Thermodynamics

Ideal Gases
Heat & Internal Energy
Heat Capacity
Phase Changes

Lana Sheridan

De Anza College

April 24, 2017

Last time

• thermal expansion

• the ideal gas equation

• moles and molecules

om up. As water on the surface is cooled from, say, 10°C toward the
, it becomes denser (“heavier”) than lower water and sinks to the
Warm Up Question
w 4°C, however, further cooling makes the water then on the surface
ghter”) than
Thethe lowerhere
figure water, so it stays
shows fouronrectangular
the surface until it freezes.
metal plates, with sides of
ce freezes while the lower water is still liquid. If lakes
L, 2L, or 3L. They are all made of the same material, froze from the and their
e ice so formed would tend not to melt completely during the sum-
temperature is to be increased by the same amount. Rank the
it would be insulated by the water above. After a few years, many
n water inplates according
the temperate zonestoofthe
Earthexpected
would beincrease in all year
frozen solid
quatic life could not exist.
(a) their vertical heights greatest first.
OINT 2
ere shows four rectangular
with sides of L, 2L, or 3L.They
f the same material, and their
s to be increased by the same
the plates according to the ex-
e in (a) their vertical heights
(1) (2) (3) (4)
reas, greatest first.

(A) 1, 2, 3, 4
(B) (2 and 3), 1, 4 Sample Problem
(C) 3, 2, (1 and 4)
Thermal expansion of a volume
(D) all the same
in Las Vegas,
1 an oil trucker loaded 37 000 L of volume of the fuel did also, as given by Eq
Halliday, Resnick, Walker, page 483.
om up. As water on the surface is cooled from, say, 10°C toward the
, it becomes denser (“heavier”) than lower water and sinks to the
Warm Up Question
w 4°C, however, further cooling makes the water then on the surface
ghter”) than
Thethe lowerhere
figure water, so it stays
shows fouronrectangular
the surface until it freezes.
metal plates, with sides of
ce freezes while the lower water is still liquid. If lakes
L, 2L, or 3L. They are all made of the same material, froze from the and their
e ice so formed would tend not to melt completely during the sum-
temperature is to be increased by the same amount. Rank the
it would be insulated by the water above. After a few years, many
n water inplates according
the temperate zonestoofthe
Earthexpected
would beincrease in all year
frozen solid
quatic life could not exist.
(a) their vertical heights greatest first.
OINT 2
ere shows four rectangular
with sides of L, 2L, or 3L.They
f the same material, and their
s to be increased by the same
the plates according to the ex-
e in (a) their vertical heights
(1) (2) (3) (4)
reas, greatest first.

(A) 1, 2, 3, 4
(B) (2 and 3), 1, 4 ← Sample Problem
(C) 3, 2, (1 and 4)
Thermal expansion of a volume
(D) all the same
in Las Vegas,
1 an oil trucker loaded 37 000 L of volume of the fuel did also, as given by Eq
Halliday, Resnick, Walker, page 483.
om up. As water on the surface is cooled from, say, 10°C toward the
, it becomes denser (“heavier”) than lower water and sinks to the
Warm Up Question
w 4°C, however, further cooling makes the water then on the surface
ghter”) than
Thethe lowerhere
figure water, so it stays
shows fouronrectangular
the surface until it freezes.
metal plates, with sides of
ce freezes while the lower water is still liquid. If lakes
L, 2L, or 3L. They are all made of the same material, froze from the and their
e ice so formed would tend not to melt completely during the sum-
temperature is to be increased by the same amount. Rank the
it would be insulated by the water above. After a few years, many
n water inplates according
the temperate zonestoofthe
Earthexpected
would beincrease in all year
frozen solid
quatic life could not exist.
(b) their areas greatest first.
OINT 2
ere shows four rectangular
with sides of L, 2L, or 3L.They
f the same material, and their
s to be increased by the same
the plates according to the ex-
e in (a) their vertical heights
(1) (2) (3) (4)
reas, greatest first.

