UCSP Reviewer

• Culture and Society

• Understanding Culture, Society & politics
• Richard T. Schaefer : Professor, DePaul University



B.A. Northwestern University

M.A., Ph.D. University of Chicago





Title of the Book: sociology

a brief introduction
• Understanding Culture, Society & politics
• Sociology is, simply, the scientific study of social behavior

and human groups. It focuses on social relationships; how those

relationships influence people’s behavior; and how societies, the

sum total of those relationships, develop and change.
• Sociological thinking. A leading sociologist, C. Wright

Mills, described such thinking as the 

an awareness of the relationship between an individual and the

wider society, both today and in the past (Mills [1959] 2000a).
• Understanding Culture, Society & politics
• Auguste Comte





In Comte’s hierarchy of the

sciences, sociology was at the top. He

called it the “queen,” and its practitioners “scientist-

priests.” This French theorist did not simply give sociology

its name; he presented a rather ambitious challenge to

the fledgling discipline.
• Understanding Culture, Society & politics
• Harriet Martineau 







she offered insightful observations of the customs and social practices

of both her native Britain and the United States. Martineau’s

book Society in America ([1837] 1962) examined religion, politics,

child rearing, and immigration
• Understanding Culture, Society & politics


What are the Contributions of the FF:
 • Herbert Spencer – survival of the fittest; adapted Darwin’s evolutionary
• Émile Durkheim- suicide, functionalist, anomie- loss of direction
• Max Weber-verstehen- umderstanding or insight; ideal type that used in bureaucracy
• Karl Marx- social classes, classless society, communist manifesto
• W. E. B. DuBois-double consciousness, racially egalitarian, knowledge to overcome prejudice
• Charles Horton Cooley- sociological pattern in smaller units, looking glass self
• Jane Addams- Hull House, feminist sociologist; intellectual inquiry, social service, political
activism
• Robert Merton- macrosociology/microsociology; deviance
• Pierre Bourdieu- cultural & social capital
What Is Sociological Theory?
• 1. Functionalist
• 2. Conflict Interactionist
• 3. View of Society
• 4.Interactionist

How did early men live before the birth of civilizations?

They lived by hunting & gathering.
They remained/stayed in small groups.
They were dependent on nature for survival.
They had a nomadic culture.
How did civilizations begin?
How do bands/tribes differ from civilizations?
What paved the way to the birth of civilization?
How did man make it possible to build civilizations?
The nature of man allowed him to build civilizations.
His physical & spiritual characteristics/gifts equipped him to establish/create the marks of a civilization.
What is the nature of man?
What are the marks of a civilization?

• Culture and Society

 • What is CULTURE?
Culture: Totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, 

material objects, and behavior
Culture includes ideas, values, customs, and artifacts of groups of people
• CULTURE AND SOCIETY
Society:
• Large number of people
• Same territory,
• Independent of people outside that area, Common culture

– Theodor Adorno: worldwide culture


industry limits people choices
• Culture, Society, Politics
• Culture - a shared way of life
• Nation - a political entity
• Society - the organized interaction of people in a nation or within some other boundary
• Cultural Universals
█ Cultural Universal: certain common practices and beliefs that all societies have developed
– Murdoch compiled list of cultural universals but they are expressed differently from
culture to culture
– Example; marriage, sports, cooking, medicine and sexual restrictions
• Culture Universal
• Characteristics of Culture
• 5. CULTURE IS DIVERSE
•
• A. LANGUAGE

" Language – Is an abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture.
- It includes speech, written characters, numerals,
symbols, and non verbal gestures and expressions.

According
to Saphir and Worf, since people can conceptualize the
world only through language, language precedes thought).
• Nonverbal Communication/ Symbols
• Non-Verbal Gestures
• B. NORMS
█ Norms: Established standards of behavior maintained by a society
– Formal norms: Generally written; 

specify strict punishments
– Law: government social control
– School Rules
– Informal norms: Generally 

understood but not precisely recorded
– Proper Dress
– Attitudes toward late
– Types of Norms
• Acceptance of Norms
• Table 12-1: Norms and Sanctions
• 4.TABOOS and RITUALS
• A taboo is a very strong negative norm;
• It is a strict prohibition of behavior that results in extreme disgust or expulsion from the
group or society.
• Considered unfit to live in that society
• TABOOS
• PHILIPPINES TABOO
• Cannibalism – EXCEPT Korowai tribe of south-east Papua and Aghoris of India.
• INCEST – EXCEPT Turkey etc
• FOOD/drinks –

