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In the present day war fields, RADAR systems are being widely used. RADAR
(Radio Detection and Ranging) is something that is in use all around us, to detect obstacles,
although it is normally invisible. They are used to detect enemy aircrafts, missiles, ships etc.,
and also for detecting heights of planes, clouds, and for weather forecasts.
3.2 Objectives 5
3.3 Definitions 5
3.5 RFID 7
4.4.2. Transformer 11
4.4.3. Rectifier 11
4.4.4. Filter 11
4.6.1. Dc motor 19
4.7 L293D 19
4.7.2. Description 20
4.10 Working 25
5 MICROCONTROLLER 26-41
5.6.4. Memory 35
6.3 Assembling 46
9.1 Applications 66
9.2 Advantages 66
9.3 Limitations 67
10.1 Conclusion 68
REFERENCES 69
APPENDIX 70-72
LIST OF FIGURES
TX / RX TRANSMITTER / RECEIVER
DC DIRECT CURRENT
PC PROGRAM COUNTER
CHAPTER-2: This chapter contains the literature survey which explains about different
UGVs etc using the technologies like RFID. It also gives an account on
CHAPTER-3: This chapter contains the main aim an objective of the develop project. It
CHAPTER-4: This chapter gives the definition of the microcontroller and also provides
CHAPTER-5: This chapter provides explanation for the block diagrams of transmitter
CHAPTER-6: This chapter explains about the firmware implementation of the system.
CHAPTER-8: This chapter contains the final result, and output of the project.
CHAPTER-9: This chapter includes the conclusion, advantages, applications and the future
Extensive development efforts have been invested in unmanned systems, which are
gradually being integrated into modern welfare. Many companies displayed unmanned systems
technologies at Eurosatory 2006, including small and miniature aerial vehicles (UAVs),
unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) of various sizes. Developers exhibited models of both types
designed for carrying remotely operated systems, sensors and weapons. The exhibition provided
a venue to introduce several new systems. This principal unmanned ground system (UGSs)
system used by the US military is the AN/GSR-8 i.e. Remotely Monitored Battle field Sensor
System (REMBASS II), which detects, classifies and determines the direction of movement of
intruding aircrafts and vehicles.
Unmanned anti air craft missile is another application that is used to differentiate the
enemy aircrafts and to protect our own aircrafts by alerting the army. RFID technology has been
around for about 60 years and was originally developed for improving warfare technologies. The
first application was developed by Britain as the Identify Friend or Foe (IFF) system, which was
used to distinguish friendly aircraft from enemy aircraft during World War II (Landt, 2001). The
second era of RFID technology began with the commercial activities in the 1960s. An early
application was the development of electronic article surveillance (EAS) equipment to counter
theft in retail stores. EAS as an early forerunner to RFID uses a ‘1-bit’ signal to represent the
presence or absence of a tag (Landt, 2005). The third era of RFID technology started in 1999,
when the Auto-ID Centre was established at MIT to investigate new ways for improving bar
code technology and implementing RFID technology in various commercial applications. The
1990's were a significant decade for RFID because of increased commercialization of RFID
systems and the standardization activities on RFID technologies.
• In the existing system the telescope methodology is used in which human resource was
required.
• In this efficiency is low.
• The person can’t identify that the plane is authorized or unauthorized.
• In this project we are using zigbee module its having transmitting distance is more than
that of existing system.
• If any unauthorised plane is entered into the circle to detect the ultrasonic sensor which
sends the information to the airport.
• If the plane details mismatches then the gun shooter gets on and then the plane will be
destroyed.
3.1. AIM
The main aim of project is used to differentiate the enemy aircrafts and our own aircrafts
by using RFID.
3.2. OBJECTIVES
This project is developed in order to help the border security system to avoid human
losses by controlling with wireless communication. To face new challenges in present day
situation in the military applications unmanned systems are more accurate, flexible and reliable.
3.3. DEFINITIONS
1. Low Power
2. Robust
802.15.4 Provides a robust foundation for ZigBee, ensuring a reliable solution in noisy
environments. Features such as energy detection, clear channel assessment and channel selection
help the device pick the best possible channel, avoiding other wireless networks such as Wi-Fi.
