Solar Energy: Yuanyuan Li, Xiankun Xu, Xiaoxin Wang, Peiwen Li, Qing Hao, Bo Xiao

Solar Energy xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener
Survey and evaluation of equations for thermophysical properties of

binary/ternary eutectic salts from NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, ZnCl2 for heat
transfer and thermal storage fluids in CSP
Yuanyuan Li a,b,1, Xiankun Xu b, Xiaoxin Wang b, Peiwen Li b,⇑, Qing Hao b, Bo Xiao b
a
School of Energy, Power and Mechanical Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China
b
Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Considered as promising candidates of composing eutectic chloride molten salts for high temperature
Received 21 January 2017 heat transfer fluid (HTF) with low corrosivity to nickel-based alloys, NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, and ZnCl2
Received in revised form 1 March 2017 are formulated into proper binary and ternary mixtures to satisfy the property requirement for HTFs.
Accepted 7 March 2017
Experimental and predicted thermophysical properties of 16 selected eutectic binary and ternary molten
Available online xxxx
salts are provided. The molten salts can work in a temperature range from after eutectic melting to at
least 800 °C with low vapor pressure and acceptable low corrosivity. Surveyed equations and correlations
Keywords:
for thermophysical properties of salt mixtures are used to predict heat capacity, density, thermal conduc-
CSP
Heat transfer fluids
tivity, and viscosity. The results are compared to experimental data from the author’s tests as well as
Thermal storage reported in literature. Evaluated equations and correlations that can better predict the transport proper-
Chloride eutectic molten salts ties of the salts are selected and recommended. Authors expect that more experimental tests will be
conducted to provide data for application in CSP industry.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction but not least, the HTF must be compatible or with low corrosion to
the thermal storage containers, pipes, and valves for fluid
A fluid capable of operating at high temperatures with low transport.
vapor pressure and low corrosivity to certain high temperature To obtain high energy efficiency in thermal-to-electrical energy
metals is needed in a concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) sys- conversion in a CSP plant, it is advantageous to have a heat source/
tem to transfer heat from the solar receiver (heat source) to a des- reservoir temperature as high as possible. Whereas modern solar
tination heat exchanger where heat is delivered to a working fluid concentrating technology has made it possible to have high
in a power plant. It is beneficial and cost-effective that such a fluid temperature at the solar receiver, it has been a challenge to find
for heat transport (called as heat transfer fluid—HTF) can also a heat transfer fluid (HTF) that possesses all thermal and transport
serve as thermal energy storage fluid for a CSP system. It is gener- properties at high temperatures suitable to transport heat to the
ally known that the critical advantage of CSP technology compared thermal power system for power generation. Because of this chal-
to photovoltaic (PV) solar power is its capability of storing thermal lenge, the thermal efficiency of CSP plants is largely restricted by
energy for extended period of power generation. To store thermal the highest operating temperature of a HTF.
energy in a compact or minimized volume, a fluid with large heat There are a number of gases and liquids that have been used as
capacity and density but low vapor pressure is preferable. Low heat transfer fluids, such as air, helium gas, super critical CO2,
cost and good transport properties (such as low viscosity and high water, variety types of oils, molten salts, and liquid metals. How-
thermal conductivity) of the fluid are also important in order to ever, for high temperature heat transfer at the temperature level
achieve efficient heat transfer and thermal energy transport. Last, from 200 °C to 800 °C, with the requirement of relatively low vapor
pressure in the fluid and low corrosion to pipes and containers at
the high temperatures, the options of fluids are not too many.
⇑ Corresponding author. When the fluid is also considered for thermal energy storage, the
E-mail address: peiwen@email.arizona.edu (P. Li). number of candidate fluids becomes even less.
1
Visiting scholar in the University of Arizona.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.03.019
0038-092X/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Li, Y., et al. Survey and evaluation of equations for thermophysical properties of binary/ternary eutectic salts from NaCl,
KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, ZnCl2 for heat transfer and thermal storage fluids in CSP. Sol. Energy (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.03.019
2 Y. Li et al. / Solar Energy xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
Recent efforts on CSP technologies founded by the SunShot pro- pipes and containers at high temperatures; and (5) thermophysical
gram of the U.S. Department of Energy has a new target for the properties are acceptable for convective heat transfer and thermal
temperatures of HTF to reach to 800 °C, in order to have higher energy storage.
energy efficiency using supercritical CO2 thermal cycles. The To satisfy the requirement for the HTF and thermal storage, 16
requirements to such an HTF include: (1) a melting point as low eutectic chlorides molten salts are chosen as very promising candi-
as possible; (2) a boiling point at least 800 °C or above; (3) con- dates for study. The molten salts are formed using the following
stituent materials have low cost and are abundant for large quan- components: NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, and ZnCl2. The current study
tity of need of thermal energy storage; (4) low corrosion to metal will provide surveys and evaluation to models and equations that
can most accurately predict the transport properties for these cho-
sen eutectic molten salts for engineering application in CSP
industry.
Table 1
The composition and theoretical melting point of KCl-MgCl2 binary eutectic molten
salt. 2. Candidacy of molten chloride salts for high temperature heat
transfer fluids
Chemical formula KCl MgCl2 Theoretical melting
point of eutectic salt
3
Density (g/cm @25 °C) 1.98 2.32 Mixing of materials to form a eutectic system is a viable way to
Melting point (°C) 770 714 achieve the goal of making the mixture material to have lower
Boiling point (°C) 1420 1412
melting point than that of the lowest of all the constituents and
Molar mass (g/mol) 74.55 95.21
at the same time to have a boiling point above that of the lowest
#1 Molar fraction 68.0% 32.0% 430 °C
boiling point of the constituents. For chemical stability at high
Mass fraction 62.5% 37.5%
temperatures, it is essential that each individual species in the
Table 2
Compositions and theoretical melting points of three eutectic molten salts of NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Vandarkuzhali et al., 2007; Chartrand and Pelton, 2001; Robelin and Chartrand,
2011).
Chemical formula NaCl KCl MgCl2 Theoretical melting point of eutectic salts
Density (g/cm3 @25 °C) 2.16 1.98 2.32
Melting point (°C) 801 770 714
Boiling point (°C) 1413 1420 1412
Molar mass (g/mol) 58.44 74.55 95.21
#1 Molar fraction 27.5% 32.5% 40.0% 383 °C
Mass fraction 20.5% 30.9% 48.6%
#2 Molar fraction 30.0% 20.0% 50.0% 396 °C
Mass fraction 21.9% 18.6% 59.5%
#3 Molar fraction 20.0% 52.5% 27.5% 388 °C
Mass fraction 15.2% 50.8% 34.0%
Table 3
Compositions and theoretical melting points of three eutectic molten salts of KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Robelin and Chartrand, 2011).
Chemical formula KCl MgCl2 ZnCl2 Theoretical melting point of eutectic salts
Density (g/cm3 @25 °C) 1.98 2.32 2.91
Boiling point (°C) 1420 1412 732
Molar mass (g/mol) 74.55 95.21 136.32
#1 Molar fraction 61.3% 15.0% 23.7% 356 °C
Mass fraction 49.4% 15.5% 35.1%
#2 Molar fraction 64.0% 16.0% 20.0% 363 °C
Mass fraction 52.9% 16.9% 30.2%
#3 Molar fraction 67.5% 15.0% 17.5% 367 °C
Mass fraction 56.9% 16.1% 27.0%
Table 4
Compositions and theoretical melting points of three eutectic molten salts of NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Robelin and Chartrand, 2011).
Chemical formula NaCl MgCl2 ZnCl2 Theoretical melting point of eutectic salts
Density (g/cm3 @25 °C) 2.16 2.32 2.91
Molar mass (g/mol) 58.44 95.21 136.32
#1 Molar fraction 52.5% 10.0% 37.5% 352 °C
Mass fraction 33.6% 10.4% 56.0%
#2 Molar fraction 58.8% 12.5% 28.7% 374 °C
Mass fraction 40.2% 14.0% 45.8%
#3 Molar fraction 62.0% 10.0% 28.0% 385 °C
Mass fraction 43.2% 11.3% 45.5%
Y. Li et al. / Solar Energy xxx (2017) xxx–xxx 3
Table 5
Composition and theoretical melting point of one eutectic molten salt of NaCl-CaCl2 -ZnCl2 (Robelin and Chartrand, 2011).
Chemical formula NaCl CaCl2 ZnCl2 Theoretical melting point of eutectic salt
Density (g/cm3 @25 °C) 2.16 2.15 2.91
Molar mass (g/mol) 58.44 110.98 136.32
#1 Molar fraction 58.0% 12.0% 30.0% 386 °C
Mass fraction 38.5% 15.1% 46.4%
Table 6
Compositions and theoretical melting point of three eutectic molten salts of NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Robelin and Chartrand, 2011).
Chemical formula NaCl KCl ZnCl2 Theoretical melting point of eutectic salts
Density (g/cm3 @25 °C) 2.16 1.98 2.91
Molar mass (g/mol) 58.44 74.55 136.32
#1 Molar fraction 13.8% 41.9% 44.3% 229 °C
Mass fraction 8.1% 31.3% 60.6%
#2 Molar fraction 18.6% 21.9% 59.5% 213 °C
Mass fraction 10.0% 15.1% 74.9%
#3 Molar fraction 13.4% 33.7% 52.9% 204 °C
#4 Molar fraction 22.0% 39.3% 38.7% 280 °C
Mass fraction 13.5% 30.9% 55.6%
#5 Molar fraction 11.5% 58.3% 30.2% 397 °C
Table 7
Experimental and estimated values of heat capacity for selected salts; unit of T is in (K).
Salt component Composition (mol%) Dulong-Petit (J/g K) Mole-fraction ave (J/gK) Measurement (J/g K)
KCl-MgCl2 68.0–32.0 0.9574 0.9244a 0.999
0.9795b
NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 27.5–32.5–40.0 1.0238 0.9828a –
3 * 105T + 1.0477b
30.0–20.0–50.0 1.0443 0.9937a –
-3*105T + 1.0502b
20.0–52.5–27.5 0.9894 0.9595a –
2 * 105T + 1.0324b
KCl-MgCl2-ZnCl2 61.3–15–23.7 0.8664 0.8539a –
6 * 105T + 0.8076b
64.0–16.0–20.0 0.8763 0.8624a –
5 * 105T + 0.8314b
67.5–15.0–17.5 0.8804 0.867a –
5 * 105T + 0.848b
NaCl-MgCl2-ZnCl2 52.5–10.0–37.5 0.9079 0.9004a –
5 * 105T + 0.8183b
58.8–12.5–28.7 0.9462 0.9354a –
3 * 105T + 0.8916b
62.0–10.0–28.0 0.95 0.9414a –
2 * 105T + 0.9039b
NaCl-CaCl2-ZnCl2 58.0–12.0–30.0 0.9186 0.9192a –
3 * 105T + 0.8758b
NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 13.8–41.9–44.3 0.8196 0.8228a 0.917
9 * 105T + 0.7097b
18.6–21.9–59.5 0.8027 0.805a 0.913
0.0001T + 0.6442b
13.4–33.7–52.9 0.8051 0.8085a 0.9
0.0001T + 0.6668b
22.0–39.3–38.7 0.8425 0.8442a –
8 * 105T + 0.7536b
11.5–58.3–30.2 0.8441 0.8455a –
7 * 105T + 0.7853b
a
Values derived from method of additive; heat capacity of pure component is based on data in reference (Janz, 1967). The heat capacity data chosen for liquid phase of the
pure NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, ZnCl2 salts were directly taken from this literature which concluded that chloride salt heat capacity is constant with respect to temperature.
b
Equations derived from method of additive; heat capacity of pure component is based on data in reference (Chartrand and Pelton, 2001; Robelin and Chartrand, 2011).
These references reported some very weak temperature-dependent heat capacity expressions for ‘‘pseudo liquid” and liquid phase of the pure NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, ZnCl2
salts at temperatures from 25 °C to more than 800 °C.
KCl-MgCl2 (Mole:68.0%-32.0%) eutectic mixture should be chemically stable in a large range of

