CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

INTRODUCTION:-
We know that diode rectifiers provide a fixed output voltage only. To obtain
controlled output voltage, phase control thyristors are used instead of diodes .The output
voltage of thyristor rectifiers is varied by controlling the delay or firing angle of thrusters us
turned on by applying a short pulse to its gate and turned off due to natural or line
commutation; and in case of a highly inductive load, it is turned off by firing another thyristor
of the rectifier during the negative half- cycle of input voltage.
These phase- controlled rectifiers are simple and less expensive; and the efficiency
of these rectifiers is, in general, above 95%. Since these rectifiers convert from ac to dc ,
these controlled rectifiers are also called ac-dc converters and are used extensively in
industrial applications, especially in variable-speed drivers, ranging from fractional
horsepower to megawatt power level.
The phase-control converters can be classified into two types, depending on the
input supply:
Semi converter

(1) Single –Phase Converters full converter

Dual converter
.
Semi converter

(2)Three –Phase Converters full converter

Dual converter

A semi converter is a one-quadrant converter and it has one polarity of output voltage and
current. A full converter is a two-quadrant converter and the polarity of its output voltage can
be either positive or negative. However, the output current of full converters has one polarity
only. A dual converter can operate in four quadrants; and both the output voltage and current
can be either positive or negative. In some applications, converters are connected in series to
operate at higher voltage and to improve the input power factor.
The method of Fourier series similar to that of diode rectifiers can be applied to
analyze the performances of phase –controlled converters with RL loads. However, to
simplify the analysis, the load inductance can be assumed sufficiently high so that the load
current is continuous and has negligible ripple.

PRINCIPLE OF PHASE -CONTROLLED CONVERTER OPERATION

Let us consider the circuit with a resistive load. During the positive half- cycle of input
voltage, the thyristor anode is positive with respect to its cathode and the thyristor is said to
be forward biased.
When thyristor T1 is fired at ωt = α, thyristor T1 conducts and the input voltage appears
across the load.
When the input voltage starts to be negative at ωt = π ,the thyristor anode is negative with
respect to its cathode and thyristor T1 is said to be reverse biased ; and it is turned off. The
time after the input voltage starts to go positive until the thyristor is fired at ωt =α is called
the delay of firing angle α.
Quadrant shows the region of converter operation, where the output voltage and
current have one polarity. Waveform shows the input voltage, output voltage, load current,
and voltage across T1. This converter is not normally used in industrial applications because
its output has high ripple content and low ripple frequency. However. It explains the principle
of single- phase thyristor converter. If fs is the frequency of input supply, the lowest
frequency of output ripple voltage is fs.
WAVE FORM-----------------------------------------

If Vm is the peak input voltage. The average output voltage Vdc can be found from

1 𝜋 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 2𝜋 ∫𝛼 Vm sin ωt d (ωt) = [− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 ]𝜋𝛼
2𝜋

𝑉𝑚
= 2𝜋 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼)
And Vdc can be varied from Vm/π to 0 by varying α from 0 to π .The average output voltage
becomes maximum when α = 0 and the maximum output voltage Vdm is
 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑚 = 𝜋
Normalizing the output voltage with respect to Vdm, the normalized output voltage

𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑑𝑚 = 0.5 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼)
The rms output voltage is given by

1 𝜋 𝑉2 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 2𝜋 ∫𝛼 𝑉𝑚2 sin2 ωt d (ωt)] 1/2= [ 4𝜋
𝑚
∫𝛼 (1 − cos 2 ωt ) d (ωt)]
1/2

𝑉𝑚 1 sin 2𝛼
= [ (𝜋 − 𝛼 + )]1/2
2 𝜋 2

SINGLE-PHASE SEMICONVERTERS:-
The circuit arrangement of single-phase semi converters has a highly inductive load. The
loads current is assumed continuous and ripple free. During the positive half-cycle, thyristor
T1 is forward biased. When thyristor T1 is fired at ωt = α, the load is connected to the input
supply through T1 and D2 during the period α ≤ ωt ≤ π .During the period from π ≤ ωt ≤
(π+α), the input voltage is negative and the freewheeling diode Dm is forward biased. Dm
conducts to provide the continuity of current in the inductive load .the load current is
transferred from T 1 and D2 to Dm; and thyristor T 1 and diode D2 are turned off. During the
negative half-cycle of input voltage, thyristor T2 is forward biased, and the firing if thyristor
T2 at ωt = π+α will reverse bias Dm us turned off and the load is connected to the supply
through T2 and D1.

Quadrant shows the region of converter operation, where both the output voltage and
current have positive polarity. Waveform shows the input voltage, Output voltage, input
current, and currents through T1, T2, D1, and D2 .this converter has a better power factor due to
the freewheeling diode and is commonly used in applications up to 15 kW, where one-
quadrant operation is acceptable.