Message acknowledgement helps to ensure that the data was delivered to its destination. Finally,
multiple levels of security ensure that the network and data remain intact and secure.
3. Mesh Networking
The ability to cover large areas with routers is one of the key features of ZigBee that
helps differentiate itself from other technologies. Mesh networking can extend the range of the
network through routing, while self healing increases the reliability of the network by re-routing
a message in case of a node failure.
4. Interoperability
The ZigBee Alliance helps ensure interoperability between vendors by creating testing
and certification programs for ZigBee devices. Users can be assured the devices that go through
certification testing and use the ZigBee logo will work with other devices based on the same
applications. This provides end customers with the customers with peace of mind while creating
brand awareness of products with the ZigBee logo.
The focus of network applications under the IEEE 802.15.4 / ZigBee standard include the
features of low power consumption, needed for only two major modes (Tx/Rx or Sleep), high
density of nodes per network, low costs and simple implementation.
• 2.4GHz and 868/915 MHz dual PHY modes. This represents three license-free bands: 2.4-
2.4835 GHz, 868-870 MHz and 902-928 MHz the number of channels allotted to each frequency
band is fixed at sixteen (numbered 11-26), one (numbered 0) and ten (numbered 1-10)
respectively.
• Low power consumption, with battery life ranging from months to years.
• Maximum data rates allowed for each of these frequency bands are fixed as 250 kbps @2.4.
GHz, 40 kbps @ 915 MHz, and 20 kbps @ 868 MHz.
• High throughput and low latency for low duty cycle applications (<0.1%).
• Channel access using Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA - CA).
This tool retransmitted the incident radio waves along with audio information. Sound
waves vibrated diaphragm that altered the shape of resonator, modulating reflected sound
frequencies. This tool was not identification tag but a secret listening device. But it is still
considered as predecessor of the RFID technology due to it being energized, passive and
stimulated by outside electromagnetic waves.
4.4.2. TRANSFORMER
Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these
voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input
available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level. This
is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a
required level.
4.4.3 RECTIFIER
The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating
D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is
used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.
4.4.4. FILTER
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier
and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and
load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this
point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. LCD is finding wide spread use replacing LEDs
(seven segment LEDs or other multi segment LEDs) because of the following reasons:
A model as shown in figure 7.3 here is for its low price and great possibilities most
frequently used in practice. It is based on the HD44780 microcontroller (Hitachi) and can display
messages in two lines with 16 characters each. It displays all the alphabets, Greek letters,
punctuation marks, mathematical symbols etc. In addition, it is possible to display symbols that
user makes up on its own. Automatic shifting message on display (shift left and right),
appearance of the pointer, backlight etc. are considered as useful characteristics.
4.5.1. PINS FUNCTIONS
There are pins along one side of the small printed board used for connection to the
microcontroller. There are total of 14 pins marked with numbers (16 in case the background light
is built in). Their function is described in the table 6.1 below:
Pin Logic
Function Name Description
Number State
Ground 1 VSS - 0V
D0 – D7 are interpreted as
0
4 RS commands
1
D0 – D7 are interpreted as data
8 D1 0/1 Bit 1
10 D3 0/1 Bit 3
11 D4 0/1 Bit 4
12 D5 0/1 Bit 5
13 D6 0/1 Bit 6
I/D 1 Increment by 1
0 Decrement by 1
S 1 Display shift on
0 Display shift off
D 1 Display on
0 Display off
U 1 Cursor on
0 Cursor off
B 1 Cursor blink on
0 Cursor blink off
R/L 1 Shift right
0 Shift left
DL 1 8-bit interface
0 4-bit interface
N 1 Display in two lines
0 Display in one line
F 1 Character format
5x10 dots
0 Character format
5x7 dots
D/C 1 Display shift
0 Cursor shift
Consequently, each data is sent to LCD in two steps: four higher bits are sent first (that
normally would be sent through lines D4-D7), four lower bits are sent afterwards. With the help
of initialization, LCD will correctly connect and interpret each data received. Besides, with
regards to the fact that data are rarely read from LCD (data mainly are transferred from
microcontroller to LCD) one more I/O pin may be saved by simple connecting R/W pin to the
Ground. Even though message displaying will be normally performed, it will not be possible to
read from busy flag since it is not possible to read from display.