1.1 temperatures from room temperature to well above 800 °C, which
1
is required for the new generation CSP technology.
Due to the natural abundance and relatively low cost, several
0.9 types of chloride salts can be very good candidates to form eutectic
mixture and thus to obtain the thermophysical properties to meet
0.8
the requirements for HTF and thermal energy storage (Li et al.,
Heat capacity/(J/g·K)
0.7 2014). It is commonly known that some chloride salts are chemi-
cally very stable. For example, NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, and MgCl2 have
0.6 ionic bonding and their boiling points are all above 1400 °C, mak-
Dulong-Petit Method ing them good candidates to contribute to a high boiling point for
0.5
Mole-fraction Ave 1 the eutectic mixture (Zuca et al. (1991)). The measures to make a
0.4 Mole-fraction Ave 2 lower melting point for the eutectic molten salts may include mov-
ing to higher order eutectic mixture such as ternary or even qua-
0.3 Experiment
ternary system, or adding covalent salts such as ZnCl2 to the
0.2 mixture so that highly mismatched molecular size, shape, and
bonding of different species will allow formation of deep eutectic
0.1 point, or melting point.
650 750 850 950 1050 1150
The present survey and study considered the following binary
Temperature /K and ternary chloride salts systems. Their eutectic compositions
and melting points are listed in Tables 1–6.
Fig. 1. Comparison of heat capacities from experimental work and different
prediction methods for KCl-MgCl2 salt in Table 1.
NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 27.5%-32.5%-40.0%) NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 30.0%-20.0%-50.0%)

1.2 1.2
(a) (b)
1.1 1.1
1 1
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
Dulong-Petit Method Dulong-Petit Method
0.5 Mole-fraction Ave 1 0.5
Mole-fraction Ave 1
0.4
Mole-fraction Ave 2 0.4 Mole-fraction Ave 2
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
630 730 830 930 1030 1130 650 750 850 950 1050 1150
Temperature/K Temperature/K
NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 20.0%-52.5%-27.5%)
1.2
1.1
(c)
0.9
0.8
0.7
Dulong-Petit Method
0.6
Mole-fraction Ave 1
0.5
Mole-fraction Ave 2
0.4
0.3
0.2
640 740 840 940 1040 1140
Temperature/K
Fig. 2. Comparison of heat capacities derived from different prediction methods for all the three NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 salts in Table 2: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3.
KCl-MgCl2 binary system using low cost salts. fore should be removed. Results of the corrosion of eutectic chlo-
NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 ternary system for lower melting point than ride salt, KCl-MgCl2 and NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 to high temperature
that of the KCl-MgCl2 binary system. alloys will be reported separately in the near future.
KCl-MgCl2-ZnCl2 ternary system by adding covalent salt ZnCl2
to the KCl-MgCl2 system.
NaCl-MgCl2-ZnCl2 ternary system by adding covalent salt ZnCl2 3. Properties of binary and ternary chloride eutectic molten
to the NaCl-MgCl2 system. salts
NaCl-CaCl2-ZnCl2 ternary system by adding covalent salt ZnCl2
to the NaCl-CaCl2 system. Transport properties for the eutectic chloride salts given in
NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 ternary system by adding covalent salt ZnCl2 to Tables 1–6 will be investigated and studied through comparing
the NaCl-KCl system. the data obtained using empirical equations, equations reported
in literature, and experimental data obtained by the authors or
To pick up the proper chloride salts that are not corrosive to reported in literature. For each property of the binary or ternary
nickel-based high temperature alloys, it is important that the chloride salt mixtures with any species of NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2,
metallic elements in the chosen constituent salts (in this case)— and ZnCl2, a reliable equation will be recommended which can pre-
KCl, MgCl2, NaCl, CaCl2, ZnCl2 are less noble than the metals in dict the property with good agreement to experimental data.
the alloys, and thus the chloride salt will not react to the metals
in the alloy. Studies of the corrosion behavior of the eutectic mol- 3.1. Heat capacity
ten salts in Tables 1 and 6 to a high temperature nickel-based
alloy—Haynes 230 at 800 °C have demonstrated appreciable low Three methods from literature are selected to predict the heat
corrosion rates under the circumstance of very low level of water capacity of eutectic salt mixtures composed of any ingredients—
and oxygen content in the molten salts (Alkhamis, 2016). It has NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, and ZnCl2. The results are given in Table 7,
been demonstrated that water and oxygen in the molten chloride and also temperature dependent heat capacity curves are plotted
salts KCl-MgCl2 are mainly responsible to the corrosion and there- in Figs. 1-6 for comparison and evaluation. The equations with
KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 61.3%-15%-23.7%) KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 64.0%-16.0%-20.0%)