Waveform--------------------------------------
 The average output voltage can be found from
2 𝜋 2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = [2𝜋 ∫𝛼 𝑉𝑚 sin ωt d (ωt ) = 2𝜋
[− cos ωt] πα

𝑉𝑚
= (1 + cos 𝛼)
𝜋

And Vdc can be varied from 2Vm/π to 0 by varying α from 0 to π. The maximum average
output voltage is Vdm =2Vm/π and the normalized average output voltage is
𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑑𝑚 = 0.5(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 )

The rms output voltage is found from

2 𝜋 V2 m 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [2𝜋 ∫𝛼 sin 2 ωt d(ωt )]1/2 = [ ∫𝛼 (1 − cos 2 ωt ) d (ωt)]
1/2
2𝜋

𝑉𝑚 1 sin 2 𝛼
= [𝜋 (𝜋 − 𝛼 + )]1/2
√2 2

 Single –Phase Semi Converter With RL Load

In practice, a load has a finite inductance. The load current depends on the values of load
resistance R and load inductance L. The converter operation can be divided into two modes:
mode 1 and mode 2.

Mode 1. This mode is valid for 0 ≤ ωt ≤ α, during which the freewheeling diode Dm
conducts. The load current iL1 during mode 1 is described by
𝑑𝑖𝐿1
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖𝐿1 + 𝐸 = 0
𝑑𝑡

Which, with initial condition iL1 (ωt =0) = ILO in the steady state, gives
-(R/L) t 𝐸
𝑖𝐿1 = 𝐼𝐿𝑜 𝑒 − (1 − 𝑒 -(R/L) t) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 L1 ≥ 0 Eq.1
𝑅

At the end of this mode at ωt = α, the load current becomes IL1. That is,
𝐸
𝐼𝐿𝑜 = 𝑖𝐿𝑜 (𝜔𝑡) = 𝛼) = 𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑒 -(R/L) t (α/ω) -𝑅 [1 − 𝑒 -(R/L) t (α/ω)] for IL1 ≥ 0

Mode 2. This mode is valid for α ≤ ωt ≤ π while thyristor T1 conducts. If vs. =√2 V,
sin ωt is the input voltage, the load current IL2 during mode 2 can be found from
𝑑𝑖𝐿2
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖𝐿2 + 𝐸 = √2 𝑉𝑠 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Whose solution is of the from

√2 𝑉𝑠 𝐸
𝑖𝐿2 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − ѳ) + 𝐴1𝑒 -(R/L) t − 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝐿2 ≥ 0
𝑍

Where load impedance Z= [R2 + (ωL) 2]1/2 and load impedance angle ѳ =tan−1 (𝜔𝐿/𝑅) .
 Constant A1, which can be determined from the initial condition: at ωt =α, iL2= IL1, is
found as

𝐸 √2 𝑉𝑠
A1 = [𝐼𝐿1 + 𝑅 − sin(𝛼 − ѳ)]e (R/L) t (α/ω)
𝑍

Substitution of A1 yields

√2 𝑉𝑠 𝐸 𝐸 √2 𝑉𝑠
iL2 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − ѳ) − 𝑅 + [𝐼𝐿1 + 𝑅 − sin(𝛼 − ѳ)]e (R/L) t (α/ω-t) Eq.2
𝑍 𝑍

For iL2 ≥ 0

At the end of mode 2 in the steady-state condition: IL2 (ωt-π) = ILO. Solving for ILO, we get

√2 𝑉𝑠 sin(𝜋−ѳ)−sin(𝛼−ѳ)𝑒(𝑅/𝐿) (𝛼−𝜋)/𝜔 𝐸
𝐼𝐿𝑜 = −
𝑍 1−𝑒−(𝑅/𝐿) (𝜋/𝜔) 𝑅

For ILO ≥ 0 and ѳ ≤ α ≤ π

The rms current of a thyristor

1 𝜋
𝐼𝑅 = [2𝜋 ∫𝛼 i2 L2 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)]1/2 From (Eq.2)

The average current of a thyristor

1 𝜋
𝐼𝐴 = ∫ i2 L2 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 𝛼
From Eq. (2)

The rms output current can be found from Eqs. (5-16) and (5-19) as
1 𝛼 1 𝜋
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [2𝜋 ∫0 i2 L1 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡) + 2𝜋 ∫𝛼 i2 L2 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)]1/2

The average output current can be found from Eqs. 1and 2

1 𝛼 1 𝜋
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 2𝜋 ∫0 i2 L1 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡) + ∫ i2 L2 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 𝛼

SINGLE-PHASE FULL CONVERTERS:-

The circuit arrangements of a single-phase full converter consists of a highly inductive load
so that the load current is continuous and ripple free.
 During the positive half-cycle, thyristor T1 and T2 are forward biased; and when these two
thyristors are fired simultaneously at ωt=α, the load is connected to the input supply through
T1 and T2. Due to the inductive load, thyristors T1 and T2 will continue to conduct beyond
ωt=π, even though the input voltage is already negative. During the negative half-cycle of the
input voltage, thyristors T3 and T4 are forward biased; and firing of thyristors T3and T4 will
apply the supply voltage across thyristors T1 and T2 as reverse blocking voltage.T1 and T2will
be turned off due to line or natural commutation and the load current will be transferred from
T1 and T2 to T3 and T4. Quadrant shows the regions of converter operation and the waveforms
for input voltage, output voltage, and input and output currents are given below.

