Cell

Structure

Ultrastructure: is the fine and detailed structure of a cell as revealed
by the electron microscope.

1. Nucleus
• The cell nucleus is a membrane bound structure that contains the
cell's hereditary information and controls the cell's growth and
reproduction.
• Commonly, it is the most prominent organelle in a cell (10-20µm)
and is seen by the light microscope
• It is bound by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope.
This membrane separates the contents of the nucleus from the
cytoplasm. The envelope helps to maintain the shape of the
nucleus and assists in regulating the flow of molecules into and out
of the nucleus through nuclear pores.
• Chromosomes are located within the nucleus. Chromosomes
consists of DNA and proteins, which contains heredity information
and instructions for cell growth, development, and reproduction.
When a cell is "resting" i.e. not dividing, the chromosomes are
organized into long entangled structures called chromatin and not
into individual chromosomes as we typically think of them.
• The nucleus contains at least one nucleolus. Nucleolus is a dense
structure composed of DNA, RNA and proteins. The nucleolus
helps to synthesize ribosomes by transcribing and assembling
ribosomal RNA as well as cell growth and division.

 2. Centrioles
• Centrioles are hollow cylindrical structures that are
composed of nine triplets of microtubules (made up of
the protein tubulin) that are arranged at right angles to
one another. Together they form the centrosome.
• Centrioles are not surrounded by a membrane.
• Centrioles are found in animal cells and help to organize
the assembly of microtubules that move
chromosomes during cell division i.e they are
required for cell division
• Centrioles called basal bodies form cilia and flagella.

3. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Endoplasmic means inside the cytoplasm and reticulum means
network
• It is a network of tubules and flattened sacs that serve a
variety of functions in the cell.
• There are two regions of the ER that differ in both structure
and function. One region is called rough ER because it has
ribosomes attached to the cytoplasmic side of the membrane.
The other region is called smooth ER because it lacks attached
ribosomes. Typically, the smooth ER is a tubule network and
the rough ER is a series of flattened sacs.
• The ER is very extensive extending from the cell membrane
through the cytoplasm and forming a continuous connection
with the nuclear envelope.



 A- Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
• The rough endoplasmic reticulum manufactures membrane and
secretory proteins such as enzymes that made at the level of
ribosomes. In certain leukocytes (white blood cells), the rough ER
produces antibodies . In pancreatic cells, the rough ER produces
insulin.
• It processes and modifies (folds into secondary or tertiary
structure) these proteins and then it isolates (from the rest of the
cytoplasm) and packs them into vesicles.
• It does have a large surface area to provide a pathway to transport
proteins inside the cell (between organelles)
B- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
• The smooth ER has a wide range of functions including
carbohydrate, lipid and steroid hormones synthesis.
• In muscle cells, it stores calcium.
• It serves as a transitional area for vesicles that transport ER
products to various destinations.

4. The Golgi complex (apparatus or body)
• It appears as a dense area of the cytoplasm.
• The Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus is responsible for
manufacturing, warehousing, and shipping certain
cellular products, particularly those from the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
• A Golgi complex is composed of stack membrane bound
flat sacs known as cisternae.
• Membranes at one end of the stack differ in both
composition and in thickness from those at the other
end. One end (cis face) acts as the "receiving" department
while the other (trans face) acts as the "shipping"
department. The cis face is closely associated with the
ER.
• Molecules synthesized in the ER exit via special transport
vesicles which carry their contents to the Golgi complex.
The vesicles fuse with Golgi cisternae releasing their
contents into the internal portion of membrane. The
molecules are modified as they are transported between
cisternae layers. Once the molecules reach the trans face
of the Golgi, vesicles are formed to "ship" materials to
other sites.
• The Golgi complex modifies many products from the
ER including proteins and phospholipids .
• The complex also manufactures certain biological
polymers of its own. The Golgi complex contains
processing enzymes which alter molecules by adding
or removing carbohydrate subunits such as
glycoproteins (mucin). Once modifications have been
made and molecules have been sorted, they are
secreted from the Golgi via transport vesicles to their
intended destinations.
• Some of the molecules are destined for the cell
membrane where they aid in membrane repair and
intercellular signaling.
• Other molecules such as secretory enzymes are
secreted to areas outside of the cell. Transport
vesicles or secretory vesicles carrying these
molecules fuse with the cell membrane releasing the
molecules to the exterior of the cell.
• Still other vesicles contain enzymes that digest
cellular components. These vesicle form cell
structures called lysosomes.



5. Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are membranous sacs of enzymes (covered with a
single membrane). These enzymes are typically hydrolytic
(digestive) and can digest cellular macromolecules.
• There are about 50 different hydrolytic enzymes available in acidic
solution inside lysosomes.
• Lysosomes are more than likely formed by budding from the
"shipping" department of a Golgi complex
• Lysosomes have various roles. They are active in recycling the
cell's organic material and in the intracellular digestion of
macromolecules such as breaking down worn out organelles and
produce molecules that can be reused. This is called autophagy.
• Via exocytosis, lysosomes might fuse with the outer cell membrane
and empty their digestive enzymes outside to help in phagocytosis
or digestion i.e digest materials that cells consume from the
environment.
• In addition, in many organisms, lysosomes are involved in
programmed cell death (apoptosis), where they rupture to release
their digestive enzymes inside a worn out cell to destroy it. They
are called suicide bags of the cell.
• They are commonly found in animal cells.







