Professional Documents
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COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of the course, delegates will be able to:
CONTENTS
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1- INTRODUCTION
- Fluid mechanics properties and laws
- Thermodynamics principles
- Definition of a gas turbine
- Historical background about gas turbine
- Brief idea about types of gas turbine
- Brief idea about advantages of gas turbine
- Brief idea about applications of gas turbine
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UNIT (1)
INTRODUCTION
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Definition of a gas turbine
1- Definitions:
Since long time, the theory and method by which gas turbine operates was
known even before knowing the material from which the gas turbine should be built
and before knowing the fluid mechanics theories and fluid flow. Engineers waited
the development of material science very long to obtain some materials that endure
high temperatures that happen in the turbine system.
The gas turbine is defined as a type of prime movers that can transform the fuel
energy to useful mechanical energy developed at its shaft at high rotational speeds.
The gas turbine consists, in its simplest form, of two main parts, they are:
1- Gas generator section.
2- Power conversion section.
The gas generator section by itself consists of:
1- The compressor.
2- The combustion chamber,
3- The turbine, the turns the compressor.
There are different types of gas turbines depending on the nature of inlet and
exit of the gases. Figures (1/1, 2/1, 3/1, 4/1) show the different types of these
turbines. Figure (1/1) is a section of a gas turbine that operates according to the
basic cycle, while Fig. (2/1) is a section in a turbo-jet that is equipped with
afterburner. As for Fig. (3/1) is a section in non-mixed turbo-fan engine.
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PRINCIPLES OF
FLUID MECHANICS
&
THERMODYNAMICS
FLUID MECHANICS
♣ PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
♥ Viscosity:
A fluid has many properties. One important property is viscosity,
which is a measure of the resistance the fluid has to an external applied
shear. Because this property arises from the definition of a fluid, it is
examined in that regard. Consider again a fluid-filled space formed by
two horizontal parallel plates shown in figure. The upper plate has an
area A in contact with the fluid and is pulled to the right with a force F/
at a velocity Vi. If the velocity at each point within the fluid could be
measured, a velocity distribution like that illustrated in the figure might
result. The fluid velocity at the moving plate is Vi because the fluid
adheres to that surface. At the bottom, the velocity is zero with respect to
the boundary, owing to the non-slip condition. The slope of the velocity
distribution is: dV1/dy.
The plot of that figure is a straight line that passes through the origin.
This result is characteristic of a Newtonian fluid, but there are other types of
fluids called non-Newtonian fluids. A graph of T versus dV/ dy, called a
rheological diagram, is shown in figure for several types of fluids.
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Newtonian fluids follow Newton's law of viscosity and are represented by
the equation
τ =µ( dV / dy )
Where:
In the cgs system of units, the unit for viscosity is poise, corresponding
to 1 g/cm .s. The centipoise is 1/100 of a poise. The SI system, unit for
viscosity is 1 kg/m.s. It has no particular name. It is 10 times the size of the
poise, as it is clear from the basic units.
Examples of Newtonian fluids are water, oil, and air. If a fluid cannot be
described by Equation 1.3, it is called a non-Newtonian fluid. On the basis
of their behavior, these fluids are divided into three categories: time-
independent, time-dependent, and viscoelastic as in figure.
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♥ Density:
The density of a fluid is its mass per unit volume, represented by the
letter p. If the mass of 1 ft3 of water is 1.94 slug, its density is p = 1.94
slug/ft3. If the mass of 1 m3 of liquid is 820 kg, its density is p = 820 kg/m3.
Density has dimensions of M/L3. The density of various substances is given
in the property tables in the appendices of any Fluid Mechanics HandBook.
♥ Specific heat:
The specific heat of a substance is the heat required to raise a unit mass
of | the substance by 1° . The dimension of a specific heat is energy/ (mass.
temperature): F. L /(M. t). The process by which the heat is added also
makes a difference, particularly for gases. The specific heat for a gas that
undergoes a process occurring at constant pressure involves a different
specific heat than that for a constant volume process. For example, the
specific heat at constant pressure Cp for air is 0.24 Btu/(Ibm . °R), or 1005 J/
(kg . K), and the specific heat at constant volume Cy is 0.17 Btu/(Ibm . °R),
or 717 J/(kg . K). Also of importance when dealing with these properties is
the ratio of specific heats, defined as
The Btu (British thermal unit) is the unit of energy measurement in the
English engineering System. One Btu is defined as the energy required to
raise the temperature of 1 Ibm of water by 1 °F. However, because we are
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using the British gravitational system, the units encountered are Btu/(slug.
°R). Both specific heats vary with temperature for real substances, but to
simplify calculations they are assumed to be constant.