Waveform-----------------------------------------------------------

During the period from α to π, the input voltage vs. and input current is are positive; and the
power flows from the supply to the load .the converter is said to be operated in rectification
mode.
During the period from π to π+α, the input voltage vs. is negative and the input current is is
positive; and there will be reverse power flow from the load to the supply. The converter is
said to be operated in inversion mode.
This converter is extensive used in industrial application up to 15 kW. Depending on the
value of α, the average output voltage could be either positive or negative and it provides
two-quadrant operation.

The average output voltage can be found from

2 𝜋+𝛼 2𝑉𝑚
V dc = 2𝜋 ∫𝛼 V m sin ωt d (ωt) = [− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 ]𝜋+𝛼
𝛼
2𝜋

2𝑉𝑚
= 2𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
And Vdc can be varied from 2Vm/π to -2Vm/π by varying α from 0 to π. The maximum average
Output voltage is Vdm = 2Vm/π and the normalized average output voltage is

V dc
Vn = = cos 𝛼
V dm

The rms value of the output voltage is given by

2 𝜋+𝛼 𝑉2 𝜋+𝛼
V rms = [2𝜋 ∫𝛼 𝑉𝑚2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)]1/2 = [ 2𝜋
𝑚
∫𝛼 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡) 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)]1/2

𝑉𝑚
= = 𝑉𝑠
√2

With a purely resistive load, thyristor T1 and T2 will conduct from α to π, and thyristors T3
and T4 will conduct from α+π to 2π.
  Single –Phase Full Converter With RL Load
The operation of the converter can be divided into two identical modes:
Mode. 1 when T1 and T2 conduct and mode 2 when T3 and T4 conduct. The output
current during these modes are similar and we need to consider only one mode to find the
output current iL. Mode 1 is valid for α ≤ ωt ≤ (α+π). If vs. sin ωt is the input voltage, initial
condition: at ωt = α, iL =ILO
√2 𝑉𝑠 𝐸 𝐸 √2 𝑉𝑠
𝑖𝐿 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − ѳ) − 𝑅 + [𝐼𝐿𝑂 + 𝑅 − sin(𝛼 − ѳ)]e (R/L) (α/ω-t)
𝑍 𝑍

At the end of mode 1 in the steady-state condition iL (ωt=π+α) =IL1=ILO.

Solving for ILO, we get

𝑅
√2 𝑉𝑠 −sin(𝛼−ѳ)−sin(𝛼−ѳ)𝑒( 𝐿 )(𝜋)/𝜔 𝐸
𝐼𝐿𝑜 = 𝐼𝐿1 = −𝑅
𝑍 1−𝑒−(𝑅/𝐿) (𝜋/𝜔)
For ILO ≥ 0

The critical value of α at which Io becomes zero can be solved for known values of ѳ, R, L, E,
and Vs by an iterative method. The rms current of a thyristor is
1 𝜋+𝛼
IR = [2𝜋 ∫𝛼 i2L 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)]1/2
The rms output current can then be determined from

Irms = (i2R + i2R )1/2 = √2 𝐼𝑅

The average current of a thyristor
1 𝜋+𝛼
IA = 2𝜋 ∫𝛼 𝑖𝐿 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)
The average output current can be determined from

Idc = 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐴 = 2𝐼𝐴

SINGLE- PHASE DUAL CONVERTERS:-

In single-phase full converters with inductive loads allow only two- quadrant
operation .If two of these full converters is connected back to back, both the output voltage and
the load current flow can be reversed.
The system will provide four-quadrant operation and is called a dual converter. Dual converters
are normally used in high –power variable- speed drives. If α1 and α2 are the delay angles of
converters 1and 2, respectively, the corresponding average output voltages are Vdc1 and Vdc2
.The delay angles are controlled such that one converter operates as a rectifier and the other
converter operates as an inverter; but both converters produce the same average output voltage.
The output waveforms for two converters, where the two average output voltages are the same.

Wave form -----------------------------and characterstics are is prob.

The average output voltages are

2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐1 = cos 𝛼1
𝜋
And
2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐2 = 𝜋 cos 𝛼2
Since one converter is rectifying and the other one is inverting,

𝑉𝑑𝑐1 = −𝑉 𝑑𝑐2 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼2 = − cos 𝛼1 = cos(𝜋 − 𝛼1 )

Therefore
𝛼2 = 𝜋 − 𝛼1

Since the instantaneous output voltages of the two converters are out of phase, there will be an
instantaneous voltage difference and this will result in circulating current between the two
converters. This circulating current will not flow through the load and is normally limited by a
circulating current reactor Lr.
If 𝑣01 and 𝑣02 are the instantaneous output voltages of converters 1 and 2,respectively ,the
circulating current can be found by integrating the instantaneous voltages difference starting
from ωt=2π- 𝛼1 . Since the two average output voltages during the interval ωt=π+ 𝛼1 to 2π- 𝛼1
are equal and appositive their contributions to the instantaneous circulating current 𝑖𝑟 is zero.
1 𝜔𝑡 1 𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑟 = 𝜔𝐿 ∫2𝜋−𝛼 𝑣𝑟 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) = 𝜔𝐿𝑟
∫2𝜋−𝛼 (𝑣01 + 𝑣02 )𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝑟 1 1

𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝑡 𝜔𝑡
= [∫2𝜋−𝛼 − sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) − ∫2𝜋−𝛼 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝜔𝐿𝑟 1 1