– beef is prohibited for Hindus,

– pork is prohibited for Jews and Muslims
– Jains are prohibited from eating any meat and even some plants
– Muslims are prohibited from consuming alcohol
– Sikhs are prohibited from smoking
• C. Values
• D. RELIGION and Beliefs
 • The religion and the beliefs of the people in a civilization play an important role in shaping
up of the culture as well .
• Sociology of religion is the study of the beliefs, practices and organizational forms of
religion using the tools and methods of the discipline of sociology
• E. Status and Role in Society
• Status describes the position a person occupies in a particular setting.
• Role is the set of norms, values, behaviors, and personality characteristics attached to a
status.
• Example: Status as student
Role 1: Classroom: Attending class, taking notes, and communicating with the professor
Role 2: Fellow student: Participating in study groups, sharing ideas, quizzing other students
• Status as employee
Role 1: Warehouse: Unloading boxes, labeling products, restocking shelves
Role 2: Customer service: Answering questions, solving problems, researching information
• F. Cultural Integration
• This includes the degree of harmony or integration within the various elements of culture.
• This can include elements like sub-cultures, local cultures and the difference between
historical and cultural traditions.
• CULTURAL VARIATIONS
• Subcultures
• Subcultures are cultures that exist within a dominant culture that follow the dominant
cultures norms and values while still following a different set of norms and values

– They coexist with the dominant culture

• Ex. Some Filipino communities, teenagers, religious denominations, etc.
• Call centers in India
• Countercultures
• Countercultures exist within a culture with different norms and values, just like subcultures
– Countercultures often oppose the dominant culture, forming from a conflict a social
group may have with the dominant culture
• Ex. The Hippie movement, Skinheads, cults, etc.
• Counter Culture
• Counter Culture
• Pop Culture
• High Culture
• Culture Shock
█ Culture shock: Feeling disoriented, uncertain, out of place, or fearful when immersed in an
unfamiliar culture
• CULTURE LAG
• ATTITUDES TOWARD CULTURAL VARIATION
█ Ethnocentrism: Tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represents the
norm or is superior to others
– Conflict theorists: ethnocentric value judgments serve to devalue groups and to
deny equal opportunities
– Functionalists: ethnocentrism maintains sense of solidarity
█ Cultural relativism: – Views people from the perspective of their own culture. It places
priority on understanding other cultures, rather than dismissing them as “strange” or
“exotic
• ETHNOCENTRISM –
• Examples of ethnocentric thinking..... We often talk about British drivers driving "on the
wrong side" of the road. Why not just say "opposite side" or even "left hand side"?
• We talk about written Hebrew or Arabic as reading "backward." Why not just say "from
right to left" or "in the opposite direction from English." We consider certain types of art
“naive” or “primitive”
• While ethnocentric views are not necessarily intended, they have led to major human
disasters throughout history causing bullying, discrimination, intolerance, war, genocide….
• CULTURAL RELATIVISM anthropologists promote cultural relativism as an approach to
understanding diversity.
• Cultural relativism is the principle that an individual human's beliefs and activities make
sense in terms of his or her own culture.
• Therefore, when it comes to matters of right or wrong, there is no fixed truth but rather all
is relative.
• FEMALE BEAUTY: is it a cultural universal? Why or Why not?
• Xenocentrism
• Refers to the tendency to assume that a foreign cultural element is superior compared to
his/her own culture.
• Cultural Diversity – “Chevy Nova Award”

➢ Dairy Association’s huge success with the campaign “Got Milk?” prompted them to
expand advertising to Mexico

➢ It was brought to their attention the Spanish translation read, “Are you lactating?”
 • Cultural Diversity – “Chevy Nova Award”

➢ Clairol introduced the “Mist Stick”, a curling iron into Germany

➢ Only to find out that “mist” is German slang for manure.

• Cultural Diversity Chevy Nova Award
When Gerber started selling baby food in Africa, they used US packaging with the smiling
baby on the label.