1 1
(a) (b)
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.7 0.8
0.6
0.7
0.5
Dulong-Petit Method
0.4 0.6 Dulong-Petit Method
Mole-fraction Ave 1
Mole-fraction Ave 1
0.3 Mole-fraction Ave 2
0.2
0.1 0.4
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 610 710 810 910 1010 1110
KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 67.5%-15.0%-17.5%)

1
(c)
0.9
0.8
0.7
Dulong-Petit Method
0.6
Mole-fraction Ave 1
Mole-fraction Ave 2
0.5
0.4
620 720 820 920 1020 1120
Temperature/K
Fig. 3. Comparison of heat capacities derived from different prediction methods for all the three KCl-MgCl2-ZnCl2 salts in Table 3: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3.
NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 52.5%-10.0%-37.5%) NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 58.8%-12.5%-28.7%)

1 1.1
(a) (b)
0.9 1
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5 Dulong-Petit Method Dulong-Petit Method
0.5
Mole-fraction Ave 1 Mole-fraction Ave 1
0.4
Mole-fraction Ave 2 0.4 Mole-fraction Ave 2
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 620 720 820 920 1020 1120
NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 62.0%-10.0%-28.0%)
1.1
(c)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Dulong-Petit Method
Mole-fraction Ave 2
0.5
0.4
630 730 830 930 1030 1130
Temperature/K
Fig. 4. Comparison of heat capacities derived from different prediction methods for all the three NaCl-MgCl2-ZnCl2 salts in Table 4: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3.
predictions in better agreement with experimental data will be

NaCl-CaCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 58.0%-12.0%-30.0%) recommended.
1.1
1 3.1.1. Dulong-Petit method

Dulong-Petit equation (Williams et al., 2006) is commonly used
0.9 in heat capacity prediction for molten salt mixtures. For molten
salt mixtures composed of alkali and alkaline earth halides, the
0.8
Dulong-Petit equation takes the form (Cantor et al., 1968):

P
0.7 ðxi Ni Þ
cp ¼ 8 P ð1Þ
ðxi M i Þ
0.6
Dulong-Petit Method where cp is the heat capacity (cal/g K) of molten salt mixture, Ni is
0.5
Mole-fraction Ave 1 the number of atoms in each component, Mi is molecular weight
(g/mol) of each component, xi is the molar fraction of ith compo-
nent. The heat capacity factor 8 (cal/mol K), proposed in this expres-
0.3 sion, denotes a contribution of 8 cal/K per mole of each atom in the
salt mixture. The Dulong-Petit equation only considers alkali and
0.2 alkaline earth halides salts. In the case of no experimental data
630 730 830 930 1030 1130
available, Dulong-Petit equation is still considered as a very good
Temperature/K
approximate prediction to the heat capacity of alkali and alkaline
Fig. 5. Comparison of heat capacities derived from different prediction methods for earth halides salts (Williams et al., 2006). The equation does not
NaCl-CaCl2-ZnCl2 salt in Table 5. consider the temperature effect. However, indeed, the heat capacity
NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole:13.8%-41.9%-44.3%) NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 18.6%-21.9%-59.5%)

1 1
(a) (b)
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
Heat capacity/(J/g ·K)

0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 Experiment 0.2 Experiment
0.1 0.1
0 0
450 550 650 750 850 950 1050 1150 450 550 650 750 850 950 1050 1150
NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 13.4%-33.7%-52.9%) NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 22.0%-39.3%-38.7%)

1 1
(c)
0.9 0.9
(d)
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
Mole-fraction Ave 1
0.3
Mole-fraction Ave 1
0.3
Mole-fraction Ave 2
Mole-fraction Ave 2
0.2 Experiment 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
430 530 630 730 830 930 1030 1130 530 630 730 830 930 1030 1130
NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 11.5%-58.3%-30.2%)
1
(e)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Dulong-Petit Method
0.4
Mole-fraction Ave 1
0.2
0.1
650 750 850 950 1050 1150
Temperature/K
Fig. 6. Comparison of heat capacities derived from different prediction methods with experimental data for all the five NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 salts in Table 6: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2,
(c) salt #3, (d) salt #4, (e) salt #5.
Table 8 KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 68.0%-32.0%)

Densities of individual component molten salt. Unit of T is in (K) 2
Mass-fraction Ave
Salt Density equationa (g/cm3) QCM Method
1.9
3 Experiment
NaCl 2.1393–0.543 * 10 T
KCl 2.1359–0.5831 * 103 T Equation 10
MgCl2 1.976–0.302 * 103 T 1.8
Density/(g/cm3)
Equation 9
CaCl2 2.5261–0.4225 * 103T
ZnCl2 2.69–0.512 * 103T 1 ZnCl2 or 1.7
2.7831–0.448 * 103T 2 ZnCl2
a
Equations obtained from reference (Janz, 1967). If ZnCl2 is a component in a salt 1.6
mixture and density equation for 1ZnCl2 is used in mass-fraction method (Eq. (3)),
the data obtained is marked as Ave 1; if density equation for 2ZnCl2 is used in mass-
1.5
fraction method (Eq. (3)), the data obtained is marked as Ave 2.
1.4
650 750 850 950 1050 1150
Temperature/K
of halide salts has insignificant change against temperatures
(Williams et al., 2006; Serrano-Lopez et al., 2013). Fig. 7. Comparison of densities from experimental work and predictions using the
equations presented for eutectic KCl-MgCl2 salt.
3.1.2. Mole-fraction average

Additive principle was also generally applied to heat capacity
estimation for multi-component molten salt mixtures (Khokhlov
mixtures for KCl-MgCl2 system at temperatures ranging from
et al., 2009). The expression is:
450 °C to 550 °C and NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 system from 230 °C to
X
Cp ¼ xi C p;i ð2Þ 350 °C (Li et al., 2016). The predicted values of heat capacity of
the eutectic salts are compared to the available experimental data,
where Cp,i is the heat capacity (J/mol K) of each component. Since as seen in Figs. 1–6.
the eutectic mixture has lower melting point than that of each indi- From the observation to Figs. 1–6, it is interesting to see that the
vidual salt of the mixture, the ‘‘pseudo liquid state” heat capacity of three predicting methods for the heat capacity of the studied chlo-
an individual salt (at a temperature below its physical melting ride molten salt mixtures showed certain level of agreement with
point) used in Eq. (2) is extrapolated from liquid state at high each other, particularly the Dulong-Petit method and one of the
temperatures. additive principle (Mole-fraction Ave 1) method showed a good
In the studied cases, two plots of heat capacity, marked with agreement with a deviation less than 6%. In general, the predicted
Mole-fraction Ave 1 and Ave 2, were obtained by additive principle heat capacity by Dulong-Petit method has better agreement with
at different temperatures for each eutectic salt mixture. The differ- the experimental data than predicted by other equations. It is also
ence of the data or plots in Ave 1 and Ave 2 are because of different seen that the predicted data by the Dulong-Petit method and one
heat capacity values or equations (superscript, a, in Table 7 is for Ave of the additive principle (Mole-fraction Ave 1) methods are always
1 and b for Ave 2) for pure components given in different references. lower than that of the experimental data. The maximum deviation
between the predicted values by Dulong-Petit method and exper-
3.1.3. Comparison of the predicted heat capacity data with the imental data can reach 11%. Nevertheless, it is concluded that the
experimental data heat capacities of the eutectic binary and ternary salt mixtures
A simultaneous differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and formed by NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2 and ZnCl2 may be better
thermogravimetric analysis system (model STA449 F3 by predicted by Dulong-Petit method and one of the additive principle
NETZSCH) were used to measure the heat capacity of molten salt (Mole-fraction Ave 1). The method of additive principle
Table 9
Molar volume at Tref and thermal expansion of pure molten chloride salts.
Salt V liquid (298.15 K) Thermal expansion aðTÞ (K1)