(A) 1, 2, 3, 4
(B) (2 and 3), 1, 4 Sample Problem
(C) 3, 2, (1 and 4)
Thermal expansion of a volume
(D) all the same
in Las Vegas,
1 an oil trucker loaded 37 000 L of volume of the fuel did also, as given by Eq
Halliday, Resnick, Walker, page 483.
om up. As water on the surface is cooled from, say, 10°C toward the
, it becomes denser (“heavier”) than lower water and sinks to the
Warm Up Question
w 4°C, however, further cooling makes the water then on the surface
ghter”) than
Thethe lowerhere
figure water, so it stays
shows fouronrectangular
the surface until it freezes.
metal plates, with sides of
ce freezes while the lower water is still liquid. If lakes
L, 2L, or 3L. They are all made of the same material, froze from the and their
e ice so formed would tend not to melt completely during the sum-
temperature is to be increased by the same amount. Rank the
it would be insulated by the water above. After a few years, many
n water inplates according
the temperate zonestoofthe
Earthexpected
would beincrease in all year
frozen solid
quatic life could not exist.
(b) their areas greatest first.
OINT 2
ere shows four rectangular
with sides of L, 2L, or 3L.They
f the same material, and their
s to be increased by the same
the plates according to the ex-
e in (a) their vertical heights
(1) (2) (3) (4)
reas, greatest first.

(A) 1, 2, 3, 4
(B) (2 and 3), 1, 4 Sample Problem
(C) 3, 2, (1 and 4) ←
Thermal expansion of a volume
(D) all the same
in Las Vegas,
1 an oil trucker loaded 37 000 L of volume of the fuel did also, as given by Eq
Halliday, Resnick, Walker, page 483.
Overview

• finish applying the ideal gas equation

• thermal energy

• heat capacity

• phase changes

• latent heat
Ideal Gas Equation

The equation of state for an ideal gas:

PV = nRT

where
• P is pressure
• V is volume
• n is the number of moles (amount of gas)
• R = 8.314 J mol−1 K−1 is the universal gas constant
• T is temperature

The LHS and RHS of this equation both have units of Joules
(energy).
 73. Review. A steel guitar string with a diameter of 1.00 mm
is stretched between supports 80.0 cm apart. The tem-
Problem #74
perature is 0.08C. (a) Find the mass per unit length of
this string. is
A cylinder (Use the value
closed by 7.86 3 103 kg/m
a piston 3 for the den-
connected to a spring of constant
sity.) (b) 3 The fundamental frequency of transverse
2.00 × 10 N/m. With the spring relaxed, the cylinder is filled with
oscillations of the string is 200 Hz. What is the tension
5.00 L of
in the gasNext,
string? at athe
pressure of 1.00
temperature atm
is raised and a temperature of
to 30.08C.
Find◦ the resulting values of (c) the tension and (d) the
20.0 C.
fundamental frequency. Assume both the Young’s mod-
(a)ulusIf the piston
of 20.0 has 2aand
3 1010 N/m cross-sectional area of 0.0100 m2 and
the average coefficient
expansion
negligible a 5 11.0 3 10 26 (8C)21 have constant values
mass, how high will it rise when the temperature is
between 0.08C and 30.08C.
raised to 250◦ C?
74. A cylinder is closed by
W a piston connected to
a spring of constant
2.00  3 103 N/m (see k
m is
ture Fig. P19.74). With the
h the spring relaxed, the
cylinder is filled with
5.00 L of gas at a pres- h
orce sure of 1.00 atm and a
unc- temperature of 20.08C.
Vi of (a)  If the piston has a
sur- cross- sectional area of
water 0.010 0  m2 and negli-
s the gible mass, how high
sub- will it rise when the T ! 20.0"C T ! 250"C
one- temperature is raised
1
toSerway
2508C?&(b) Jewett,
What page
is 588. Figure P19.74
Problem #74
(a) Find h.

PV = nRT
We have enough info to know the number of moles, n, or we can
work around that because the amount of gas does not change as it
is heated.
Pf Vf Pi Vi
=
Tf Ti
Also, kh + P0 A = Pf A
and Pi = P0 and Vf = Vi + Ah.
Problem #74
(a) Find h.