2𝑉
= 𝜔𝐿𝑚 (cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼1 )
𝑟
The instantaneous circulating current depends on the delay angle. For 𝛼1 , = 0, its magnitude
becomes minimum when ωt =nπ, n= 0,2,4......, and maximum when ωt =nπ, n=1,3,5,…….if the
peak load current is Ip, one of the converters that controls the power flow may carry a peak
current of (Ip+4Vm/ 𝜔𝐿𝑟 ).
The dual converters can be operated with or without a circulating current. In case of
operation without circulating current, only one converter operates at a time and carries the load
current; and the other converter is completely blocked by inhibiting gate pulse. However, the
operation with circulating current has the following advantage:

1. The circulating current maintains continuous conduction of both converters over the
whole control range, independent of the load.
2. Since one converter always operates as a rectifier and the other converter operates as an
inverter, the power flow in either direction at any time is possible.
3. Since both converters are in continuous conduction, the time response for changing from
one quadrant operation to another is faster.

THREE-PHASE HALF-WAVE CONVERTERS:-

Three-phase converters provide higher average output voltage, and in addition the
frequency of the ripples on the output voltage is higher compared to that of single-phase
converters. As a result, the filtering requirements for smoothing out the load current and load
voltage are simpler. For these reasons, three-phase converters are used extensively in high-
power variable-speed drives. Three single-phase half-wave can be connected to form a three-
phase half –wave converter.

When thyristor T1 is fired at ωt =π/6+α, the phase voltage Van appears across the load
until thyristor T2 is fired at ωt =5π/6+α. When thyristor T2 is fired, thyristor T1 is reverse
biased, because the line-to-line voltage, Vab (=Van- Vbn), is negative and T1 is turned off. The
phase voltage Vbn appears across the load until thyristor T3 is fired at ωt =3π/2+α. When
thyristor T3 is fired, T2 is turned off and Vcn appears across the load until T1 is fired again at
the beginning of next cycle. Quadrant shows the V-I characteristics of the load and this is a
two-quadrant converter. Waveform shows the input voltages, output voltage, and the current
through thyristor T1 for a highly inductive load. For a resistive load and ∝ > π/6, the load
current would be discontinuous and each thyristor is self-commutated when the polarity of its
phase voltage is reversed. The frequency of output ripple voltage is 3fs. This converter is not
normally used in practical systems, because the supply currents contain dc components.
Wave form---------------------------------------

If the phase voltage is Van =Vm sin ωt, the average output voltage for a continuous load
current is

3 5𝜋/6+ 𝛼 3√3 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
2𝜋 𝜋/6+𝛼 2𝜋

Where Vm is the peak phase voltage. The maximum average output voltage that occurs at
delay angle, α = 0 is

3√3 𝑉
𝑉𝑑𝑚 = 2𝜋 𝑚
And the normalized average output voltage is
𝑉
𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑑𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
The rms output voltage is found from

3 5𝜋/6+ 𝛼
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [2𝜋 [∫𝜋/6+𝛼 V 2 𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)]1/2

1 √3
= √3 𝑉𝑚 (6 + 8𝜋 cos 2𝛼)1/2
For a resistive load and α ≥ π/6:

3 𝜋 3𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 2𝜋 ∫𝜋/6 +𝛼 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) = [1 + cos (6 + 𝛼)]
2𝜋

𝑉𝑑𝑐 1 𝜋
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉 = [1 + cos (6 + 𝛼)]
𝑑𝑚 √3

3 𝜋 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =[2𝜋 ∫𝜋/6+𝛼 Vm 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)]1/2

5 𝛼 1 𝜋
= √3 𝑉𝑚 [24 − 4𝜋 + 8𝜋 sin( 3 + 2𝛼)]1/2

THREE-PHASE SEMICONVERTERS:-
 Three-phase semi converters are used in industrial applications up to the 120-kW
level, where one-quadrant operation is required. The power factor of this converter decrease
as the delay angle increases, but it is better than that of three-phase half-wave converters. A
three-phase semi converter with a highly inductive load and the load current has negligible
ripple content.

Waveform shows the input voltages, output voltage, input current, and the current
through thyristor and diodes. The frequency of output voltage is 3fs. The delay angle, α, can
be varied from 0 to π. During the period π/6 ≤ ωt <7π/6, thyristor T1 is forward biased. If T1
is fired at ωt = (π/6+α), T1 and D1 conduct and the line –to –line voltage Vac appears across
the load. At ωt 7π/6, Vac starts to be negative and the freewheeling diode Dm conducts. The
load current continues to flow through Dm; and T1 and D1 are turned off.

Waveform---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

If there were no freewheeling diode, T1 would continue to conduct until thyristor T2 fired
at ωt = 5π/6 +α and the freewheeling action would be accomplished through T1 and D2.if α ≤
π/3 ,each thyristor conducts for 2π/3 and the freewheeling diode Dm does not conduct. The
waveforms for a three-phase semi converter with α ≤ π/3 are shown in waveform.
If we define the three line-neutral voltages as follows:

𝑣𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝑣𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
3

2𝜋
𝑣𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
3

The corresponding line-to-line voltages are

𝜋
𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝑣𝑎𝑛 − 𝑣𝑐𝑛 = √3 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 6 )
 5𝜋
𝑣𝑏𝑎 = 𝑣𝑏𝑛 − 𝑣𝑎𝑛 = √3 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
6

𝜋
𝑣𝑐𝑏 = 𝑣𝑐𝑛 − 𝑣𝑏𝑛 = √3 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )

𝜋
𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 𝑣𝑎𝑛 − 𝑣𝑏𝑛 = √3 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 6 )
Where Vm is the peak phase voltage of a wye-connected source.