m
(cm3/mol)
NaCl 29.56 0.91 * 105 + 2.118 * 107 T + 17.496 * 102 T1 37.278 T2
KCl 38.00 3.428 * 105 + 2.537 * 107 T + 19.689 * 102 T1 40.725 T2
MgCl2 50.94 10.137 * 105 + 0.403 * 107 T + 2.433 * 102 T1 4.889 T2
CaCl2 46.94 12.089 * 105 + 0.57 * 107 T + 2.888 * 102 T1 5.901 T2
ZnCl2 50.95 9.118 * 105 + 0.862 * 107 T + 5.785 * 102 T1 11.339 T2
Table 10
Equations obtained from experimental data for density (g/cm3) of salts as a function of temperature.
Salt Composition Equations for density

component (mol%) measured (g/cm3)
KCl-MgCl2 68.0–32.0 0.0008t2 (°C) 1.5171t (°C) + 2195.1
NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 13.8–41.9–44.3 2.5417368449–0.53018137763 * 103T (K)
18.6–21.9–59.5 2.5810897805–0.43205969697 * 103T (K)
13.4–33.7–52.9 2.8783243363–0.92630377059 * 103T (K)
(Mole-fraction Ave 2) offers even lower prediction and is not rec- and the corresponding property of individual molten salt, respec-
ommended. It is important to note that the equations with better tively. For density, the equation could be expressed as:
predictions are only recommended for reference in case there is
1
no experimental data available. It is expected that more experi- qm ¼ ð3Þ
mental tests are carried out to provide reliable data for industrial
R wqii
application in the near future.
where qm denotes the density of eutectic salt, wi and qi denote the
mass fraction and density of individual molten salt, respectively.
3.2. Density The empirical correlations of density against temperature for
chloride salt components are given in Table 8, which will be used
Four different methods are used to predict the density of in Eq. (3) with the mixing rules considered.
selected eutectic salts composed from any of the five salt species,
NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, ZnCl2. The equations and the predicted 3.2.2. Quasi-chemical model for density prediction
density values of the salts are presented in the following sections. The density model based on the modified quasi-chemical model
Based on the comparison of the predicted densities with experi- (QCM), reported by Robelin et al. (2007), Robelin and Chartrand
mental data, the equations with better accuracy of prediction will (2007), and extended to ternary liquids by Ouzilleau and
be recommended for reference if experimentally measured data is Chartrand, 2012, was used to predict the density of all selected
not available. eutectic molten salts mixtures. The expression of mixture density
is given as
3.2.1. Density obtained based on additive principle X
The equation based on the additive principle can be used to pre- q¼ M i ni =V ð4Þ
i
dict some thermal and transport properties (Pm) of multi-
component molten salt mixtures. The equation takes the basic where Mi is the molar mass and ni is the number of moles of each
form of Pm = RNiPi. Here Ni and Pi denote mole (or mass) fraction salt. The volume of the molten mixture, V, is computed as

1.8 1.8
(a) (b)
Mass-fraction Ave Mass-fraction Ave
QCM Method QCM Method
1.7 1.7
Density/(g/cm3)
Density/(g/cm3)
1.6 1.6
1.5 1.5
1.4 1.4
630 730 830 930 1030 1130 650 750 850 950 1050 1150

1.8
(c) Mass-fraction Ave
QCM Method
1.7
Density/(g/cm3)
1.6
1.5
1.4
640 740 840 940 1040 1140
Temperature/K
Fig. 8. Comparison of densities derived from different prediction methods for three NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 salts in Table 2: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3.
X XX Z !
V¼ ni=Cl V i=Cl
m ðTÞ þ ðnkl=Cl =2Þ T
i k l>k
V i=Cl
m ðTÞ ¼ V i=Cl
m ðT ref Þ exp aðTÞ dT ð7Þ
T ref
ð@ Dg kl=Cl =@PÞT;n ð5Þ
i=Cl ;nk=Cl ;nl=Cl
where Tref is the reference temperature and aðTÞ is the thermal
where i, k, and l denote cations (e.g. Na+, K+, Zn2+), ni=Cl denotes the expansion which can be calculated by:
number of moles of each pure molten salt i/Cl, V i=Cl
m ðTÞ is the molar aðTÞ ¼ a þ bT þ cT 1 þ dT 2 ð8Þ
volume at temperature T of the individual molten salt, nkl=Cl is the
number of moles of ½k ðClÞ l second-nearest-neighbor cation- The optimized expressions of thermal expansion for salt species
cation pairs, and Dg kl=Cl is the Gibbs free energy change for the NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, and ZnCl2, obtained by fitting the experi-
mental data available for each i/Cl pure molten salt, are given in
second-nearest-neighbor cation-cation pair exchange, which could
Table 9. According to the previous work (Robelin et al., 2007;
be composed of two different parts: independence of the hydro-
Ouzilleau and Chartrand, 2012) the reference temperature Tref was
static pressure, and the pressure-dependent part. The first term
set to 298.15 K.
on the right-hand side is the linear additive of molar volume for
For each binary or ternary eutectic salt formed using any species
each liquid salt. The second term is the excess volume of the eutec-
of NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, and ZnCl2, only the binary pressure-
tic molten salt with multicomponent, which is related to the
dependent parameters were used to predict the density. No ternary
pressure-dependent Gibbs free energy change. The second-
pressure-dependent parameters were added for eutectic salts. The
nearest-neighbor cation-cation pair exchange reactions are as
optimized pressure-dependent term of the Gibbs energy of
follows:
exchange reaction (Eq. (6)) for each cation-cation pair was obtained
from (Robelin et al., 2007; Ouzilleau and Chartrand, 2012).
½k ðClÞ kpair þ ½l ðClÞ lpair ¼ 2½k ðClÞ lpair ; Dg kl=Cl ð6Þ
3.2.3. Experimental measurement by the current authors
The molar volume of each pure molten salt i/Cl at temperature T is The densities of one KCl-MgCl2 salt (in Table 1) and three eutec-
given by tic molten salts from the NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 system (in Table 6) were
KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 61.3%-15.0%-23.7%) KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 64.0%-16.0%-20.0%)

2 2
(a) (b)
1.9
1.9
Density/(g/cm 3)
Density/(g/cm3)
1.8
1.8
1.7
Mass-fraction Ave 1 Mass-fraction Ave 1
1.7 Mass-fraction Ave 2 Mass-fraction Ave 2
1.6 QCM Method
QCM Method
1.6 1.5
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 610 710 810 910 1010 1110
2
(c)
1.9
Density/(g/cm 3)
1.8
1.7
Mass-fraction Ave 1
Mass-fraction Ave 2
1.6
QCM Method
1.5
610 710 810 910 1010 1110
Temperature/K
Fig. 9. Comparison of densities derived from different prediction methods for all the three KCl-MgCl2-ZnCl2 salts in Table 3: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3.
NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 52.5%-10.0%-37.5%) NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 58.8%-12.5%-28.7%)

2.2 2.1
(a) (b)
2.1
2
Density/(g/cm3)
Density/(g/cm 3)
1.9
1.9
1.8
Mass-fraction Ave 1
1.8 Mass-fraction Ave 1
Mass-fraction Ave 2
Mass-fraction Ave 2
QCM Method 1.7
1.7 QCM Method
1.6 1.6
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 620 720 820 920 1020 1120
NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 62.0%-10.0%-28.0%)

2.1
(c)
2
Density/(g/cm3)
1.9
1.8
Mass-fraction Ave 1
Mass-fraction Ave 2
1.7
QCM Method
1.6
630 730 830 930 1030 1130
Temperature/K
Fig. 10. Comparison of densities derived from different prediction methods for all the three NaCl-MgCl2-ZnCl2 salts in Table 4: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3.
NaCl-CaCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 58.0%-12.0%-30.0%) measured by the authors based on the Archimedes’s principle.
2.2
Multiple tests were conducted for each salt mixture to demon-
strate repeatability, which also provide sufficient data for data-
2.1 fitting to obtain empirical correlations of density versus tempera-
ture. The obtained empirical equations from the measured data
are given in Table 10 (Li et al., 2016).
2
3.2.4. Density equations surveyed from references for KCl-MgCl2
Density/(g/cm3)
eutectic salt
1.9
There are two equations for density of the eutectic salt KCl-
MgCl2 surveyed from Sohal et al. (2010), which gives:
1.8
Mass-fraction Ave 1
Mass-fraction Ave 2
q ¼ 2:0007 0:45709 103 T ð9Þ
QCM Method and

1.7
q ¼ 2:25458 0:474 103 T ð10Þ
1.6
640 740 840 940 1040 1140
3.2.5. Comparison of the predicted density with experimental data
Temperature/K
The calculated data from the above surveyed equations and
Fig. 11. Comparison of densities derived from different prediction methods for experimental data obtained by the authors are plotted together
NaCl-CaCl2-ZnCl2 salt in Table 5. for comparison in Figs. 7-12.

