tokyo, the vessel mainly meets crosswinds, the
shows the propulsion power for new VLCC in non-ballast condition at sails increases speed. However, the benefit of the sail system is minor.
15 knot in a 20 m/s wind. Attaching the sail system to the new VLCC is This may be because the wind speed on the course never exceeds 15

867
m/s in the meteorological data used for these calculations. Figs. 24~27 show that a ship resistance of the non-ballast VLCC is
smaller than a ship resistance of the ballast VLCC. Moreover, the non-
Fig. 23 shows the ship speeds from BH to TK in the summer. Since it is ballast VLCC with the sail system obtains the big gain from the wind
quite unlikely that a real VLCC would deliberately sail through a forces.
tropical cyclone, the meteorological data that show little influence from
tropical cyclone are chosen for the simulation. Therefore, the speed is
lower than estimated for the winter passage; the fluctuations in speed winter (January) : ballast condition
160000 16.40
due to wind and the benefits of the sails are estimated to be quite small. 140000 16.20

Ship speed [knot]

120000 16.00

Thrust [kgf]
100000 15.80
winter (January) : full load condition
16.00 80000 to ME without sails (thrust) 15.60
15.75 60000 to ME with sails (thrust) 15.40
to ME without sails (speed)
15.50 40000 to ME with sails (speed) 15.20
15.25 20000 15.00
V[knot]

15.00 0 14.80
14.75 60 80 100 120 140
14.50 to TK degree of longitude
14.25 to TK with sails Fig. 24 Ship speed in ballast condition in winter with and without sails
14.00
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
degree of longitude summer (July) : ballast condition
160000 16.40
Fig. 22 Ship speed in full load condition with and without sails (winter) 140000 16.20

Ship speed [knot]

120000 16.00

Thrust [kgf]
100000 15.80
summer (July) : full load condition
16.00 80000 to ME without sails (thrust) 15.60
15.75 60000 to ME with sails (thrust) 15.40
to ME without sails (speed)
15.50 40000 to ME with sails (speed) 15.20
15.25 20000 15.00
V[knot]

15.00 0 14.80
14.75 60 80 100 120 140
14.50 to TK degree of longitude
14.25 to TK with sails Fig. 25 Ship speed in ballast condition in summer with and without
14.00 sails
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
degree of longitude
Fig. 23 Ship speed in full load condition with and without sails winter (January) : non-ballast condition
160000 16.40
to ME without sails (thrust)
(summer) 140000 16.20
to ME with sails (thrust)

Ship speed [knot]

120000 16.00
to ME without sails (speed)
Thrust [kgf]

Fig. 24 shows the ship speed and propulsion power during the passage 100000 to ME with sails (speed)
15.80
from TK to BH in the ballast condition in winter. The demand for 80000 15.60
propulsion power increases dramatically after the vessel entered the 60000 15.40
East Indian Ocean (around 90 degrees of east longitude), but it is able 40000 15.20
to maintain a speed of 15 knot. It can also be seen that, overall, the 20000 15.00
required propulsion power slightly decreases with the sail system. 0 14.80
60 80 100 120 140
Fig. 25 shows the ship speed and simultaneous propulsion power degree of longitude
during the passage from TK to BH in the ballast condition in summer. Fig. 26 Ship speed in non-ballast condition in winter with and without
The ship speed of 15 knot can’t be maintained, due to tropical low- sails
pressure systems around 65 degrees of east longitude. There is a very
slight benefit from the sail system, depending on the wind direction in
this case. summer (July) : non-ballast condition
160000 16.40
to ME without sails (thrust)
140000 16.20
to ME with sails (thrust)
Fig. 26 shows the ship speed and propulsion power during the passage
Ship speed [knot]

120000 16.00
to ME without sails (speed)
Thrust [kgf]

from TK to BH in the non-ballast condition in winter. Variations of to ME with sails (speed)

100000 15.80
thrust and ship speed qualitatively agree with the case of a ballasted
80000 15.60
condition. The required propulsion power in the non-ballast condition is
60000 15.40
decreasing greatly quantitatively, and becomes still smaller by using the 40000 15.20
sail system. 20000 15.00
0 14.80
Fig. 27 shows the non-ballast vessel speed and propulsion power on the
passage from TK to BH in summer. In contrast to the findings for the 60 80 100 120 140
ballast condition, the vessel maintains a speed of 15 knot. degree of longitude
Fig. 27 Ship speed in non-ballast condition in summer with and without
sails

868
Table 3 shows that the benefit of the sails on the fully loaded VLCC is
extremely low, less than 1%. However, this increases to 1.8% in the
ballast condition and 5.2% in the non-ballast condition. This is because
the draft is shallower, reducing the resistance of the water, and
magnifying the benefit of the sail system.
5. Attaching flat plates as sails enables the VLCC to obtain some
propulsion power from the wind. Ten plates 10 m high and 5 m wide
are estimated to reduce the needed propulsion power by up to 30% in a
wind speed of 20 m/s.

Table 3 Navigation time per passage and annual mean propulsion 6. Converting a VLCC to the non-ballast condition allows a reduction
power of propulsion power by about 25% from the ballast condition, on a
Full load condition passage from Tokyo to Bahrain. Adding sails to the non-ballast vessel
Total navigation time allows a further reduction of about 5% in the propulsion power on a
To TK without sails 414.56 hour single passage, due to power from the wind.
To TK with sails 411.57 hour
Ballast condition This study have been carried out in a research project on developing a
Total E.H.P. next generation tankers and bulk carriers with five Japanese shipyards
To BH without sails 109487.93 kgf and relating companies. The authors would like to appreciate these
To BH with sails 107506.90 kgf companies for their support to the research project.
Non-ballast condition
Total E.H.P. REFERENCES
To BH without sails 82459.48 kgf
Fujiwara, T, Ueno, M, and Ikeda, Y (2005). "A New Estimation
To BH with sails 78203.44 kgf
Method of Wind Forces and Moments acting on Ships on the basis of
Physical Component Models," Journal of the Japan Society of Naval
CONCLUSIONS Architects and Ocean Engineers, Vol 2, pp 243-255.
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