For α ≥ π/3, and discontinuous output voltage: the average output voltage is found from
3 7𝜋/6 3 7𝜋/6 𝜋
𝑣𝑑𝑐 = 2𝜋 ∫𝜋/6 +𝛼 𝑣𝑎𝑐 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) = 2𝜋 ∫𝜋/6 +𝛼 √3 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 6 ) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)

3√3 𝑉𝑚
= (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
2𝜋
The maximum average output voltage that occurs at a delay angle of α= 0 is Vdm =3√3 𝑉𝑚 /π
and the normalized average output voltage is
𝑣𝑑𝑐
𝑣𝑛 = = 0.5(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
𝑣𝑑𝑚
The rms output voltage is found from
𝜋
3 2 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [2𝜋 ∫𝜋6 3Vm sin2 (𝜔𝑡 − 6 ) 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)]1/2
+𝛼
6

3 1
= √3 𝑉𝑚 [ (𝜋 − 𝛼 + sin 2 𝛼)]1/2
4𝜋 2

For α ≤ π/3, and continuous output voltage:

5𝜋
3 𝜋/2 +𝛼 3√3 𝑉𝑚
6
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = [∫ 𝑉 = 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) + ∫ 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)] = (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
2𝜋 𝜋/6 +𝛼 𝑎𝑏
𝜋
2𝜋
2

𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑛 = = 0.5(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
𝑉𝑑𝑚

3 𝜋/2 2 5𝜋/6+𝛼
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2𝜋 [∫𝜋/6 +𝛼 Vac 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) + ∫𝜋/2 𝑣 2 𝑎𝑐 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)] 1/2

3 2𝜋
=√3 𝑉𝑚 [4𝜋 ( 3 + √3 cos 2 𝛼)]1/2

Three-Phase Semi Converter with RL Load: -

The output voltage of the three-phase semi converter would be continuous or
discontinuous depending on the value of delay angle α. In either case the output waveform
can be divided into two intervals.

Case 1: CONTINUOUS OUTPUT VOLTAGE: - For α ≤ π/3, the waveform of the

output voltage is shown in waveform.
Interval 1 for π/6+α ≤ ωt ≤ π/2: thyristor T1 and diode D3 conduct. The output voltage
becomes
 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑎𝑏 = √2 𝑉𝑎𝑏 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 6 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 6 + 𝛼 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 2
Where Vab is the line-to-line (rms) input voltage .the load current iL1 during interval 1 can be
found from

𝑑𝑖𝐿1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖𝐿1 + 𝐸 = √2 𝑉𝑎𝑏 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 6 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 6 + 𝛼 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤
𝑑𝑡 2

With the boundary conditions iL1 (ωt = π/6+α) = ILO and iL1 (ωt = π/2) = IL1.

Interval 2 for π/2 ≤ ωt ≤ 5π/6+α: thyristor T1 and diode D1 conduct. The output voltage
becomes
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑎𝑏 = √2 𝑉𝑎𝑐 sin(𝜔𝑡 − ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ +α
6 2 6
The load current 𝑖𝐿2 during interval 2 can be found from

𝑑𝑖𝐿2 𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖𝐿2 + 𝐸 = √2 𝑉𝑎𝑐 sin(𝜔𝑡 − ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ +𝛼
𝑑𝑡 6 2 6
With the boundary conditions iL2 (ωt = π/2) = IL1 and iL2 (ωt=5π/6+α) =ILO

Case 2: DISCONTINUOUS OUTPUT VOLTAGE: - For α≥ π/3, the waveform of the

output voltage is shown in waveform.
Interval 2 for π/6+α ≤ ωt ≤ 7π/6: thyristor T1 and diode D1 conduct. The output voltage
becomes
𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑎𝑏 = √2 𝑉𝑎𝑐 sin(𝜔𝑡 − ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 + 𝛼 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤
6 6 6
Where Vac is the line-to-line (rms) input voltage. The load current iL2 during interval 2 can be
found from

𝑑𝑖𝐿2 𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖𝐿2 + 𝐸 = √2 𝑉𝑎𝑐 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 6 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 6 + 𝛼 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤
𝑑𝑡 6

With the boundary conditions iL2 (ωt=π/6+α) =IL1 and iL2 (ωt=7π/6) =ILO.

THREE-PHASE FULL CONVERTERS: -

Three-phase converters are extensively used in industrial applications up to the 102-
kW level, where two-quadrant operation is required. A full-converter circuit with a highly
inductive load. This circuit is knows as a three-phase bridge.
The thyristors are fired at an interval of π/3. The frequency of output ripple voltage is 6fs and
the filtering requirement is less than that of three-phase semi-and half-wave converters. At ωt
= π/6+α, thyristor T6 is already conducting and thyristor T1 is turned on. During interval
(π/6+α) ≤ ωt ≤ (π/2+α), thyristors T1 and T6 conduct and the line-to-line voltage, vab (=van-
vbn) appears across the load .At ωt=π/2+α, thyristor T2 is fired and thyristor T6 is reversed
biased immediately. T6 is turned off due to natural commutatation. During interval (π/2+α) ≤
ωt ≤ (5π/6+α), thyristor T1 and T2 conduct and the line-to-line voltage, vac appears across the
load. The thyristors are numbered the firing sequence in this way 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, and 61.
Waveform shows the input voltage, output voltage, input current, and currents through
thyristors.