2.3 2.4
Mass-fraction Ave 1
(b) Mass-fraction Ave 1
(a)
Mass-fraction Ave 2 Mass-fraction Ave 2
2.2 2.3
QCM Method QCM Method
Experiment Experiment
Density/(g/cm3)
Density/(g/cm3)
2.1 2.2
2 2.1
1.9 2
1.8 1.9
450 550 650 750 850 950 1050 1150 450 550 650 750 850 950 1050 1150

2.5 2.2
(c) Mass-fraction Ave 1 (d) Mass-fraction Ave 1

QCM Method
QCM Method
2.3
Experiment
Density/(g/cm3)
Density/(g/cm 3)
2
2.2
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.9
1.8 1.7
430 530 630 730 830 930 1030 1130 530 630 730 830 930 1030 1130

2.1
(e) Mass-fraction Ave 1

Mass-fraction Ave 2
2
QCM Method
Density/(g/cm 3)
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
650 750 850 950 1050 1150
Temperature/K
Fig. 12. Comparison of densities from experimental work and different prediction methods for all the five NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 salts in Table 6: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3,
(d) salt #4, (e) salt #5.
The density curves in Figs. 7 and 12 demonstrate that the den- at high temperatures is not sufficient due to the difficulty of mea-
sities of the eutectic salts predicted from quasi-chemical model surement at high temperatures. Five models and methods have been
(QCM) have a better agreement (in a deviation less than ±5%) with surveyed, which may be used to predict the thermal conductivity of
the experimental data than prediction from other methods. In case selected binary and ternary eutectic salts by any species of NaCl, KCl,
of no experimental data available, the prediction from QCM model MgCl2, CaCl2, and ZnCl2. The models and the thus predicted data are
is recommended based on the comparison with experimental data introduced in the following sections. Comparison of the predicted
in the current study. Eq. (10) significantly over-predicts the density thermal conductivities and experimental data are also provided
of KCl-MgCl2 (in Table 1) and is not recommended. It is important for fair evaluation in order to find the most suitable equations.
to point out that the prediction equations is only recommended for
reference. More reliable experimental tests are expected to provide 3.3.1. Average ionic weight correlation
data for industrial application in the future. Cornwell (Cornwell, 1971) discussed the thermal conductivity of
different families of molten salts and gave the thermal conductivity
3.3. Thermal conductivity correlations based on the average ionic weight (IW). The equation
for pure chloride salt (Williams, 2006) is given in the form of
Thermal conductivity is an important property for the molten ki ¼ 1:81M 0:4435
i ð11Þ
salts to be used as heat transfer fluid. However, experimental data
where ki is the thermal conductivity of a pure chloride salt i, Mi is
the mean ionic weight (formula weight divided by number of ions
in each salt compound). Since Eq. (11) does not consider the effect
Table 11
Equations of thermal conductivity for pure chloride salts. of temperature, the obtained thermal conductivity can only be used
to check the general range of the value. The calculated individual
Component Thermal conductivity equation (W/m K)
salt thermal conductivity using Eq. (11) can also be used in the fol-
NaCl 418.68 * (1.868 * 103 + 4.73 * 107T)a lowing mixing rule to calculate the thermal conductivity of the
0.519–1.8 * 104 (T-1074)b
eutectic molten salt mixture.
KCl 418.68 * (23.43 * 104 + 4.103 * 106T)a
0.389–1.7 * 104 (T-1043)b
MgCl2 418.68 * (8.571 * 103 + 11.231 * 106T)a 3.3.2. Prediction based on additive principle
CaCl2 0.4698c The thermal conductivity of eutectic salts could be estimated via
ZnCl2 0.3014c
additive principle using the following equation that the contribu-
a
Equations obtained from reference (Janz et al., 1979). tion of thermal conductivity of each component in the mixture is
b
Equations obtained from reference (Nagasaka et al., 1992). based on its mass fraction; the summation of the contributions of
c
Data obtained from reference (Janz, 1967). all the components gives the thermal conductivity of the mixture
in the form of:
X
Table 12 km ¼ xi k i ð12Þ
Equations for thermal conductivity of eutectic salts as a function of temperature (K). i
Salt component Composition (mol%) Equations for thermal where km ; ki denote the thermal conductivity of eutectic salt and
conductivity measured (W/m K) pure component, respectively, xi is the mole fraction of the ith
NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 13.8–41.9–44.3 0.4372–1.23 * 104T component in eutectic salt. In order to get the molten salt mixture
18.6–21.9–59.5 0.3895–8.169 * 105T thermal conductivity, the single salt thermal conductivity (assum-
13.4–33.7–52.9 0.5145–2.331 * 104T ing as liquid) has to be prepared. Some obtained expressions for
the thermal conductivity of the five individual chloride salts are
given in Table 11. The predicted eutectic molten salts thermal con-
ductivities using Eq. (12) will be discussed later for comparison
KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 68.0%-32.0%)
1
with other predictions and experimental data.
Ave IW Correlation
0.9
3.3.3. Thermal conductivity prediction using rough hard-sphere model
Mole-fraction Ave Proposed by DiGuilio and Teja (1992) and Hossain et al. (2014)
the rough hard-sphere model (RHS) based on the rough hard-
Thermal conductivity/(W/m·K)
0.8 RHS Method

Equation 17 sphere theory has been applied to predict the thermal conductivity
0.7 of binary and ternary eutectic salts. The thermal conductivity of
rough hard spheres (RHS) is calculated using the expression:
0.6 kRHS ¼ C k kSHS ð13Þ
0.5 where Ck is a translational-rotational coupling constant that is

exclusively dependent on the substance and could be obtained by
0.4 fitting experimental thermal conductivity data. kRHS and kSHS denote
the reduced thermal conductivity of rough hard spheres and
0.3 smooth hard spheres, respectively. Argon was used as the smooth
hard sphere fluid, for which the thermal conductivity can be
0.2 predicted using Chandler’s original rough hard-sphere theory
650 750 850 950 1050 1150 (Chandler, 1975). One available equation is given by Hossain et al.
Temperature/K (2014) in the form of:
Fig. 13. Comparison of thermal conductivities derived from different prediction
methods for KCl-MgCl2 salt given in Table 1.
kSHS ¼ F½ðV V m Þ=V s ð14Þ
where V is the molar volume (m3/mol), Vm and Vs are the molten 3.3.4. Experimental data
state molar volume (m3/mol) and solid molar volume at the melting The thermal conductivity of three eutectic molten salts for the
point (m3/mol), respectively. By correlating the properties of NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 system was measured at temperatures between
smooth hard spheres (argon), the function F could be derived as: 300 °C and 800 °C by Georgia Tech personnel using an LFA 457
(NETZSCH) apparatus located at the Clemson University (Li et al.,
kSHS ¼ FðnÞ ¼ 0:68285 0:84286n þ 0:6637n2 0:21015n3 ð15Þ 2016). Multiple tests were conducted for each eutectic salt to
demonstrate the repeatability and also to have sufficient number
where n = (V Vm)/Vs. The reduced thermal conductivity ki for a of data in order to obtain data-fitted empirical equations. The empir-
molten salt was given as: ical equations from the experimental data are given in Table 12.
ki 3.3.5. Equations from literature for KCl-MgCl2 binary eutectic salt

ki ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi ¼ C k FðnÞ ð16Þ Janz and Tomkins (1981) gave the following correlation for
BðR 3=2
NA1=3 Þ ½T m ðM w =nÞ7=3 v m 4=3
thermal conductivity of binary eutectic salt of KCl-MgCl2 in the
molar fraction listed in Table 1:
where ki is the thermal conductivity (W/m K) for a molten salt, B is a
constant that is equal to 13.28, R is the universal gas constant k ¼ 0:2469 þ 5:025 104 T ð17Þ
(J/mol K), NA is the Avogadro’s number (1/mol), Tm is the melting
temperature (K), Mw is the molecular weight (kg/mol), n represents
the number of ions in each pure molten salt, vm is the specific vol- 3.3.6. Overall evaluation of the correlations through comparison with
ume at the melting point (m3/kg). Finally, the thermal conductivity experimental data
for eutectic molten salt could be obtained by a simple mixing rule, The thermal conductivities obtained from the above discussed
P
that is km ¼ i xi ki . methods are plotted together to compare with the experimental