In Africa, companies routinely put pictures on labels of what’s inside, since many people can’t
read.
• Cultural Diversity Chevy Nova Award
Pepsi’s “Come Alive With the Pepsi Generation” in Chinese translated into
“Pepsi Brings Your Ancestors Back From the Grave”

• Cultural Diversity Chevy Nova Award

Coca-Cola’s name in China was first read as “Kekoukela”, meaning “Bite the wax tadpole”
or “female horse stuffed with wax”, depending on the dialect.
Coke then researched 40,000 characters to find a phonetic equivalent “kokou kole”, translating
into “happiness in the mouth.”
• Development of Culture around the World
• Globalization, Diffusion, 

and Technology
• Globalization, Diffusion, 

and Technology
• Globalization, Diffusion, 

and Technology
• 

Limitations of the Global Theory
• Global culture is much more advanced in some parts of the world than in others
• Many people cannot afford to participate in the material aspects of a global culture
• Different people attribute different meanings to various aspects of the global
culture
• Is Technology promoting a global culture?
● New and emerging communications, computer, and other technologies. Don’t forget bio tech
- It provides a set of concepts that both material and non material culture need to adapt
to.
 -It can span the globe, but not all cultures will accept or adopt to these technologies and
the changes they cause/impose at the same rate.
- East and West have different bases and adopt at different rates
• Virtual Culture
Today’s children are bombarded with virtual culture, images that spring from the minds of
contemporary culture-makers and that reach them via a screen. Some of these cultural icons
embody values that shape our way of life. But few of them have any historical reality and almost all
have come into being to make money.

Human Biological and Cultural Evolution

Culture in Evolutionary Perspective
To understand culture, we need to:
(1) Know our biological capacity for culture
(2) How we fit into the animal kingdom
(3) How we came to be what we are
Our Capacity For Culture: Our Biological Roots
(1) Our language ability
(2) Our ability to make and use tools
(3) Our bipedalism—ability to stand and walk on two feet
If the “science of humankind” is to be taken seriously
We need to know our own anatomy
The PREDECESSORS of the modern human being
Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis) and Us (Homo sapiens)
Note the Following:
Shorter (3’6”)
Longer arms
Curved fingers
Shorter lower legs
Greater prognathism
Sloped forehead
Smaller cranial capacity
What are the Similarities?
Hint: it’s all related to bipedalism
Homo habilis: The First Known Toolmaker
Note the following:
Face is much flatter
Reduced brow ridge (supraorbital torus)
Larger cranial capacity (680 cc.)
Toolmaking Technique
Hammerstone used to strike
A core (lump of stone) to knap
A Flake (stone chip)
Note: Stone has to be crystalline (so it will fracture predictably)
Homo erectus: Cranial Structure
Note the Following:
Cranial capacity: 1,000 cc
Occipital bun
Reduced brow ridge
Reduced sloping forehead
Reduced prognathism
Artist’s conception of H. erectus
Homo heidelbergensis (a.k.a. “Archaic” Homo sapiens
Note the following:
Brow ridges much reduced
Forehead is higher, though sloping
Reduced prognathiam
Cranial capancity 1200 cc.
Artist’s conception shows closer similarities to ourselves
The first skull 

The skull of Neanderthal man
Homo neanderthalensis and H. sapiens skull
Note the following for “Classic” Neanderthal
Greater prognathism; humans lower jaw is straight
Absence of chin that human has
Presence of brow ridge; human has none, has higher forehead
Presence of occipital bun
Larger cranial capacity: 1450 cc vs. 1400 cc in humans
Also note: Artist’s conception of Neanderthal child
The First Humans
Bipedalism
Cultural and sociopolitical evolution
The Neolithic Revolution
The Neolithic Revolution is a major turning point in human history.
LENSKI’S SOCIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION:Views human societies as undergoing change according
to a dominant pattern
hunting and gathering societies
Survive by hunting animals, fishing, and gathering plants
Completely depended upon their immediate environment
Nomadic
Anyone even women can hunt but with a little Division of labor
Little surplus food
Hunting and gathering societies were also tribal (sacrificed their individuality for the sake of the larger
tribal culture)
pastoral societies
Domestication - pasture animals for food and transportation
Able to produce a surplus of goods – STORAGE --- SETTLE IN ONE PLACE --- STABILITY ---- trade
of surplus goods between neighboring pastoral communities.
(those who are not domesticating animals) ENGAGE in nonsurvival activities ( Traders, healers, spiritual
leaders, craftspeople, and people with other specialty professions)
horticultural societies
Rely on cultivating fruits, vegetables, and plants
Mobile due depletion of the land's resources or dwindling water supplies
Produced a surplus, which permitted storage as well as the emergence of other professions not related to
the survival of the society
Agricultural societies
Use technological advances to cultivate crops (especially grains like wheat, rice, corn, and barley) led to
increases in food ---- greater surplus ----- towns became center of trades ---- SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION ---- CONFLICT WITH OTHER COMMUNITY -----
Farmers turned nobility provided warriors with food in exchange for protection against invasion by
enemies.
feudalism
Ownership of land
In exchange for military protection, the lords exploited the peasants ----- SLAVERY ----- CAPITALISM
Industrial societies
Production of goods in mechanized factories began as the Industrial Revolution.
Cultural diversity increased ---- Social power moved into the hands of business elites and governmental
officials, leading to struggles between industrialists and workers ----- BUREAUCRATIC form
postindustrial society
Society is being shaped by the human mind, aided by computer technology
CONTRASTING SOCIETIES
MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY: this is what holds PREINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES together; by
sharing the same values & tasks they become united.
ORGANIC SOLIDARITY: holds INDUSTRIAL & PI SOCIETIES together based on the
impersonal social relationships that arise with job specialization…people can no longer provide for
all of their own needs & so become dependent on others for survival.
CONTRASTING SOCIETIES
German Sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies distinguished 2 ideal types of societies based on the
structure of social relationships and the degree of shared values among societal members.