Waveform----------------------------------------------------------------------------

If the line-to-neutral voltages are defined as

𝑣𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝑣𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
3

2𝜋
𝑣𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin( 𝜔𝑡 + )
3

The corresponding line-to-line voltages are

𝜋
𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 𝑣𝑎𝑛 − 𝑣𝑏𝑛 = √3 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 6 )

𝜋
𝑣𝑏𝑐 = 𝑣𝑏𝑛 − 𝑣𝑐𝑛 = √3 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )

𝜋
𝑣𝑐𝑎 = 𝑣𝑐𝑛 − 𝑣𝑎𝑛 = √3 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2 )

The average output voltage is found from

𝜋 𝜋
3 +𝛼 3 +𝛼 𝜋
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 2𝜋 ∫𝜋2 𝑣𝑎𝑏 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) = 𝜋 ∫𝜋2 √3 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 6 ) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
+𝛼 +𝛼
6 6

3√3 𝑉
= 𝜋 𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
The maximum average output voltage for delay angle, α = 0 is

3√3 𝑉
𝑉𝑑𝑚 = 𝜋 𝑚
And the normalized average output voltage is

𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑑𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
The rms value of the output voltage is found from
 𝜋
3 +𝛼 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [𝜋 ∫𝜋2 𝑉𝑚2 3sin2 (𝜔𝑡 + 6 ) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
+𝛼
6

1 3√3
= √3 𝑉𝑚 (2 + cos 2𝛼)1/2
4𝜋

For α>π/3, the instantaneous output voltage vo will have a negative part. Since the current
through thyristors cannot be negative, the load current will always be positive. Thus, with a
resistance load, the instantaneous load voltage cannot be negative, and the full converter will
behave as a semi converter.
A three-phase bridge gives a six-pulse output voltage. For high-power applications
such as high-voltage dc transmission and dc motor drives, a 12-pulse output is generally
required to reduce the output ripples and to increase the ripple frequencies. Two six-pulse
bridges can be combined either in series or in parallel to produce an effective 12-pulse output.
Two configurations are shown in circuit diagram. A 30o phase shift between secondary
winding can be accomplished by connecting one secondary in wye(Y) and the other in delta
(∆).

Three-Phase Full Converters with RL Load: -

The output voltage is
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑎𝑏 = √2 𝑉𝑎𝑏 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 6 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 + 𝛼 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ +𝛼
6 2

𝜋 2𝜋
= √2𝑉𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡′ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 + 𝛼 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ′ ≤ +𝛼
3 3

Where ωt’ = ωt +π/6, and Vab is the line-to-line (rms) input voltage. Choosing Vab as the time
reference voltage, the load current iL can be found from

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖𝐿 + 𝐸 = √2 𝑉𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡′ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 + 𝛼 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ′ ≤ +𝛼
𝑑𝑡 3 3

We already know that,

√2 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝐸 𝐸 √2 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝜋
𝑖𝐿 = sin(𝜔𝑡 ′ − ѳ) − 𝑅 + [𝐼𝐿1 + 𝑅 − sin (3 + 𝛼 − ѳ)]e -(R/L) [(π/3+α)/ω-t’]
𝑍 𝑍

Where Z= [R2+ (ωL) 2]1/2 and ѳ= tan-1(ωL/R). Under a steady-state condition, iL (ωt’ =
2π/3+α) = iL (ωt’ = π/3+α) = IL1.

√2 𝑉𝑎𝑏 sin(2𝜋/3+𝛼−ѳ)−sin(𝜋/3+𝛼−ѳ)𝑒−(𝑅/𝐿)(𝜋/3𝜔) 𝐸
𝐼𝐿1 = − 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝐿1 ≥ 0
𝑍 1−𝑒−(𝑅/𝐿)(𝜋/3𝜔) 𝑅

THREE-PHASE DUAL CONVERTERS

In many variable-speed drives, the four-quadrant operation is generally required and
three-phase dual converters are extensively used in applications up to the 2000-kW level. A
three-phase dual converter consists of two three-phase converters are connected back to back.
We know that due to the instantaneous voltage differences between the output voltages of
converters, a circulating current flow through the converters .the circulating current is
normally limited by circulating reactor, Lr as. The two converters are controlled in such a
way that if α1 is the delay angle of converter 1, the delay angle of converter 2 is α2 = π-α1.
Waveform shows the input voltages, output voltages, and the voltage across inductor Lr. The
operation of each converter is identical to that of a three-phase full converter. During the
interval (π/6+α1) ≤ (π/2+α1). The line-to-line voltage vab appears across the output of
converter 1, and vbc appears across converter 2.