1. Display is cleared.
2. Mode
DL = 1 Communication through 8-bit interface.
N = 0 Messages are displayed in one line.
F = 0 Character font 5 x 8 dots.
3. Display/Cursor on/off
D = 0 Display off.
U = 0 Cursor off.
B = 0 Cursor blink off.
4. Character entry
ID = 1 Addresses on display are automatically incremented by 1.
S = 0 Display shift off.
Automatic reset is mainly performed without any problems. If for any reason power
supply voltage does not reach full value in the course of 10mS, display will start perform
completely unpredictably. If voltage supply unit cannot meet this condition or if it is needed to
provide completely safe operating, the process of initialization by which a new reset enabling
display to operate normally must be applied.
Algorithm according to the initialization is being performed depends on whether
connection to the microcontroller is through 4- or 8-bit interface. All left over to be done after
that is to give basic commands and of course- to display messages. The algorithm is as shown in
the figure 7.5.
CONTRAST CONTROL
To have a clear view of the characters on the LCD, contrast should be adjusted. To adjust
the contrast, the voltage should be varied. For this, a preset is used which can behave like a
variable voltage device. As the voltage of this preset is varied, the contrast of the LCD can be
adjusted.
POTENTIOMETER
Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected. This
arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching point of a circuit
with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If the terminals at the ends
of the track are connected across the power supply, then the wiper terminal will provide a
voltage which can be varied from zero up to the maximum of the supply.
Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-
carrying conductors to generate force. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from
mechanical energy, is done by generators such as an alternator or a dynamo; some electric
motors can also be used as generators, for example, a traction motor on a vehicle may perform
both tasks. Electric motors and generators are commonly referred to as electric machines.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and
pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives.
4.7.2. DESCRIPTION
The Device is a monolithic integrated high voltage, high current four channel driver
designed to accept standard DTL or TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads (such as relays
solenoids, DC and stepping motors) and switching power transistors. To simplify use as two
bridges each pair of channels is equipped with an enable input. A separate supply input is
provided for the logic, allowing operation at a lower voltage and internal clamp diodes are
included. This device is suitable for use in switching applications at frequencies up to 5 kHz. The
L293D is assembled in a 16 lead plastic package which has 4 center pins connected together and
used for heat sinking The L293DD is assembled in a 20 lead surface mount which has 8 center
pins connected together and used for heat sinking. L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver
integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers act as current amplifiers since they take a low-current
control signal and provide a higher-current signal. This higher current signal is used to drive the
motors.
L293D contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its common mode of operation,
two DC motors can be driven simultaneously, both in forward and reverse direction. The motor
operations of two motors can be controlled by input logic at pins 2 & 7 and 10 & 15. Input logic
00 or 11 will stop the corresponding motor. Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it in clockwise and
anticlockwise directions, respectively. Enable pins 1 and 9 (corresponding to the two motors)
must be high for motors to start operating. When an enable input is high, the associated driver
gets enabled. As a result, the outputs become active and work in phase with their inputs.
Similarly, when the enable input is low, that driver is disabled, and their outputs are off and in
the high-impedance state.
The ultrasonic sensor emits short bursts of sound and listens for this sound to echo off of
nearby objects. The frequency of the sound is too high for humans to hear (it is ultrasonic). The
ultrasonic sensor measures the time of flight of the sound burst. A user then computes the
distance to an object using this time of flight and the speed of sound (1,126 ft/s).
This sensor uses ultrasonic sound to measure distance just like bats and dolphins do.
Ultrasonic sound has such a high pitch that humans cannot hear it. This particular sensor sends
out an ultrasonic sound that has a frequency of about 40 kHz.
The sensor has two main parts:
1. A transducer that creates an ultrasonic sound and another listens to its echo.
2. To use this sensor to measure distance, the robot's brain must measure the amount of time
it takes for the ultrasonic sound to travel.