♥ Internal Energy:
Internal energy is the energy associated with the motion of molecules of
a substance. Consider a quantity of gas. The gas can have three types of
energy: energy of position (potential energy), energy of translation (kinetic
energy), and energy of molecular motion (internal energy). Adding heat to a
quantity of gas at constant volume affects only the motion of the molecules
and does not increase the potential or kinetic energies of the gas. This effect
is manifested as an increase in temperature. In fact, for a perfect gas with
constant specific heats, it can be shown that:
∆ U = Cv ∆ T
where ∆ U is a change in the internal energy per unit mass of the gas with
dimensions of energy /mass (F. L / M).
♥ Enthalpy:
A quantity that appears often in equations is (u + p/r), this quantity is
given the special name enthalpy, h. adding heat at constant pressure goes
into increasing the internal energy of the gas and raising the position. Again
for a perfect gas with constant specific heats, it can be shown that:
∆ h = Cp ∆ T
♥BERNOULLI'S THEOREM:
Bernoulli's Theorem is a special application of the first law of
thermodynamics for flowing fluids. The energy content of a flowing fluid
can be split into three components:
Bernoulli's Theorem states that the sum of these three energy terms at one
set of conditions is equal to their sum at another set of conditions.
Accelerating fluid
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Bernoulli's equation shows that we can convert the Kinetic energy of a gas
to pressure (potential) energy by decreasing it's velocity.
Bernoulli's Equation
U2 p
+ +z =cons
2g ρg
U2 p
=velocity head , = pressure head , z = Elevation Head
2g ρg
THERMODYNAMICS
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PRESSURE: The pressure is the normal force per unit area, and its
dimension is (N/m2). The pressure measured by any instrument, that reads
zero when it is open to the atmosphere, is called gauge pressure. The
absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure plus the atmospheric
pressure. The standard atmospheric pressure, (at sea level and 15 oC), is:
Then:
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
C= (F-32) x (5/9)
F= C x (9/5) +32
Gas Laws:
• Boyle's Law:
At constant temperature, the volume of an ideal gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure.
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1
Vα
p
• Charles' Law
At constant pressure, the volume of an ideal gas is proportional absolute
temperature.
VαT
Pv = RT
PV = mRT
PV = nMRT
PV = nℜT
• Decreasing Volume
From Boyle's Law (PV = Constant), it can be seen that if you reduce
the volume of a gas then it's pressure will increase. PV = Constant, as V
reduces, P increases (assuming constant temperature).
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• Compressibility
All gases deviate from the ideal gas law and these deviations are
accounted for by the compressibility factor (Z). The ideal gas equation
is modified to:
PV = ZRT, Rearranging:
pv
Z= Z is experimentally derived from actual
RT
gas data and is often generated from equations of state.
Basically, these statements say that energy exists at various levels and is
available for use only if it can move from a higher to a lower level. In
Thermodynamics a measure of the unavailability of energy has been
devised and is known as entropy. It is defined by the differential equation:
dQ
dS = , Where: S = Entropy, Q = Heat, T = Temperature
T
DEFINITIONS:
♥ISOTHERMAL PROCESS: constant temperature process
♥POLYTROPIC PROCESS: a reversible process
♥ADIABATIC PROCESS: no heat gain to or lost from the system
♥ISENTROPIC PROCESS:reversible and adiabatic process
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• Compressor Cycles
Compressors are compared to theoretical compression cycles as a basis
for calculations and comparisons.
p1 V1 = p2 V2 =const
n −1
T2 p2 n
= (can be derivation)
T1
p1
2- Stolze turbine:
In year 1872, Stolze was able to get a patent for his invention concerning
gas turbines. The design of that invention consisted of the following parts:
• Multi-stage axial flow compressor, which perhaps was the first type at
all.
• Multi-stage reaction turbine whose shaft is connected to the shaft of
the compressor.
• Heat exchanger.
• Combustion chamber.
The turbine was ten stages, while the compressor was only nine stages.
6- Holzwarth turbine:
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The efforts of Holzwarth in the field of gas turbines were the most
important efforts appeared after this, and to him was the grace in building
the first practical and economical gas turbine. Holzwarth turbine was
operating by explosion cycle without pre-compression. It was a rotating
engine of intermittent combustion. The first turbine of this type was built
and tested in Hanover. Who is interested of more details about Holzwarth
turbine should look to Stodola book.
2- British efforts:
With the beginning of the thirties two separate groups began in
building and testing gas turbines utilized in power stations and
airplanes in England. One of these groups worked under the
supervision of Whittle in jet engines using centrifugal compressors.
The other group worked under the supervision of Griffith and Constant
in building and testing axial flow compressors.