 6. Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are the cell's power producers. They
convert energy into forms that are usable by the cell
(ATP). Located in the cytoplasm, they are the sites of
cellular respiration which ultimately generates fuel for
the cell's activities.
• They are rod-shaped structures that are bound by a
double membrane. The outermost membrane is smooth
while the inner membrane has many folds. These folds
are called cristae. The folds enhance the "productivity"
of cellular respiration by increasing the available surface
area
• The double membranes divide the mitochondrion into
two distinct parts: the intermembrane space and the
mitochondrial matrix (semi-rigid material). The
intermembrane space is the narrow part between the
two membranes while the mitochondrial matrix is the
part enclosed by the innermost membrane
• They are only partially dependent on the cell to replicate
and grow. They have their own loop of DNA, 70s
ribosomes and can make their own proteins. Similar to
bacteria, mitochondria have circular DNA and replicate
by a reproductive process called fission.


7. Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are cell organelles that consist of RNA and
proteins.
• They are responsible for assembling the proteins of the
cell (protein synthesis).
• Depending on the protein production level of a
particular cell, ribosomes may number in the millions
• Ribosomes are typically composed of two subunits: a
large subunit and a small subunit. Ribosomal subunits
are synthesized by the nucleolus. These two subunits join
together when the ribosome attaches to messenger RNA
(mRNA) during protein synthesis. Ribosomes along with
another RNA molecule, transfer RNA (tRNA), help to
translate the protein-coding genes in mRNA into
proteins.
• There are two places that ribosomes usually exist in the
cell: suspended in the cytosol (free) and bound to the
endoplasmic reticulum (bound). Free ribosomes usually
make proteins that will function in the cytosol (fluid
component of the cytoplasm), while bound ribosomes
usually make proteins that are exported from the cell or
included in the cell's membranes.
• Found in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes


















Prokaryotes and eukaryotes

At one time it was common practice to try to classify all living
organisms as either animals or plants. With advances in our
knowledge of living things, it has become obvious that the living
world is not that simple. Fungi and bacteria, for example, are very
different from animals and plants and from each other. Eventually, it
was realized that there are two fundamentally different types of cells.
The most obvious difference between these types is that a one
possesses a nucleus and the other doesn’t.
• Organisms that lack nuclei are called prokaryotes. They are
1000 to 10 000 smaller than cells that have nuclei and much
simpler in structure. All prokaryotes are now referred to as
bacteria. They reproduce by binary fission.
• Organisms whose cells possess nuclei are called eukaryotes.
Eukaryotes include animals, plants, and fungi, and a group
containing most of unicellular eukaryotes known as
protoctists. All eukaryotic cells have common features.

Generalized bacterium showing the typical features of a prokaryotic
cell

 • One cell membrane made up of phospholipids and proteins.
The cell membrane maintains the appropriate composition of
the cytoplasm by controlling what substances move in and out
of the cell.
• No membrane bound organelles i.e lacks compartmentalization
• They are surrounded by a cell wall made up of protein and
carbohydrate complex called peptidoglycan or murein rather
than cellulose available in the cell wall of plant cells. Cell wall
provides shape and physical support to the cell.
• Exterior to the cell wall, there is a capsule that is made up of
polysaccharides. It is needed for providing extra protection
against phagocytosis or drying out (desiccation). As well it
helps bacteria to stick to each other. Sometimes it acts as a food
reserve.
• They contain ribosomes (70S) that are smaller than those
available in eukaryotic cells (80S)
• Have one single loop of DNA (circular chromosome) that lies
free in the cytoplasm in a region called nuclear zone or
nucleoid. This DNA is not associated with histone proteins
hence naked. It is the place where translation occurs to
produce proteins.
• In addition, they have smaller circular DNA molecules called
plasmids. They contain non-essential genes but produce
proteins that help the bacterium survive harsh conditions and
provide resistance to antibiotics.
• DNA is not protected by a nuclear envelope
• Flagellum that is made up of the protein flagellin. It is used for
locomotion.
• Pili for attachment to other surfaces and involved in sexual
reproduction
• Mesosome which is infolding of the cell membrane, associated
with DNA during cell division, and helps in the formation of
new cell walls. It also contains proteins needed for respiration
and in turn helps in the production of ATP.
• Those prokaryotes that photosynthesize have infolding in their
cell membrane containing chlorophyll that carry out
photosynthesis; these infoldings may carry out nitrogen
fixation as well.



Levels of organization

In unicellular (single-celled) organisms, the single cell performs all
life functions. It functions independently. However, multicellular
(many celled) organisms have various levels of organization within
them. Individual cells may perform specific functions and also work
together for the good of the entire organism. The cells become
dependent on one another.

Multicellular organisms have the following 5 levels of organization

ranging from simplest to most complex:

LEVEL 1- Cells

• Are the basic unit of structure and function in living things.

• May serve a specific function within the organism
• Examples- blood cells, nerve cells, bone cells, etc.

LEVEL 2 - Tissues

• Made up of cells that are similar in structure and function and

which work together to perform a specific activity. Cells may be
of the same type (parenchyma in plants) or they be of mixed
type (xylem and phloem in plants, cartilage and bone in
animals)
• Humans have 4 basic tissues: connective, epithelial, muscle,
and nerve.

LEVEL 3 - Organs

• Made up of tissues that work together to perform a specific

activity
• Examples - heart, brain, skin, etc.

LEVEL4 - Organ Systems

• Groups of two or more tissues that work together to perform a

specific function for the organism.
• Examples - circulatory system, nervous system, skeletal
system, etc.
• The Human body has 11 organ systems - circulatory, digestive,
endocrine, excretory (urinary), immune (lymphatic),
 integumentary, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory,
and skeletal.

LEVEL 5 - Organisms

• Entire living things that can carry out all basic life processes.
Meaning they can take in materials, release energy from food,
release wastes, grow, respond to the environment, and
reproduce.
• Usually made up of organ systems, but an organism may be
made up of only one cell such as bacteria or protoctist.
• Examples - bacteria, amoeba, mushroom, sunflower, human