Waveform----------------------------------------

If the line-to-neutral voltages are defined as

𝑣𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝑣𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
3

2𝜋
𝑣𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin( 𝜔𝑡 + )
3

The corresponding line-to-line voltages are

𝜋
𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 𝑣𝑎𝑛 − 𝑣𝑏𝑛 = √3 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 6 )

𝜋
𝑣𝑏𝑐 = 𝑣𝑏𝑛 − 𝑣𝑐𝑛 = √3 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )

5𝜋
𝑣𝑐𝑎 = 𝑣𝑐𝑛 − 𝑣𝑎𝑛 = √3 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + )
6
If vo1 and vo2 are the output voltages of converters 1 and 2, respectively, the instantaneous
voltage across the inductor during interval (π/6+α1) ≤ ωt ≤ (π/2+α1) is

𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜1 + 𝑣𝑜2 = 𝑣𝑎𝑏 − 𝑣𝑏𝑐

𝜋 𝜋
= √3 𝑉𝑚 [sin (𝜔𝑡 + 6 ) − sin (𝜔𝑡 − 2 )]
𝜋
= 3𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 6 )
The circulating current can be found from
1 𝜔𝑡 1 𝜔𝑡 𝜋
𝐼𝑟 (t) = 𝜔𝐿𝑟 ∫𝜋/6+𝛼 𝑣𝑟 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) = ∫ 3𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 6 ) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
1 𝜔𝐿𝑟 𝜋/6+𝛼1

3𝑉𝑚 𝜋
= [sin (𝜔𝑡 − 6 ) − sin 𝛼1 )
𝜔𝐿𝑟

The circulating current depends on delay angle α1 and on inductance Lr. This Current
Becomes maximum when ωt = 2π/3 and α1=0. Even without any external load, the converters
would be continuously running due to the circulating current as a result of ripple voltage
across the inductor. The allows smooth reversal of load current during the change over from
one quadrant operation to another and provides fast dynamic responses, especially for
electrical motor drives.

POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENTS: -

The power factor of phase- controlled converters depends on delay angle α, and is in
general low, especially at the low output voltage range. These converters generate harmonics
into the supply .forced commutations can improve the input power factor and reduce the
harmonics levels. These forced-commutation techniques are becoming attractive to ac-dc
conversion. With the advancement of power semiconductor devices (e.g., gate-turn-off
thyristors), the forced commutation can be implemented in practical systems. In this section
the basic techniques of forced commutation for ac-dc converters are discussed, and these can
be classified as follows:
1. Extinction angle control
2. Symmetrical angle control
3. Pulse-width modulation
4. Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation

EXTINCTION ANGLE CONTROL: -

In a single-phase semi converter, thyristor T1 and T2 are replaced by switches S1 and
S2. The switching actions of S1 and S2 can be performed by gate-turn-off thyristors (GTOs).
The characteristics of GTOs are such that a GTO can be turned on by applying a short
positive pulse to its gate as in the case of normal thyristors and can be turned off by applying
a short negative pulse to its gate.
 In an extinction angle control, switch S1 is turned on at ωt=0 and is turned off by
forced commutation at ωt = (π-β). Switch S2 is turned on at ωt=π and is turned off at ωt= (2π-
β). The output voltage is controlled by varying the extinction angle; β. Waveform shows the
for input voltage, output voltage, input current, and the current through thyristor switches.
The fundamental component of input current leads the input voltage, and the displacement
factor (any power factor) is leading. In some applications, this feature may be desirable to
simulate a capacitive load and to compensate for line voltage drops.

Wave--------------------------------------------------

The average output voltage is found from

2 𝜋−𝛽 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = [2𝜋 ∫0 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡) = (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽) (1)
𝜋

And 𝑉𝑑𝑐 can be varied from 2𝑉𝑚 /π to 0 by varying β from 0 to π. The rms output voltage is
given by

2 𝜋−𝛽 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [2𝜋 ∫0 Vm sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)]1/2

𝑉 1 sin 2 𝛽
= 𝑚 [𝜋 (𝜋 − 𝛽 + 2 )]1/2 (2)
√2
In a single-phase full converter, where thyristor T1, T2, T3, and T4 are replaced by forced-
commutated switches S1, S2, S3, and S4 then it is called as symmetrical angle control. Each
switch conducts for 180o, switches S1 and S2 are both on from ωt =0 to ωt=π-β and supply
power to the load during the positive half-cycle of the input voltage.
Similarly, switches S3 and S4 are both on from ωt =π to ωt = 2π-β and supply power
to the load during the negative half-cycle of the input voltage. For an inductive load, the
freewheeling path for the load current must be provided by switches S1 S4 or S3 S2.the firing
sequence would be 12, 14, 43, and 32. Waveform shows the input voltage, output voltage,
input current, and the current through switches. Each switch conducts for 180o and this
converter is operated as a semi converter. The freewheeling action is accomplished through
two switches of the same arm. The average and rms output voltage are expressed by Eq. (1)
and Eq. (2), respectively.
The performance of semi-and full converters with extinction angle control are similar
to those with phase-angle control, except the power factor is leading. With phase-angle
control, the power factor is lagging.

