ASSIGNMENT

ON
DEFECTS IN FORMING PROCESS
 WHAT IS FORMING PROCESS?

Metal forming is also known as mechanical working of metals. Metal forming operations are
frequently desirable either to produce a new shape or to improve the properties of the
metal. Shaping in the solid state may be divided into non-cutting shaping such as forging,
rolling, pressing, etc., and cutting shaping such as the machining operations performed on
various machine tools. Non-cutting or non machining shaping processes are referred to as
mechanical working processes. It means an intentional and permanent deformation of
metals plastically beyond the elastic range of the material. The main objectives of metal
working processes are to provide the desired shape and size, under the action of externally
applied forces in metals. Such processes are used to achieve optimum mechanical
properties in the metal and reduce any internal voids or cavities present and thus make the
metal dense.

HOT WORKING
Mechanical working processes which are done above recrystallisation temperature of the
metal are know as hot working processes. Some metals, such as lead and tin, have a low
recrystallisation temperature and can be hot-worked even at room temperature, but most
commercial metals require some heating. However, this temperature should not be too high
to reach the solidus temperature; otherwise the metal will burn and become unsuitable for
use. In hot working, the temperature of completion of metal working is important since any
extra heat left after working aid in grain growth. This increase in size of the grains occurs
by a process of coalescence of adjoining grains and is a function of time and temperature.
Grain growth results in poor mechanical properties. If the hot working is completed just
above the recrystallisation temperature then the resultant grain size would be fine. Thus
forany hot working process the metal should be heated to such a temperature below its
solidus temperature, that after completion of the hot working its temperature will remain a
little higher than and as close as possible to its rccrystalisation temperature.

COLD WORKING

Cold working of a metal is carried out below its recrystallisation temperature. Although
normal room temperatures are ordinarily used for cold working of various types of steel,
temperatures up to the recrystallisation range are sometimes used. In cold working,
recovery processes are not effective.
 METAL FORMING PROCESS
(A) ROLLING
It is a forming process on cylindrical rolls wherein cross-sectional area of a bar or plate is
reduced with a corresponding increase in length. The metal is thinned and elongated by
compression and shear force but increased in width only slightly because of the high surface
finish maintained on the rolls, the surface of stock is burnished by rolling action and attains
a smooth bright finish.

This process is one of the most widely used of all metal working process, because of its high
productivity and low cost. Rolling would be able to produce components having constant
cross-section throughout its length. Many shapes such as I, L, T and channel section are
possible, but not very complex shapes. It is also possible to produce special sections such as
railway wagon wheels by rolling individual pieces.

DEFECTS IN ROLLING
1. Surface defects

These defects may result from:

 Inclusions and impurities in thematerial

 Scale, rust, dirt
 Roll marks
 Other causes related to the prior treatment and working of the material.

2. Structural defect
These defects distort or affect the integrity of the rolled product.
(i) Wavy edges are caused by bending of the rolls; the edges of the strip are
thinner than the centre because of the edges elongate more than the centre
and are restrained from expanding freely, they buckle.

(ii), (iii) Zipper cracks and edge cracks – zipper cracks in the centre of strip and edge
cracks are usually caused by low ductility and barrelling.

(iv) Alligatoring is a complex phenomenon that results from inhomogenous

deformation of the material during rolling or from defects in the original cast ingot,
such as piping
(B) FORGING
It is the process by which heated metal by the application of sudden blows or steady
pressure and characteristics of plasticity of material are made use of.

DEFECTS IN FORFING
1. Cold shut - it usually occur at corners and at right angle to surfaces. It is caused
mainly by the improper design of the die wherein the corner and the fillet radii are
small as a result of which the metal does not flow properly into the corner and ends
up as a cold shut.
2. Unfilled section- it is similar to misrun in casting and occur when metal does not
completely fill the die cavity. It is usually caused by using insignificant metal or
insignificant heating of the metal.
3. Flakes- these are internal ruptures caused by improper cooling of large forging and
can be reminded by following proper cooling practice.
4. Scale pits- these are irregular depression on the surface of forging. These are
primarily caused because of the improper cleaning of the stock used for forging.
5. Improper grain flow- this is caused by improper design of the die which makes the
flow of metal not following the final intended directions.
6. Internal cracks- these can result from too drastic a change in the shape of the raw
stock at too fst a rate.
7. Die shift- this defect is caused by the misalignment of the two die halves, making the
two halves of the forging to be of improper shape.
8. Burnt and overheated metal- this defect is caused by improper heating condition
and soaking the metal too long.
(C) EXTRUSION
It is a process in which metal is caused to flow through a restricted orifice so creating an
extremely elongated strip of uniform, but comparatively small cross-section. The
operation is identical to the squeezing of toothpaste out of the toothpaste tube. It is also
similar to the cold drawing except that the material is pushed; not pulled, through the
hole in the die, and the operation is often carried out at high temperature.

DEFECTS IN EXTRUSION
(i) Extrusion defect- it is most common defect in extrusion. It arises from the back
flow of material, pushing the end face of the bullet into the core of the product.
Such a defect weakens the product since the surface layer is normally
contaminated by oxides.
(ii) Surface cracking- sometimes the heat generated due to extrusion may raise the
temperature of the job, resulting in the development of surface cracks. These
cracks are intergranular and are usually the result of hot shortness; they occur
especially with Al, Mg, and Zn alloys but are also observed with other metals,
such as Mo alloys.
(iii) Internal cracking- the centre of an extruded product can develop cracks variously
known as centre burst, centre cracking, arrowhead fracture. These cracks are
attributed to a state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the centre line of the
deformation zone in the die.
(D) WIRE DRAWING
It is the process of reducing diameter of metal rods by drawing them through conical
openings in die blocks.

DEFECTS IN WIRE DRAWING

(i) Defects in drawing are similar to those in extrusion, especially centre cracking.
The tendency for cracking increases with increasing die angle angle, with
decreasing reduction per pass, with friction, and with the presence of inclusions
in the material.
(ii) Another type of defect is the formation of seams, which are longitudinal
scratches or folds in the material. Such defects can open up during subsequent
forming operation by upsetting, heading, thread rolling, or bending of the rod or
wire.
(iii) In tearing, due to high tensile stress cause thinning & failure of the metal in the
cup wall. It occurs if die has a sharp corner radius.