GEMEINSCHAFT and GESELLSCHAFT

GEMEINSCHAFT = community.
Members know each other & relationships are close.
Activities center on family & community.
There is a strong sense of solidarity. (EX: PI societies; rural villages)
GESELLSCHAFT = society.
Social relationships based on need rather than emotion.
Relationships are impersonal & often temporary.
Individual goals more important than group goals.
(EX: urban societies like the US).
Socialization is the lifelong process of social interaction 

through which individuals acquire 

a self-identify and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society
The Role of Socialization





Social environment:

The impact of isolation

Interaction of heredity and environment shape human development

The case of Genie and Isabelle
Agents of Socialization
Family – the role of family in socializing a child cannot be overestimated
Cultural Influences
The Impact of Race and Gender
Gender Roles: expectation regarding proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females
School
Teach children values and customs of the larger society
Traditionally socialized children into conventional gender roles
Peer Group
As children grow older, peer groups increasingly assume the role of Mead’s significant others
Mass Media and Technology
Technology socializes families into multitasking as the social norm
47% of parents reported at least one child has a TV in his/her bedroom
Workplace
Learning to behave appropriately within occupational setting is fundamental aspect of human
socialization
Religion and State
Government and organized religion impacted life course by reinstituting some rites of passage
Transmission of culture
1. Enculturation
2. Acculturation
3. Assimilation
Enculturation
Enculturation is the process by which the values and norms of a society are passed on to or acquired by
its members.
We learn what behaviors, values, language, and morals are acceptable in our society
Acculturation
Acculturation is a process in which members of one cultural group adopts the beliefs and behaviors of
another group..
Assimilation
Describes the process by which a minority individual or group gives up its own identity by taking on the
characteristics of the dominant culture.
SOCIAL STRUCTURES
Social Structure and Interaction
Social structure is the framework of societal institutions (politics, and religion) and social practices (social
roles) that make up a society and establish limits on behavior.
Social interaction is the process by which people act toward or respond to other people and is the
foundation for all relationships and groups in society.
Social Structure Framework
Status
Statuses
Status: Refers to any of the socially defined positions within a large group or society
A person holds more than one status simultaneously
Defines where you fit in society
Ascribed Status: assigned according to things outside your control. (age, gender, etc.) BORN WITH
Achieved Status: role you achieve through your own efforts. ( occupation, college graduate, basketball
player, wife, mother, etc.) ONE EARNED
Master Status: One rank that determines your social identity. Can change throughout life. (Fulltime
Mom, Police Officer, Grandparent, etc.)
Sets of expectations for people who occupy a given status
You occupy a status – you play a role
Reciprocal Roles: define interaction with others. Can’t be fulfilled alone.
Example: you can’t perform the role of husband without a wife.
Examples of reciprocal roles:
Doctor-Patient Athlete – Coach
Employee – Boss Friend – Friend.
Socially determined behaviors expected are Role Expectations
Example: Doctors treat their patients with skill
Parents provide for their children, Police uphold the law.
Role Performance: actual role behavior that doesn’t always match what society expects.
Example: Doctor neglects patient, Parent fails to provide for child.
Problems: even when performing expected role does not meet expectations – this is because we play
many roles
Sometimes roles contradict each other.
Role Conflict & Role Strain
Role Conflict: Occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by
the same person.
Example: working fulltime and having young children at home.
Role Strain: Difficulties that arise when the same social position imposes conflicting demands and
