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Slag viscosity is a major process by key process parameters, including (e.g., FeO and Fe2O3).
variable for most pyrometallurgical the bulk composition of the slag, the A number of compilations and
smelting and refining process opera- effective oxygen partial pressure in the reviews are available that summarize
tions. While extensive measurements slag phase, and the temperature. and evaluate the experimental data
have been made of slag viscosities, it is In slag systems, the chemical char- on slag viscosities published in the
not practicable to provide data on all the acteristics, such as bonding and short- literature.5,7,8,10–13 It is often the case,
possible combinations of compositions range order within the melts, have a however, that experimental information
and process conditions encountered major influence on viscosity. Chemical on the slag viscosities is not available
in metallurgical practice. This article components such as SiO2, P2O5, and for the particular composition and
reviews the mathematical models that B2O3 possess strong, highly covalent conditions of interest to a particular
have been developed to predict slag metal-oxygen bonds, leading to high practice. In this event, mathematical
viscosities and provides some advice liquid viscosities. Alkali and alkali earth models can be used to predict the trends
on the factors to be considered in their in viscosity as a function of the key
selection and use. variables, and so assist in the selection of
process conditions and the optimization
INTRODUCTION
In slag systems, of the performance of the system of
The flow behavior of slags is an interest.
important factor in many metallurgical the chemical SINGLE-PHASE SLAG
systems, influencing, for example, the
characteristics, such SYSTEMS
ability to tap the slag from the reactor,
the efficiency of separation of slag The viscosities of fully liquid slags
from metal and matte phases, the extent as bonding and have been found to exhibit Newtonian
of slag foaming, the performance of behavior at the low shear strain rates
continuous-casting fluxes, and the
short-range order that are commonly encountered in
kinetics of metal smelting and refining within the melts, have metallurgical practice.
reactions. A common type of fluid flow A variety of approaches and math-
encountered in industrial applications a major influence ematical formalisms have been used to
is a shear flow. The behavior of a fluid describe the viscosities of liquid slags
material subjected to shear stress can be on viscosity. as a function of temperature and of
characterized by the shear viscosity, η composition. Comparisons between
(kg m–1 s–1 or Pa s), which for Newtonian the various model predictions and
behavior is independent of shear rate, oxides, in contrast, exhibit highly ionic experimental data are commonly quoted
and is called the dynamic viscosity behavior and form low-viscosity melts. in the literature, and in some cases a
coefficient.1–3 In the context of the The addition of alkali, alkali earth, and number of models have been compared
current review, the term viscosity is used transition metals to silicate melts has the and evaluated to assess their usefulness
to describe dynamic viscosity. effect of changing the type and number for applications in particular composition
The ranges of viscosities that are of the metal-oxygen nearest neighbors ranges.11,14 A summary covering most of
typically encountered in metallurgical and of lowering the fluid viscosities; the the published viscosity models suitable
systems include 10–3–10–2 Pa s (1 Pa s magnitude of these effects are strongly for use in metallurgical applications and
= 10 poise) for liquid metals, molten dependent on the components and their the particular chemical and metallurgical
salts, and mattes, and 10–2–1010 Pa s for proportions present in the melt. The systems to which they have been applied
slags.4–8 In practical terms, it becomes transition metals exist in different is given in Table I. The various models
difficult to tap free-flowing fluids with oxidation states (e.g., iron can be have been listed in groups selected on the
viscosities greater than 15–25 Pa s;9 present as Fe2+ or Fe3+) and, since basis of similarities in the temperature
these values then represent the upper they have different influences on the and composition dependences used in
limit of interest for most slag systems. physicochemical and thermodynamic different viscosity models. The classifi-
The phase equilibria and the viscosity properties of the system, are considered cation by temperature includes empiri-
behavior of the slags are determined as separate components in the system cal, Arrhenius, Weymann-Frenkel,
Model Type
Empirical Empirical Sage-McIlroy15 Coal ash slags Valid only for limited
Utigard-Warczok16 “Fayalite-type” slags composition-temperature
Watt-Fereday17 Coal ash slags ranges
Gupta18 Industrial mold fluxes
Saxen19 Iron blast furnace slags
Empirical Empirical: Linear Bottinga-Weill20 Binary and ternary alkali Validity reported for
(major components) and alkali earth-SiO2 systems 1,200–1,800°C and
35–81 mol% SiO2 with
470 coefficients
Eyring TD: Gibbs free energy KTH33,34 Metallurgical slags Coefficients are not published
of mixing
TD: Adam- TD: Configurational Configurational General model for silicate Configurational entropy of
Gibbs theory entropy entropy35,36 systems slag required
TD: Clausius- Empirical McCauley- Industrial slags (Na2O-K2O-- Valid only for limited
Clapeyron Apelian37 CaO-MgO-FeO-MnO-ZrO2- composition-temperature ranges
CaF2-Al2O3-B2O3-SiO2)
Eyring, Bockris-Reddy, quasi-structural, formalism and the physicochemical this, structural complexes (associates)
and thermodynamic (TD) models. The behavior. The Bottinga and Weill20 were introduced into the model as major
compositional classification includes model has been developed for a wide components to take into account a dual
empirical, optical basicity, Urbain, range of silicate systems of geological behavior of aluminum oxide in the
quasi-structural, and TD models. interest. The authors used a linear (alkali, alkali earth) metal oxide-silica
Fully empirical models16–20 simply dependence of viscosity on composition, systems. The Bottinga and Weill model
represent convenient mathematical and different coefficients are provided has been validated against experimental
descriptions of slag viscosity as a func- for each temperature range. This model viscosity data for a wide range of tem-
tion of temperature and bulk composi- differs from most empirical models in peratures and compositions, however,
tion; there is usually no fundamental that there is an attempt to take into it does require a large number (470) of
linkage between the mathematical account aspects of the chemistry. To do coefficients to do this. Most empirical