0.55 0.55
(a) (b)
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
Ave IW Correlation Ave IW Correlation

0.3 Mole-fraction Ave 0.3
Mole-fraction Ave
RHS Method RHS Method
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
630 730 830 930 1030 1130 650 750 850 950 1050 1150
0.5
(c)
0.45
0.4
0.35
Ave IW Correlation
Mole-fraction Ave
0.3
RHS Method
0.25
640 740 840 940 1040 1140
Temperature/K
Fig. 14. Comparison of thermal conductivities derived from different prediction methods for all the three NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 salts given in Table 2: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2,
(c) salt #3.
data. As shown in the following Figs. 13–18, the eutectic molten salt be recommended for the prediction of the thermal conductivities
thermal conductivities predicted using the average ionic weight of the eutectic molten chloride salts. Nevertheless, reliable experi-
(IW) correlation (Eq. (11)) together with the mixing rule by Eq. mental tests are expected to provide data for industrial application,
(12) do not change with temperature. The curves in Figs. 13–18 which will also better evaluate the discussed equations and models.
marked as Mole-fraction Ave are obtained using the mixing rule of
Eq. (12) and the thermal conductivity of individual salts listed in 3.4. Viscosity
Table 11.
It is interesting to observe from Fig. 18 that the predicted ther- The survey in this study found five methods and related equa-
mal conductivity of three eutectic molten salts in Table 6 using tions that can be used to predict the viscosity of the selected binary
Rough-Hard-Sphere (RHS) method showed very good agreement and ternary molten salts formed from any species of NaCl, KCl,
(deviation within 5%) with experimental data. For the binary MgCl2, CaCl2, and ZnCl2. The expressions and comparison of the
eutectic salt of KCl-MgCl2 in Table 1, the predicted thermal conduc- predicted viscosities versus experimental tested data are presented
tivity by RHS model agreed with Mole-fraction Ave method and in the following sections.
Ave IW method quite well, as shown in Fig. 13.
The observation concluded that Eq. (17) could over-predict the 3.4.1. Polynomial expression (POLY)
thermal conductivity of the KCl-MgCl2 eutectic salt and is not One early stage model for the mixing rule of the viscosity of
recommended. eutectic molten salt mixture is represented by the following
It is found from Figs. 13–18 that the Mole-fraction Ave method expression (Kendall and Monroe, 1921):
could have a 5–12% over-prediction to the thermal conductivity hX pffiffiffiffiffi i3
compared to that of RHS method. Generally, the RHS method may gm ¼ ðxi 3 gi Þ ð18Þ

0.45 0.45
(a) (b)
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
0.3 Ave IW Correlation 0.3 Ave IW Correlation

Mole-fraction Ave Mole-fraction Ave
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 610 710 810 910 1010 1110

0.45
(c)
0.4
0.35
0.3
Ave IW Correlation
Mole-fraction Ave
0.25 RHS Method
0.2
610 710 810 910 1010 1110
Temperature/K
Fig. 15. Comparison of thermal conductivities derived from different prediction methods for all the three KCl-MgCl2-ZnCl2 salts in Table 3: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3.
where gm, gi are the dynamic viscosities (cp) of eutectic salt mix- NaCl-CaCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 58.0%-12.0%-30.0%)
ture and the ith pure component, respectively. xi is the mole frac- 0.55
tion of ith component. The mixing rule by Eq. (18) is based on an
ideal-mixture to obtain the mixture viscosity with all individual 0.5
salt viscosities considered. The equations of viscosity for individ-
ual chloride components are given in Table 13.
0.45
3.4.2. Exponential expression (EXPO)

Another general approach of viscosity prediction for the molten 0.4
salt eutectic mixtures is the Katti and Chaudhri’s method (Katti and
Chaudhri, 1964), which is based on Eyring’s viscosity and takes into 0.35
account both the viscosity of pure component and the interaction
Ave IW Correlation
between components. Extending this application to a mixture of 0.3
more than 3 components, the viscosity equation for the mixture Mole-fraction Ave
is expressed as: RHS Method
! ! 0.25
X XX DGij
ln gm V m ¼ xi ln gi V i þ xi xj ð19Þ
i i jði<jÞ
RT 0.2
640 740 840 940 1040 1140
where Vm, Vi are the molar volume (m3/mol) of eutectic salt and Temperature/K
ith pure component, respectively; DGij is the interaction energy Fig. 17. Comparison of thermal conductivities derived from different prediction
(J/mol) (molar Gibbs energy change) for interaction of the fluid methods for NaCl-CaCl2-ZnCl2 salt in Table 5.
between i and j components. Only the binary interactions
NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 52.5%-10.0%-37.5%) NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 58.8%-12.5%-28.7%)

0.55 0.55
(a) (b)
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35

0.3 0.3
Mole-fraction Ave Mole-fraction Ave

0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 620 720 820 920 1020 1120
NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 62.0%-10.0%-28.0%)
0.55
(c)
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
Ave IW Correlation
0.3
Mole-fraction Ave
RHS Method
0.25
0.2
630 730 830 930 1030 1130
Temperature/K
Fig. 16. Comparison of thermal conductivities derived from different prediction methods for all the three NaCl-MgCl2-ZnCl2 salts in Table 4: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3.

0.5 0.45
(a) (b)
0.4
0.4
0.35
0.3 0.3

Mole-fraction Ave 0.25 Mole-fraction Ave
0.2 RHS Method RHS Method
Experiment 0.2 Experiment
0.1 0.15
450 550 650 750 850 950 1050 1150 440 540 640 740 840 940 1040 1140

0.5 0.45
(c) (d)
0.4
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.3
Ave IW Correlation
0.2 Ave IW Correlation
Mole-fraction Ave 0.25 Mole-fraction Ave
RHS Method
RHS Method
0.1 Experiment 0.2
0 0.15
430 530 630 730 830 930 1030 1130 530 630 730 830 930 1030 1130

0.45
(e)
0.4
0.35
0.3 Ave IW Correlation

Mole-fraction Ave
RHS Method
0.25
0.2
650 750 850 950 1050 1150
Temperature/K
Fig. 18. Comparison of thermal conductivities from experimental work and different prediction methods for all the five NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 salts in Table 6: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2,
(c) salt #3, (d) salt #4, (e) salt #5.
XX
between every two components were considered. Other parame- g1
m ¼ xi xj g1
ij ð24Þ
ters in the equation are the same as mentioned above in i j
Section 3.4.1.
lnðgij =gij Þ ¼ 2:11 þ ð2:17T ij =TÞ 0:06ðT=T ij Þ
8
ð25Þ
3.4.3. Rough-hard-sphere model
Rough-hard-sphere (RHS) approaches have proven to be effec- 1 1
tive in modeling and predicting the thermal conductivity of molten ðgij Þ1 ¼ ½ðg Þ þ ðgj Þ1 ð26Þ
2 i
salts (DiGuilio and Teja, 1992; Sun and Teja, 2009; Wang and Teja,
" !#
2016). Wang and Teja (2016) extended this application to predict qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi jV i V j j