PV = nRT
We have enough info to know the number of moles, n, or we can
work around that because the amount of gas does not change as it
is heated.
Pf Vf Pi Vi
=
Tf Ti
Also, kh + P0 A = Pf A
and Pi = P0 and Vf = Vi + Ah.
Tf
Pf Vf = Pi Vi
Ti
 
kh Tf
+ P0 (Vi + Ah) = P0 Vi
A Ti
   
kVi Tf
kh2 + + AP0 h + P0 Vi 1 − = 0
A Ti
Problem #74

(a) Find h.
Solving quadratic:
   
2 kVi Tf
kh + + AP0 h + P0 Vi 1 − =0
A Ti

Remember: Tf = 250 + 273 K, Ti = 20 + 273 K

Problem #74

(a) Find h.
Solving quadratic:
   
2 kVi Tf
kh + + AP0 h + P0 Vi 1 − =0
A Ti

Remember: Tf = 250 + 273 K, Ti = 20 + 273 K

positive solution:
h = 0.169 m
 is stretched between supports 80.0 cm apart. The tem-
perature is 0.08C. (a) Find the mass per unit length of
Problem #74
this string. (Use the value 7.86 3 103 kg/m3 for the den-
sity.) (b)  The fundamental frequency of transverse
A cylinder
oscillationsisofclosed byis a200piston
the string connected
Hz. What to a spring of constant
is the tension
2.00 × 10
in the 3
string? Next, the
N/m. Withtemperature is raised
the spring to 30.08C.
relaxed, the cylinder is filled with
Find the resulting values of (c) the tension and (d) the
5.00 L of gas at a pressure of 1.00 atm
fundamental frequency. Assume both the Young’s mod-
and a temperature of
20.0 ◦
ulusC.of 20.0 3 1010 N/m2 and the average coefficient of
expansion a 5 11.0 3 1026 (8C)21 have constant values
(b)between
What0.08C is the pressure of the gas at 250◦ C?
and 30.08C.
74. A cylinder is closed by
W a piston connected to
a spring of constant
2.00  3 103 N/m (see k
m is
ture Fig. P19.74). With the
h the spring relaxed, the
cylinder is filled with
5.00 L of gas at a pres- h
orce sure of 1.00 atm and a
unc- temperature of 20.08C.
Vi of (a)  If the piston has a
sur- cross- sectional area of
water 0.010 0  m2 and negli-
s the gible mass, how high
sub- will it rise when the T ! 20.0"C T ! 250"C
one- temperature is raised
Figure P19.74
to 2508C? (b) What is
1
pper the pressure
Serway of the gaspage
& Jewett, at 2508C?
588.
Problem #74

(b) Find Pf .

We already have the expression we need:

Pf = kh/A + P0
Problem #74

(b) Find Pf .

We already have the expression we need:

Pf = kh/A + P0

Pf = 1.35 × 105 Pa
Ideal Gas Equation
The equation of state for an ideal gas:

PV = nRT

Can also be written:

PV = NkB T

where
• P is pressure
• V is volume
• N is the number of molecules
• kB = 1.38 × 10−23 J K−1 is Boltzmann’s constant
• T is temperature
Heat and Energy

In the late 1700s, the theory was that heat was a kind of fluid that
would pass from one object to another.

Burning an object would release this trapped fluid, which would

explain why fire is hot.
Heat and Energy

In the late 1700s, the theory was that heat was a kind of fluid that
would pass from one object to another.

Burning an object would release this trapped fluid, which would

explain why fire is hot.

Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford, or simply “Rumford”) was

an American Loyalist soldier during the American revolution and
moved to Europe after the war.

While studying canon manufacture in Munich, he noticed that the

process of boring canons (drilling out the barrel) produced an
incredible amount of heat, especially if the drill bit was dull.
Heat and Energy

This fluid model could not explain why friction of the drill bit on
the canon would produce enough heat to keep water boiling,
basically for as long as the drilling continued.

Wearing away the canon metal was not producing the heating (a
dull bit wears away the metal more slowly), the friction was.
Heat and Energy

James Prescott Joule realized that this meant there was an

equivalence between work and heat: both were kinds of energy
transfers.

He did many experiments to quantify this relationship.

About 4,180 Joules of mechanical energy are needed to increase

the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1◦ C. (More on this later.)
Heat and Energy

James Prescott Joule realized that this meant there was an

equivalence between work and heat: both were kinds of energy
transfers.

He did many experiments to quantify this relationship.

About 4,180 Joules of mechanical energy are needed to increase

the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1◦ C. (More on this later.)

We conclude that there is another type of energy: a hot object has

more energy than a similar cold object.
Thermal Energy and Internal Energy
thermal energy1
The energy that an object has as a result of its temperature.

Internal energy, Eint or U

The energy that a system has as a result of its temperature and all
other molecular motions, effects, and configurations, when viewed
from a reference frame at rest with respect to the center of mass
of the system.