expectations
Example: Boss trying to motivate employees while having to lower their salaries.
Role Exit: Process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s identity to establish a new role
Statuses and roles determine the structure of society.
When statuses/roles are organized to satisfy a basic need = Social Institution
Schools, family, economy, religion, media, medicine, etc.
The Functions of Social Institutions
1) Replace members
2) Socialize new members
3) Produce, distribute and consume goods and services
4) Preserve social order
DEVIANCE AND CONFORMITY
What is Deviance?
Any behavior, belief, or condition that violates significant social norms in the society or group in which it
occurs.
Interestingly – one who is considered “deviant” by one category of people may be seen as “conformist”
in another group
Deviance
Disapproval of deviance:
Negative sanctions
Frawns
Gossip
Imprisonment
Capital punishment
Deviance depends on…
Time
Fashion and grooming change
with time, like the Founding Fathers Fashion
Place
Where behavior occurs determines whether it is appropriate or deviant
Cheering/booing at Football game vs. in class
Situation
Takes precedence over place in determining appropriateness of actions
Laughing in class vs. laughing in class during a moment of silence
Culture
Most influential in defining deviance
Men greeting each other
US: Hand shake
Japan: Bow
Europe: Kiss on cheek
Symbolic Interactionist Approach to Deviance
Primary Deviance
Deviance involving occasional breaking of norms that are NOT a part of a person’s lifestyle or self-
concept
Example: Honor roll student comes home past curfew one night
Secondary Deviance
Deviance in which an individual’s life and identity are organized around breaking society’s norms
Example: The “robbers” in Ocean’s 11 had a criminal history because they had broken the law on
multiple occasions.
Structural Functionalist Approach to Deviance
Strain Theories: Deviance is more likely to occur when a gap exists between cultural goals and the
ability to achieve these goals by legitimate means THERE IS A GAP BETWEEN WHAT OUGHT TO BE
AND WHAT IS…
Innovation: Individual accepts goal of success but uses illegal means to achieve it
Ex: Drug Dealers
Ritualism: Individual rejects goal of success but continues to “go through the motions” without believing
in the process
Ex. Teacher who doesn’t care about engaging students, but still comes to work
Retreatism: Individual rejects both legitimate means and approved goals (Given up on life)
Ex. Bag lady
Rebellion: Individual rejects both success and the approved means for achieving it; substitutes their own
goal and means to achieve it
Ex. Militia Member


All crime is deviance…but all deviance is NOT a crime.
Crime: any act that violates a criminal law
Violent offenses: crimes against people
Ex. Homicide, aggravated assault, forcible rape, robbery
Nonviolent offenses: crimes against property
Ex. Burglary, larcenry-theft, auto theft, and arson
White Collar Crime- crime committed by high- status people in their occupations.
Ex. Embezzlement, fraud, insider trading, copyright violations, tax evasion, and antitrust law violations
Public Order “Victimless” Crimes
Ex. Prostitution, illegal gambling, illegal drug use
Defining Deviance
Not all crimes are deviant
PETA
Bullying
Speeding
Gambling
White Collar crime
Non Criminal Deviance
Music preferences
Body piercing
Marrying someone
Your parents disapprove of
Your parents want you to
Being a Geek or a Nerd
Where do “rolling Stops” and other trivial driving violations go?
Correctional Systems
Deterrence: Discouraging criminal acts by threatening punishment
Capital Punishment
Rehabilitation: Process of changing or reforming a criminal through resocialization
Ex. Providing social and work skills to reform criminals
Retribution: Punishment intended to make criminals pay compensation for their acts
Ex. Incarceration: Method of protecting society from criminals by keeping them in prison
Recidivism: Repeated offenses by those who have already been convicted of crimes

Groups and Formal Organizations

Out-Group: group targeted by in-group for opposition, antagonism, or competition jocks, cheerleaders,
etc. nerds are in-groups for some, out-groups for others Freaks and Geeks
VIRTUAL WORLD