the viscosity of pure molten salts based on Chandler’s method T ij ¼ T i T j 1 0:37 ð27Þ
V i V j
(Chandler, 1975) that correlates the viscosity of rough hard spheres
to that of smooth hard spheres (SHS) as follows: where gm is the dynamic viscosity of eutectic salt, xi is the mole
fraction of ith pure component. T⁄, V⁄, g⁄ denote characteristic
g
RHS ¼ Cgg
SHS ð20Þ
parameters of pure component and could be obtained by fitting
where C g denotes the translational-rotational coupling parameter experimental data of viscosity of individual molten salt.
and could be obtained by fitting experimental viscosity data of mol-
3.4.4. Experimental data
ten salts. gRHS and gSHS denote the reduced viscosity of rough hard
The viscosities of KCl-MgCl2 molten salt and three eutectic mol-
spheres and smooth hard spheres, respectively, which were
ten salts from NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 system were experimentally mea-
expressed by the following equations:
sured using a high-temperature viscometer (Brookfield
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi viscometer), which was custom-designed and manufactured by
gRHS ¼ 6:035 108 1=ðMRTÞgV 2=3 ð21Þ Theta Industrials, Inc. The equipment has been validated by mea-
suring the viscosity of a NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 eutectic salt with the same
log gSHS ¼ F g ½ðV V m Þ=V s ¼ F g ½n ð22Þ composition of 20.0 mol%-20.0 mol%-60.0 mol% reported in the lit-
erature (Nitta et al., 2009). A good agreement with the data
where M is the molecular weight of pure component (kg/mol), R is reported in reference (deviation less than ± 1%) showed the accu-
the gas constant (J/(mol K)), T is the temperature (K), g is the racy of the equipment.
viscosity (Pa s), V is the molar volume (m3/mol), Vm and Vs are the Multiple measurements for each salt mixture in
molten salt molar volume (m3/mol) and solid salt molar volume NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 system were conducted in temperature range of
(m3/mol) at the melting point, respectively. Argon was used as 250–800 °C with satisfactory repeatability. Curve-fitting equations
the smooth hard sphere fluid to obtain the function F g , which is based on the experimental data were listed in Table 14 (Li et al.,
given by: 2016).
F g ½n ¼ 1:47196 2:97249n þ 6:49614n2 8:7958n3
3.4.5. Equation from literature for KCl-MgCl2 binary eutectic salt
þ 5:13859n4 ð23Þ Janz (1988) gave the following viscosity correlation for KCl-
Then the viscosity for eutectic molten salts is obtained by correlat- MgCl2 binary eutectic salt:
ing it to the quadratic equation for mobility (Wang, 2001):
gm ¼ 0:1408 expð2262:979=TÞ ð28Þ
Table 13
Viscosity equations for pure components.
Component Viscosity equations (Unit: 1.0 103 Pa s, called as centipoise, cp)

NaCl 81.9007–0.185538 T + 1.42786 * 104 T2 3.70073 * 108 T3a
1.86 * 102exp(4686.81/T)b
KCl 55.5632–0.127847 T + 9.9958 * 105 T2 2.62035 * 108 T3a
7.32 * 102exp(2820.59/T)b
MgCl2 14.903–2.039 * 102T + 7.625 * 106 T2a
0.17985exp(2470.1/T)b
CaCl2 619.541–1.54489 * T + 1.29259 * 103 T2 3.61856 * 107 T3a
1.088 * 102exp[6040.78/T]b
ZnCl2 5,935,513–2,738,650 * 102 T + 421,217 * 104 T2 2,159,360 * 108 T3a
2.476 * 105exp(12509.06/T)b
a
Equations obtained from reference (Janz et al., 1968).
b
Equations obtained from reference (Janz, 1967).
Table 14
Equations of molten salt viscosity (cp) versus temperature (K).
Salt component Composition (mol%) Equations for viscosity measured (cp)

NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 13.8–41.9–44.3 2.97 + 1.523679 * 105exp(T/56.03143) + 59.94exp(T/235.78682)
18.6–21.9–59.5 4.46 + 1.310731 * 105exp(T/62.36328)
13.4–33.7–52.9 3.41 + 120.55 * exp(T/204.70939) + 4.976130848 * 108exp(T/29.9169)
KCl-MgCl2 (Mole:68.0%-32.0%) Data predicted using Eq. (28) will be compared with
7 predictions from other equations as well as data from experimental
POLY Method work.
6 EXPO Method
3.4.6. Overall evaluation of the correlations through comparison with
RHS Method experimental data
5
Experiment Figs. 19–24 provide comparisons of viscosity predicted using
the above discussed equations or approaches for the 16 binary
Equation 28
Viscosity/cp
4 and ternary molten salts. The experimental data for the binary salt
KCl-MgCl2 and three salts in NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 system were also used
for comparison in Figs. 19 and 24. Typically, the viscosity decreases
3
with the temperature in logarithmic manner.
The rough-hard-sphere model (RHS) has been suggested as a
2 reliable prediction method for molten salt viscosities. For three
ternary molten salts of NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 system in Table 6, the pre-
dicted viscosities by RHS method agree with the experimental data
1
very well in the temperature range of 250–800 °C, as shown in
Fig. 24. The RHS predicted viscosity for the binary molten salt
0 KCl-MgCl2 at low temperature is still very good; while the devia-
670 770 870 970 1070 1170 tion between the prediction and experimental data at high temper-
Temperature/K atures becomes significant (about 28% under prediction), as shown
Fig. 19. Comparison of viscosities obtained from experimental work and different
in Fig. 19. To have further confirmation to this deviation, more
prediction methods for KCl-MgCl2 salt in Table 1. experimental test will be conducted for the KCl-MgCl2 salt in the

12 10
(a) (b)
EXPO Method EXPO Method
10
8
POLY Method POLY Method
8
Viscosity/cp
6
Viscosity/cp
4
4
2
2
0 0
640 740 840 940 1040 1140 650 750 850 950 1050 1150

9
8 (c)
EXPO Method
7 POLY Method
RHS Method
6
Viscosity/cp
0
640 740 840 940 1040 1140
Temperature/K
Fig. 20. Comparison of viscosities derived from different prediction methods for all the three NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 salts in Table 2: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3.

4.5 4
(a) (b)
4 POLY Method
POLY Method
EXPO Method
3.5 EXPO Method 3
RHS Method
Logarithmic viscosity/cp
3
RHS Method
2.5
2
2
1.5
1
1
0.5
0 0
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 600 700 800 900 1000 1100

4
(c)
POLY Method
EXPO Method
3
RHS Method
0
620 720 820 920 1020 1120
Temperature/K
Fig. 21. Comparison of viscosities derived from different prediction methods for all the three KCl-MgCl2-ZnCl2 salts in Table 3: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3.
near future. Nevertheless, the RHS method still provides relatively in relatively better agreement with available experimental data
closer prediction of the viscosity of the molten salt to the experi- by far. For some of the eutectic salts, experimental data are
mental data and thus is considered to be more acceptable than available for industrial application; whereas for most of the can-
other equations. didates with no experimental data available, relatively accurate
The predictions from the ‘‘POLY” and ‘‘EXPO” method for the equations (based on comparison and evaluation) are recom-
viscosities of NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 and KCl-MgCl2 have relatively larger mended for reference. It is important to note that the recom-
deviation from the experimental data. Whereas more experimental mended equations are for predictions in case there is no
data is needed to better evaluate all the equations for viscosity pre- experimental data available. Authors expect that more experi-
diction, the RHS model is favorable for the currently studied spe- mental data will be provided in the future for the studied salt
cies of molten salts. in this work.
It is concluded that Dulong-Petit method and additive principle
(Mole-fraction Ave 1) method have better accuracy to predict heat
4. Conclusions capacities of eutectic molten salts. A maximum deviation of 11%
was found using these method compared to experimental data.
This study selected 16 eutectic compositions of chloride salts The predicted data by these methods are generally lower than that
(by any of the components, NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, and ZnCl2) as of the experimental data.
the most likely candidates to serve as high temperature molten Study in this work showed that the densities of the eutectic
salt heat transfer and thermal storage fluids for CSP industry. salts predicted from quasi-chemical model (QCM) has a better
The work provides surveys and evaluation to models and agreement (a deviation less than ±5%) with the experimental data
equations that may be used to predict the transport properties than that from other methods.
NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 52.5%-10.0%-37.5%) NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 58.8%-12.5%-28.7%)