Internal energy can be thought of as a combination of kinetic and

potential energies of microscopic particles, but it is different from
mechanical energy, because it cannot be directly converted into
work.
1
This definition is not universal!
Internal energy vs. Heat

Internal energy: U is the symbol most commonly used for internal

energy, but it should not be confused with potential energy!
They are different: potential energy can be directly converted to
work, internal energy cannot.

The textbook uses Eint for internal energy.

Internal energy vs. Heat

Internal energy: U is the symbol most commonly used for internal

energy, but it should not be confused with potential energy!
They are different: potential energy can be directly converted to
work, internal energy cannot.

The textbook uses Eint for internal energy.

Heat, Q
Energy that is transferred into or out of a system in thermal
contact with its environment because of a temperature difference
between the system and environment.

Heat and internal energy are not the same thing. Heat changes the
internal energy of the system.
Bond Energy

bond energy
The energy that an object has as a result of the configuration of
its constituent particles at a microscopic level.

internal energy = thermal energy + bond energy

Intuitively,
bond energy is an intermolecular potential energy of all of the
atoms or molecules due to how they are bonded, and
thermal energy is the the kinetic energy of the random motion of
the atoms or molecules.
Units of Internal Energy and Heat: Calories
The units of both internal energy and heat are Joules, J.

However, heat was not always understood to be an amount of

energy, so other units have been defined for it, and are still
sometimes used.

1 calorie is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram

of water by 1 degree Celsius.
Units of Internal Energy and Heat: Calories
The units of both internal energy and heat are Joules, J.

However, heat was not always understood to be an amount of

energy, so other units have been defined for it, and are still
sometimes used.

1 calorie is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram

of water by 1 degree Celsius.

The “calories” listed on food labels are sometimes called

“Calories” (capital C) because they are in fact kilocalories.

1 Calorie = 1 kilocalorie = the heat required to raise the

temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 degree Celsius.

1 calorie = 4.18 Joules.

First Law of Thermodynamics

Where this is headed:

1st Law
The change in the internal energy of a system is equal to the sum
of the heat added to the system and the work done on the system.

∆Eint = W + Q

This is just the conservation of energy written in a different way!

It takes into account that heat is energy.

Heat Capacity

Before we look more closely at the first law, let’s look at the effect
of adding heat to a substance that is not near a phase change.

It requires less energy to raise the temperature of some objects

compared to others.
Heat Capacity

Before we look more closely at the first law, let’s look at the effect
of adding heat to a substance that is not near a phase change.

It requires less energy to raise the temperature of some objects

compared to others.

Obviously, a small amount of water requires less heat to raise its

temperature by 1 degree than a large amount of water.

But even two objects of the same mass may require different
amounts of heat to change their temperature by 1 degree if they
are made of different materials.

Different materials have different heat capacities.

Heat Capacity

Heat Capacity, C
of a sample of substance is the quantity of heat required to change
the temperature of that sample by 1 degree C (or K).

Q = C ∆T

where ∆T is the change in temperature and Q is the heat.

Q ∝ ∆T
and C is the constant of proportionality.
Specific Heat Capacity
However, it is usually more useful to compare one kind of
substance to another for a given mass (eg. 1 kg).
Specific Heat Capacity, c
of a substance is the quantity of heat required to change the
temperature of a unit mass of that substance by 1 degree C (or K).

Q = cm ∆T

m is the mass of the object.

For example, water has a specific heat capacity

c = 4186 J kg−1 K−1 .

C = cm
Specific Heat Capacity

Different materials have different heat capacities.

• for Lead, c = 129 J kg−1 K−1
• for Hydrogen, c = 14300 J kg−1 K−1

Hydrogen gas’s heat capacity is phenomenally high. (Its molar

mass is small.)

Most substances are in the range 500 - 2000 J kg−1 K−1 .

This means that water also has quite a high heat capacity
(4186 J kg−1 K−1 ). This has an effect on Earth’s weather and
climate, since oceans make most of Earth’s surface.
Specific Heat Capacity Question

Quick Quiz 20.12 Imagine you have 1 kg each of iron, glass, and
water, and all three samples are at 10◦ C.
(a) Rank the samples from highest to lowest temperature after 100
J of energy is added to each sample.