In 1930 Whittle had registered his first patent in this field but he
failed to get financial support from British aviation ministry or special
association that is why he oriented his efforts to theoretical studies
since 1930 till 1936. Power Jet Ltd. Company was formed and made
the commitment to transform his theoretical studies to simple jet
turbine. It was a single-stage centrifugal compressor of bilateral
intakes and a single-stage turbine connected directly to the compressor
having single combustion chamber. The test of the first turbine of this
type was in 12 April 1937, during 11 days. The combustion chamber
represented the principal problem and the compressor performance was
less than all expectations.
Redesigning this turbine was in 16 April 1938 till 6 May when big
damage happened due to the failure of wheel blades. The third trial was
under test in October 1938.
In summer 1939 British aviation ministry signed a contract with
Power Jet Ltd. Company for building an airplane turbine knew by W1
which was tested in 1941.
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The other group under the supervision of Griffith and Constant
began building and testing the axial flow compressors in the Royal
Aircraft Establishment.
3- German efforts:
Hans Von Ohain paid attention to gas turbines used in propulsion
at the beginning of the year 1935. He was able to register a patent in
turbo-jet engine supplied with centrifugal compressor and Ernst
Heinkel appointed him as a general manager to Ernst Heinkel
company in 1936. In 1938, he was able to test the first turbine used for
airplanes and after redesigning this turbine to be the model He 5-36,
that had the following specifications:
Compressor Centrifugal
Weight of unit 795 Lb
Static thrust for unit 1100 Lb
Specific fuel consumption for thrust 1.6 Lb/(Lb-hr)
4- USA efforts:
The efforts were concentrated on raising the gas turbine efficiency.
The efficiency was raised to be between 60-65% for compressor and 65-
70 for the turbine
2- German efforts:
Sinc 1939 to 1942, German began developing the Von Ohain
engine using centrifugal compressor after this at the end of 1941 they
replaced it by Heinkel engine of axial-flow compressor. In November
1942, Junkers 004 (known as Jumo 004) was tested and installed in
airplane Me-262.
3- USA efforts:
• Turbo dyne (2500 HP) was suggested to the army in 1940 by Northup
Aircraft Inc.
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• Lockhead Aircraft suggested engine L1000
• Westinghouse Electric Corporation built (The 19) as a turbo-jet using
axial flow compressor.
• Wright Aeronautical Corporation failed to produce Whittle engine.
• General Electric began in 1941, after getting the design and drawings
of W2B from Power Jet, Ltd. And produced engine I installed in
sirplane Bell P-59 A in 1942. In 1945 they began building engine G35.
4- Other efforts:
A side of using the gas turbine in airplanes, Swiss Federal Railway
installed an engine of 2200 HP in a train.
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BRIEF IDEA ABOUT TYPES OF GAS TURBINE
There are two types of gas turbines, they are:
1- Constant volume gas turbine.
2- Constant pressure gas turbine.
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THE HEAT CYCLE
The constant volume gas turbine follows a cycle called constant volume cycle,
as the combustion of the fuel-air mixture takes place at constant volume. The only
effect due to heat addition in the combustion chamber is to increase the pressure
only.
Figure (6/1) shows the heat cycle curve, where air of volume (1-5) enters at
atmospheric pressure at point (1). Air is compressed to point (2) where its pressure
is increased and its volume becomes (2-6). At this point air enters the combustion
chamber and its temperature increases due to burning of the fuel injected. Therefore,
the pressure increases from point (2) to point (3) at which delivery valve (b) opens
to permit gases to pass and expand through the turbine. The gas pressure decreases
and its volume increases, which is represented by curve (3-4). The exhaust gases
leaves the turbine at point (4).
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In the constant volume gas turbine, usually multi-combustion chambers are used
that are charged by the compressed air one after another using the same compressor.
An automatic timer for the valves regulates the charging periods. That is, after
charging a combustion chamber by air the charging valve (a ) is closed, fuel is
injected inside this combustion chamber, the fuel-air mixture is burned that an
increase in pressure occurs after which delivery valve (b) opens to exit the exhaust
gases as a fast stream facing the turbine blades. As the pressure inside the
combustion chamber decreases the gas speed decreases. When the pressure reaches
to almost atmospheric pressure the delivery valve (b) closes and charging valve (a)
opens to recharge the combustion chamber by air.
The most important disadvantage of this type of turbines is the reduced of
thermal capability, that is why it is not widely used and direction to the other type
(constant pressure gas turbine) happened.
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pressure decreases to atmospheric pressure. The pressure energy changes to
mechanical energy on the turbine shaft.
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From the cycle, it is clear that exhaust and combustion take place at constant
pressure while compression and expansion take place continuously without
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