6 5
(a) (b)
POLY Method POLY Method
5
4

4
3
2
2
1
1
0 0
550 650 750 850 950 1050 1150 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 62.0%-10.0%-28.0%)

4.5
(c)
4
POLY Method
3.5 EXPO Method
RHS Method
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Temperature/K
Fig. 22. Comparison of viscosities derived from different prediction methods for all the three NaCl-MgCl2-ZnCl2 salts in Table 4: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3.
NaCl-CaCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 58.0%-12.0%-30.0%) It is found that the predicted thermal conductivity of three
5
eutectic molten salts in NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 system using Rough-
Hard-Sphere (RHS) method has very good agreement (with devi-
EXPO Method ation less than 5%) with experimental data. The authors would
4 like to recommend Rough-Hard-Sphere (RHS) method for predic-
POLY Method
tion of thermal conductivities in case experimental data are not
RHS Method
available.
3 For three ternary molten salts of NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 system, the
predicted viscosities by RHS method agree with the experimen-
tal data very well (with deviation less than 5%) in the temper-
2 ature range of 250–800 °C. The RHS predicted viscosity for the
binary molten salt KCl-MgCl2 at low temperature is also very
good. Although the deviation between the prediction and
1
experimental data for KCl-MgCl2 at high temperatures becomes
significant (about 28% under prediction), the RHS method still
provides the closest prediction of the viscosity of the molten
salt to the experimental data and thus is considered to be more
0
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 acceptable than other equations. Further experimental tests
Temperature/K about other chloride salt mixtures will be conducted in the
near future to have more examination to the modeling
Fig. 23. Comparison of viscosities derived from different prediction methods for
predictions.
NaCl-CaCl2-ZnCl2 salt in Table 5.
NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole:13.8%-41.9%-44.3%) NaCl-KCl-ZnCl 2 (Mole: 18.6%-21.9%-59.5%)

12 14
(a) (b)
POLY Method 12 POLY Method
10
10
8
Experiment Experiment
8
6
6
4
4
2 2
0 0
520 620 720 820 920 1020 1120 510 610 710 810 910 1010 1110
NaCl-KCl-ZnCl 2 (Mole: 13.4%-33.7%-52.9%) NaCl-KCl-ZnCl 2 (Mole: 22.0%-39.3%-38.7%)

14 8
(c)
(d)
12 POLY Method 7 POLY Method
6
10
Experiment 5
8
4
6
3
4
2
2 1
0 0
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 530 630 730 830 930 1030 1130

4
(e)
3.5 POLY Method
EXPO Method
3
RHS Method
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
650 750 850 950 1050 1150
Temperature/K
Fig. 24. Comparison of viscosities from experimental work and different prediction methods for all the five NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 salts in Table 6: (a) salt #1, (b) salt #2, (c) salt #3,
(d) salt #4, (e) salt #5.
Acknowledgement Khokhlov, V., Ignatiev, V., Afonichkin, V., 2009. Evaluating physical properties of
molten salt reactor fluoride mixtures. J. Fluorine Chem. 130 (1), 30–37.
Li, C., Li, P., Wang, K., Molina, E.E., 2014. Survey of properties of key single and
The authors are pleased to acknowledge the financial support mixture halide salts for potential application as high temperature heat transfer
for this research project from the Department of Energy (DOE) of fluids for concentrated solar thermal power systems. AIMS Energy 2 (2), 133–
157.
USA under Grant No. DE-EE0005942 and from the National Natural
Li, P., Molina, E., Wang, K., Xu, X., Dehghani, G., Kohli, A., Hao, Q., Kassaee, M., Jeter,
Science Foundation of China (No. 51406049) and China Scholarship S., Teja, A., 2016. Thermal and transport properties of NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 eutectic
Council. salts for new generation high-temperature heat-transfer fluids. J. Sol. Energy
Engineering. T. ASME 138, 054501-1–054501-8.
Nagasaka, Y., Nakazawa, N., Nagashima, A., 1992. Experimental determination of
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Survey and evaluation of equations for thermophysical properties of

KCl-MgCl2 (Mole:68.0%-32.0%) eutectic mixture should be chemically stable in a large range of

NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 27.5%-32.5%-40.0%) NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 30.0%-20.0%-50.0%)

KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 61.3%-15%-23.7%) KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 64.0%-16.0%-20.0%)

KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 67.5%-15.0%-17.5%)

NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 52.5%-10.0%-37.5%) NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 58.8%-12.5%-28.7%)

predictions in better agreement with experimental data will be

1 3.1.1. Dulong-Petit method

Dulong-Petit equation takes the form (Cantor et al., 1968):

NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole:13.8%-41.9%-44.3%) NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 18.6%-21.9%-59.5%)

Heat capacity/(J/g ·K)

NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 13.4%-33.7%-52.9%) NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 22.0%-39.3%-38.7%)

Table 8 KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 68.0%-32.0%)

3.1.2. Mole-fraction average

Salt V liquid (298.15 K) Thermal expansion aðTÞ (K1)

Salt Composition Equations for density

NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 27.5%-32.5%-40.0%) NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 30.0%-20.0%-50.0%)

NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 20.0%-52.5%-27.5%)

KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 61.3%-15.0%-23.7%) KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 64.0%-16.0%-20.0%)

NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 52.5%-10.0%-37.5%) NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 58.8%-12.5%-28.7%)

NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 62.0%-10.0%-28.0%)

QCM Method and

NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 13.8%-41.9%-44.3%) NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 18.6%-21.9%-59.5%)

NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 13.4%-33.7%-52.9%) NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 22.0%-39.3%-38.7%)

(c) Mass-fraction Ave 1 (d) Mass-fraction Ave 1

NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 11.5%-58.3%-30.2%)

(e) Mass-fraction Ave 1

0.8 RHS Method

0.5 where Ck is a translational-rotational coupling constant that is

ki 3.3.5. Equations from literature for KCl-MgCl2 binary eutectic salt

NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 27.5%-32.5%-40.0%) NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 30.0%-20.0%-50.0%)

Ave IW Correlation Ave IW Correlation

KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 61.3%-15.0%-23.7%) KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 64.0%-16.0%-20.0%)

0.3 Ave IW Correlation 0.3 Ave IW Correlation

KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 67.5%-15.0%-17.5%)

0.25 RHS Method

3.4.2. Exponential expression (EXPO)

NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 52.5%-10.0%-37.5%) NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 58.8%-12.5%-28.7%)

Ave IW Correlation Ave IW Correlation

RHS Method RHS Method

NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 13.8%-41.9%-44.3%) NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 18.6%-21.9%-59.5%)

Ave IW Correlation Ave IW Correlation

NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 13.4%-33.7%-52.9%) NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 22.0%-39.3%-38.7%)

NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 11.5%-58.3%-30.2%)

0.3 Ave IW Correlation

Component Viscosity equations (Unit: 1.0  103 Pa s, called as centipoise, cp)

Salt component Composition (mol%) Equations for viscosity measured (cp)

NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 27.5%-32.5%-40.0%) NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 30.0%-20.0%-50.0%)

NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 (Mole: 20.0%-52.5%-27.5%)

KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 61.3%-15.0%-23.7%) KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 64.0%-16.0%-20.0%)

KCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl 2 (Mole: 67.5%-15.0%-17.5%)

NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 52.5%-10.0%-37.5%) NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 58.8%-12.5%-28.7%)

RHS Method RHS Method

NaCl-MgCl2 -ZnCl2 (Mole: 62.0%-10.0%-28.0%)

NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole:13.8%-41.9%-44.3%) NaCl-KCl-ZnCl 2 (Mole: 18.6%-21.9%-59.5%)

NaCl-KCl-ZnCl 2 (Mole: 13.4%-33.7%-52.9%) NaCl-KCl-ZnCl 2 (Mole: 22.0%-39.3%-38.7%)

NaCl-KCl-ZnCl2 (Mole: 11.5%-58.3%-30.2%)

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Component Viscosity equations (Unit: 1.0 103 Pa s, called as centipoise, cp)