(A) iron, glass, water

(B) water, iron, glass
(C) water, glass, iron
(D) glass, iron, water

2
Serway & Jewett, pg 579.
Specific Heat Capacity Question

Quick Quiz 20.12 Imagine you have 1 kg each of iron, glass, and
water, and all three samples are at 10◦ C.
(a) Rank the samples from highest to lowest temperature after 100
J of energy is added to each sample.
Heat capacities: glass – 837 J kg−1 K−1
iron – 448 J kg−1 K−1

(A) iron, glass, water

(B) water, iron, glass
(C) water, glass, iron
(D) glass, iron, water

2
Serway & Jewett, pg 579.
Specific Heat Capacity Question

Quick Quiz 20.12 Imagine you have 1 kg each of iron, glass, and
water, and all three samples are at 10◦ C.
(a) Rank the samples from highest to lowest temperature after 100
J of energy is added to each sample.
Heat capacities: glass – 837 J kg−1 K−1
iron – 448 J kg−1 K−1

(A) iron, glass, water ←

(B) water, iron, glass
(C) water, glass, iron
(D) glass, iron, water

2
Serway & Jewett, pg 579.
Specific Heat Capacity Question

Quick Quiz 20.12 Imagine you have 1 kg each of iron, glass, and
water, and all three samples are at 10◦ C.
(b) Rank the samples from greatest to least amount of energy
transferred by heat if each sample increases in temperature by
20◦ C.

(A) iron, glass, water

(B) water, iron, glass
(C) water, glass, iron
(D) glass, iron, water

2
Serway & Jewett, pg 579.
Specific Heat Capacity Question

Quick Quiz 20.12 Imagine you have 1 kg each of iron, glass, and
water, and all three samples are at 10◦ C.
(b) Rank the samples from greatest to least amount of energy
transferred by heat if each sample increases in temperature by
20◦ C.

(A) iron, glass, water

(B) water, iron, glass
(C) water, glass, iron ←
(D) glass, iron, water

2
Serway & Jewett, pg 579.
Heat and Temperature Change

Energy that causes a change in temperature does not have to enter

our system as heat.

It can be a different form of energy transfer.

Examples:
• in a microwave, energy TER enters the food as
electromagnetic waves
• work can cause a temperature change in two surfaces rubbed
together, or as a bicycle pump pressurizes air in the bike tires,
the air’s temperature rises

These energy transfers to our system will increase the internal

energy of the system, Eint .
Calorimetry

Calorimetry
a technique for determining the specific heat capacity of a sample
by heating it to a known temperature, then transferring it to a
known quantity of water and observing the temperature change in
the water.

Steps:
1 sample of known mass mx is heated to temperature Tx
2 sample is moved to an isolated container of water, containing
mass mw of water at temperature Tw < Tx
3 the sample and the water are allowed to reach thermal
equilibrium
4 the final temperature of the water, Tf , is measured
 y of water decreases during
r toCalorimetry
the air by heat, increas-
pecific heat of water, a rela-
r even modest temperature Isolated system boundary
Coast of the United States
mw
ated by the Pacific Ocean as
cw
ld otherwise be. As a result, Q cold Tw
er weather than East Coast
he energy toward land. mx
Q hot cx
Tx

heating a sample to some Hot sample Cold water

g water of known mass and
Figure 20.2 In a calorimetry
the water afterthe
Since equilibrium
heat transferred to the
experiment, cold
a hot water
sample whoseis equal to the heat
y, and devices in which this specific heat is unknown is placed
transferred from
0.2 shows the hot sample in
the hot sample:
in cold water in a container that
from the high-temperature isolates the system from the
Qc = −Qh
stem of the sample and the environment.
y requires that the amount
mw cw (Tf − Tw ) = −mx cx (Tf − Tx )
ific heat) equal the amount
nergy allows us to write the mw cw (Tf − Tw )
Pitfall Prevention
cx = 20.5
s Remember the Negative mSign − Tf )
x (TxIt is
1
Serway &critical
Figure from(20.5) Jewett,to include the negative sign
page 595.
Phase Changes

The processes by with matter changes from one state to another.

The different states of matter: solid, liquid, gas, plasma, are also
called phases of matter.
Phase Changes

Phase changes tend to be dramatic.

If sudden, obvious changes in the properties and behaviors of a

substance did not occur as we vary the temperature, we would
probably have no need to refer to different states of matter!
Phase Changes

Notice the discontinuity!

Phase Changes

We know that as we heat a solid it will eventually melt to form a

liquid and if we keep heating the liquid will boil off as a gas.

But how does the temperature change during these processes?

Phase Changes

During a phase change, temperature doesn’t change, even when

heat is added!
Phase Changes

Why does this happen?