SYMMETRICAL ANGLE CONTROL: -

The symmetrical angle control allows one-quadrant operation and in a single-phase
semi converter with forced –commutated switches S1 and S2.
Switch S1 is turned on at ωt= (π-β)/2 and is turned off at ωt=(π+β)/2. Switch S2 is turned on
at ωt= (3π-β)/2 and off at ωt= (3π+β)/2. The output voltage is controlled by varying
conduction angle β. The gate signals are generated by comparing half-sine waves with a dc
signal as shown below.

Waveform shows the input voltage, output voltage, input current, and the current through
switches. The fundamental component of input current is in phase with the input voltage and
the displacement factor is unity. Therefore, thee power factor is improved.

Wave---------------------------------------

The average output voltage is found from

2 (𝜋+𝛽)/2 2 𝑉𝑚 𝛽
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = [2𝜋 ∫(𝜋−𝛽)/2 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝜋

And 𝑉𝑑𝑐 can be varied from 2 𝑉𝑚 /π to 0 by varying β from π to 0. The rms output voltage is
given by

2 (𝜋+𝛽)/2
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [2𝜋 ∫(𝜋−𝛽)/2 Vm 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)]1/2

𝑉𝑚 1
= [ (𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽)]1/2
√2 𝜋
PULSE-WIDTH-MODULATION CONTROL: -
If the output voltage of single-phase semi-or full converters is controlled by varying
the delay angle, extinction angle, or symmetrical angle, there is only one pulse per half-cycle
in the input current of the converters, and as a result the lowest-order harmonic is the third. It
is difficult to filter out the lower-order harmonic current. In pulse-width-modulation (PWM)
control, the converter switches are turned on and off several times during a half-cycle and the
output voltage is controlled by varying the width of pulses .The gate signals are generated by
comparing a triangular wave with a dc signal.

Pwm------------------------------

Waveform shows the input voltage, output voltage, and input current .the lower-order
harmonics can be eliminated or reduced by selecting the number of pulse per half-cycle.
However increasing the number of pulses would also increase the magnitude of higher-order
harmonics, which could easily be filtered out.

Wave--------------------------------------------------

The output voltage and the performance parameters of the converter can be determined in
two steps:
(1) By considering only one pair of pulse such that if one pulse starts at ωt =α1 and ends at
ωt=α1+δ1, the other pulse starts at ωt=π+α1 and ends at ωt= (π+α1+δ1), and
(2) By combining the effects of all pairs. If mth pulse starts at ωt=αm and its width is δm, the
average output voltage due to p number of pulse is found from

2 𝛼 +𝛿𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = ∑𝑝𝑚=1[ 2𝜋 ∫𝛼𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)]

𝑉
= 𝜋𝑚 ∑𝑝𝑚=1[ cos 𝛼𝑚 − cos(𝛼 + 𝛿𝑚 )]
If the load current with an average value of Ia is continuous and has negligible ripple, the
instantaneous input current can be expressed in a Fourier series as

𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 + ∑∞
𝑛=1,3,….(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛 𝜔𝑡)

Due to symmetry of the input current waveform, there will be no even harmonics and Idc
should be zero and the coefficients are

1 2𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) cos 𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 0
1 𝛼 +𝛿𝑚 1 𝜋+𝛼 +𝛿𝑚
= ∑𝑝𝑚=1[ 𝜋 ∫𝛼 𝑚 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) − 𝜋 ∫𝜋+𝛼 𝑚 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)] = 0
𝑚 𝑚

1 2𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
 𝑝 1 𝛼 +𝛿𝑚 1 𝜋+𝛼 +𝛿𝑚
= ∑𝑚=1[ 𝜋 ∫𝛼 𝑚 𝐼𝑎 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) − 𝜋 ∫𝜋+𝛼 𝑚 𝐼𝑎 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)]
𝑚 𝑚

2𝐼𝑎
= ∑𝑝𝑚=1[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝛼𝑚 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛(+𝛿𝑚 )] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1,3,5, … .
𝑛𝜋

Equation (5-79) can be rewritten as

𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑛=1,3,…. √2 𝐼𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + ф𝑛 )

Where ф𝑛 = tan-1(an/bn) =0 and In= (a2n+b2n)1/2 √2 =bn/√2.

SINUSOIDAL PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION: -

The widths of pulses can be varied to control the output voltage. If there are p pulses
per half-cycle with the equal width, the maximum width of a pulse is π/p. however; the pulse
widths of pulses could be different. It is possible to choose the widths of pulses in such a way
that certain harmonics could be eliminated. There are different methods of varying the widths
of pulse and the most common one is the sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM).

Spwm------------------------------------------------------

In sinusoidal PWM control, the pulse widths are generated by comparing a triangular
reference voltage vr of amplitude Ar and frequency 2fs. The sinusoidal voltage vc is in phase
with the input phase voltage vs. and has twice the supply frequency fs. The widths of the
pulses (and the output voltage) are varied by changing the amplitude Ac or the modulation
index M from 0 to 1. The modulation
Index is defined as
𝐴𝑐
𝑀 = 𝐴𝑟
In a sinusoidal PWM control, the displacement factor is unity and the power factor is
improved. The lower-order harmonics are eliminated or reduced. For example, with four
pulses per half-cycle the lower-order harmonic is the fifth; and with six pulses per half-cycle,
the lower-order harmonic is the seventh. Computer programs can be used to evaluate the
performances of uniform PWM and sinusoidal PWM control, respectively.