Where is the energy going?

It isn’t increasing the translational speed of the atoms, that would

relate to an increase in temperature.
Latent Heat

latent heat of fusion, Lf

The amount of energy (heat) per unit mass required to change a
solid to a liquid.
Q = mLf

where m is the mass of solid that is transformed into a liquid.

latent heat of vaporization, Lv

The amount of energy (heat) per unit mass required to change a
liquid to a gas.
Q = mLv

where m is the mass of liquid that is transformed into a gas.

 Latent Heat
r 20 The First Law of Thermodynamics

Table 20.2 Latent Heats of Fusion and Vaporization

Latent Heat
Melting of Fusion Boiling Latent Heat
Substance Point (°C) ( J/kg) Point (°C) of Vaporization ( J/kg)
Heliuma 2272.2 5.23 3 103 2268.93 2.09 3 104
Oxygen 2218.79 1.38 3 104 2182.97 2.13 3 105
Nitrogen 2209.97 2.55 3 104 2195.81 2.01 3 105
Ethyl alcohol 2114 1.04 3 105 78 8.54 3 105
Water 0.00 3.33 3 105 100.00 2.26 3 106
Sulfur 119 3.81 3 104 444.60 3.26 3 105
Lead 327.3 2.45 3 104 1 750 8.70 3 105
Aluminum 660 3.97 3 105 2 450 1.14 3 107
Silver 960.80 8.82 3 104 2 193 2.33 3 106
Gold 1 063.00 6.44 3 104 2 660 1.58 3 106
Copper 1 083 1.34 3 105 1 187 5.06 3 106
a Helium does not solidify at atmospheric pressure. The melting point given here corresponds to a pressure of 2.5 MPa.

plate melts completely, the change in mass of the water is mf 2 0 5 m, which is the
mass of new water and is also equal to the initial mass of the ice cube.
From the definition of latent heat, and again choosing heat as our energy trans-
fer1 mechanism, the energy required to change the phase of a pure substance is
Table from Serway & Jewett, page 598.
Practice

The specific heat capacity of ice is about 0.5 cal/g◦ C. Supposing

that it remains at that value all the way to absolute zero, calculate
the number of calories it would take to change a 1 g ice cube at
absolute zero (−273◦ C) to 1 g of boiling water. How does this
number of calories required to change the same gram of 100◦ C
boiling water to 100◦ C steam?

Reminder: 1 cal is the heat required to raise the temperature of

1 g of water by 1◦ C.

1
Hewitt, Problem 2, page 314.
Practice
The specific heat capacity of ice is about 0.5 cal/g◦ C. Calculate
the number of calories it would take to change a 1 g ice cube at
absolute zero (−273◦ C) to 1 g of boiling water.

1
Hewitt, Problem 2, page 314.
Practice
The specific heat capacity of ice is about 0.5 cal/g◦ C. Calculate
the number of calories it would take to change a 1 g ice cube at
absolute zero (−273◦ C) to 1 g of boiling water.
warming ice:

Q1 = mcice ∆T = (1 g)(0.5 cal/g◦ C)(273◦ C) = 136.5 cal

melting:

3.33 × 105 J/kg

  
1 kg
Q2 = mLf = (1 g) = 79.55 cal
4.186 J/cal 1000 g

warming water:

Q3 = mcwater ∆T = (1 g)(1.0 cal/g◦ C)(100◦ C) = 100 cal

1
Hewitt, Problem 2, page 314.
Practice
The specific heat capacity of ice is about 0.5 cal/g◦ C. Calculate
the number of calories it would take to change a 1 g ice cube at
absolute zero (−273◦ C) to 1 g of boiling water.
warming ice:

Q1 = mcice ∆T = (1 g)(0.5 cal/g◦ C)(273◦ C) = 136.5 cal

melting:

3.33 × 105 J/kg

  
1 kg
Q2 = mLf = (1 g) = 79.55 cal
4.186 J/cal 1000 g

warming water:

Q3 = mcwater ∆T = (1 g)(1.0 cal/g◦ C)(100◦ C) = 100 cal

Total Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 320 cal.

1
Hewitt, Problem 2, page 314.
Practice

The specific heat capacity of ice is about 0.5 cal/g◦ C. Supposing

that it remains at that value all the way to absolute zero, calculate
the number of calories it would take to change a 1 g ice cube at
absolute zero (−273◦ C) to 1 g of boiling water. How does this
number of calories required to change the same gram of 100◦ C
boiling water to 100◦ C steam?

1
Hewitt, Problem 2, page 314.
Practice

The specific heat capacity of ice is about 0.5 cal/g◦ C. Supposing

that it remains at that value all the way to absolute zero, calculate
the number of calories it would take to change a 1 g ice cube at
absolute zero (−273◦ C) to 1 g of boiling water. How does this
number of calories required to change the same gram of 100◦ C
boiling water to 100◦ C steam?

boiling:

2.26 × 106 J/kg

  
1 kg
Q4 = mLv = (1 g) = 540 cal
4.186 J/cal 1000 g

1
Hewitt, Problem 2, page 314.
Practice

The specific heat capacity of ice is about 0.5 cal/g◦ C. Supposing

that it remains at that value all the way to absolute zero, calculate
the number of calories it would take to change a 1 g ice cube at
absolute zero (−273◦ C) to 1 g of boiling water. How does this
number of calories required to change the same gram of 100◦ C
boiling water to 100◦ C steam?

boiling:

2.26 × 106 J/kg

  
1 kg
Q4 = mLv = (1 g) = 540 cal
4.186 J/cal 1000 g

The energy required to transform the water to steam is much

bigger than the energy required to heat the ice, convert it to
water, and continue heating up to 100◦ C.

1
Hewitt, Problem 2, page 314.
Question

Suppose the same process of adding energy to the ice cube is

performed as discussed in the last question, but instead we graph
the internal energy of the system as a function of energy input.
What would this graph look like?

1
Based on Quick Quiz 20.2, Serway & Jewett, page 600.
Practice
The heat of vaporizations of ethyl alcohol is about 200 cal/g. If
2 kg of this fluid were allowed to vaporize in a refrigerator, show
that 5 kg of ice (at 0◦ C) would be formed from 0◦ C water.

1
Hewitt, Problem 8, page 314.
Practice
The heat of vaporizations of ethyl alcohol is about 200 cal/g. If
2 kg of this fluid were allowed to vaporize in a refrigerator, show
that 5 kg of ice (at 0◦ C) would be formed from 0◦ C water.

Hint: in the last problem we melted 1 g of ice and found it

required 80 cal.

1
Hewitt, Problem 8, page 314.
Practice
The heat of vaporizations of ethyl alcohol is about 200 cal/g. If
2 kg of this fluid were allowed to vaporize in a refrigerator, show
that 5 kg of ice (at 0◦ C) would be formed from 0◦ C water.

Hint: in the last problem we melted 1 g of ice and found it

required 80 cal.

energy needed for vaporization:

Q = mLv ,ea = (2 kg)(200 cal/g) = 4.0 × 105 cal

assuming this same amount of energy was taken from the water:

Q 4.0 × 105 cal

m= = = 5000 g = 5 kg X
Lf 80 cal/g

1
Hewitt, Problem 8, page 314.
Phase Change paths
Evaporation

evaporation
the process by which a liquid changes to a gas at the liquid surface

Since changing from a liquid to a gas requires heat, when a liquid

evaporates it takes heat from its surroundings.

This is why humans sweat in hot weather, pigs wallow puddles,

and dogs pant. All are trying to use evaporation of water to reduce
body temperature.
Evaporation
Ben Franklin noticed that a wet shirt kept him feeling cool on a
hot day.

He decided to experiment to see if the temperature of objects

could be lowered by this process.

In 1758 he and John Hadley took a mercury thermometer and

repeatedly wet the bulb with ether while using bellows to keep air
moving over it.

Despite it being a warm day, they recorded temperatures as low as

7◦ F (−14◦ C) at the bulb of the thermometer.

This is the basic idea behind refrigeration!

Phase Diagrams

1
A typical phase diagram. The dashed green line shows the unusual
behavior of water. Diagram by Matthieumarechal, Wikipedia.
Summary
• applying the ideal gas equation
• thermal energy
• heat capacity
• phase changes
• latent heat

Homework Serway & Jewett:

• previous: Ch 19, onward from page 581. OQs: 3, 9; CQs: 3,
10; Probs: 11, 13, 17, 21, 23, 27, 29, 37, 39, 44, 45, 57, 61,
69, 77
• Look at examples 20.1 – 20.4.
• new: Ch 20, onward from page 615. OQs: 3, 5, 7; CQs: 3,
11; Probs: 1, 3, 9, 13, 19