Sound travels at approximately 340 meters per second. This corresponds to about
29.412us (microseconds) per centimeter. To measure the distance the sound has travelled we use
the formula:
The "2" is in the formula because the sound has to travel back and fourth. First the sound
travels away from the sensor, and then it bounces off of a surface and returns back. The easy way
to read the distance as centimeters is use the formula:
For example, if it takes 100us (microseconds) for the ultrasonic sound to bounce back,
then the distance is ((100 / 2) / 29) centimeters or about 1.7 centimeters.
ZigBee stack architecture follows the standard Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model, ZigBee's protocol stack is structured in layers. The first two layers, physical
(PHY) and media access (MAC), are defined by the IEEE 802.15.4 standard.
Zigbee transmitter: It is used to send or transfer the data from transmitter section to receiver
section by a wireless communication.
Zigbee receiver: ZigBee receiver is used to receive the data from transmitter and it is given to
ATMEGA8 microcontroller the output is displayed on LCD.
4.10. Working
• An ultrasonic sensor is used to detect an object is detected then the information is
displayed on LCD by using microcontroller.
• The plane section act as transmitter it consists of RFID tag, RFID module and
microcontroller
• In order to transmit the information from transmitter to receiver a wireless
communication is used i.e. ZigBee.
• At receiver section wireless receiver (ZigBee) is used to collect the data from transmitter
and plane details are displayed on LCD.
• When an unauthorized RFID tag is used at transmitter then information is carried out to
receiver showing then unauthorized plane is detected.
• Buzzer is used to alert whole system and a gun shooter is used to fire the entered
unauthorized plane.
• Here RFID module is used to read RFID tag.
Microcontroller, as the name suggests, are small controllers. They are like single chip
computers that are often embedded into other systems to function as processing/controlling unit.
For example, the remote control you are using probably has microcontrollers inside that do
decoding and other controlling functions. They are also used in automobiles, washing machines,
microwave ovens, toys etc, where automation is needed.
Assembly language is often used in microcontrollers and since they usually follow RISC
architecture, the instruction set is small. The development package of microcontrollers often
includes an assembler, a simulator, a programmer to "burn" the chip and a demonstration
board. Some packages include a high level language compiler such as a C compiler and more
sophisticated libraries.
• A Timer module to allow the microcontroller to perform tasks for certain time periods.
• A serial I/O port to allow data to flow between the microcontroller and other devices such
as a PC or another microcontroller.
• An ADC to allow the microcontroller to accept analogue input data for processing.
The heart of the microcontroller is the CPU core. In the past this has traditionally been
based on an 8-bit microprocessor unit. The Figure above shows a typical microcontroller device
and its different subunits.
5.2 ATMEGA8
The Atmel AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working
registers. All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),
allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one
clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to
ten times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers.
One of the most important features of ATmega8 microcontroller is that except 5 pins, all
other pins can be used for supporting two signals.
• Pins 9,10,14,15,16,17,18,19 are used for port B, Whereas Pins 23,24,25,26,27,28 and 1
are used for port C and Pins 2,3,4,5,6,11,12 are used for port D.
• Pin 1 is used as Reset pin and on applying low level signal for time longer than minimum
pulse length will generate a reset signal.
• Pins 3 and 2 can also be used in serial communication for USART (Universal
Synchronous and Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter).
• Pins 10 and 9 are used as timer counter oscillators as well as external oscillator where the
crystal is connected directly between the pins.
• Pin 19 is used as slave clock input or master clock output for Serial Peripheral Interface
(SPI) channel.
The idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the SRAM, timer/counters, SPI port, and
interrupt system to continue functioning. The power down mode saves the register contents but
freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.
In power-save mode, the asynchronous timer continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a
timer base while the rest of the device is sleeping. The ADC Noise reduction mode stops the
CPU and all I/O modules except asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise
during ADC conversions. In standby mode, the crystal/resonator oscillator is running while the
rest of the device is sleeping. This allows fast start-up combined with low-power consumption.
It is used when Counter/Timer is clocked asynchronously. In general, this mode used for
saving the operational power requirement of microcontroller.
Idle Mode
It stops the functioning of CPU, but allows operation of ADC, TWI, SPI, and interrupts
system and Watchdog. It is achieved by setting SM0 to SM2 bits of Microcontroller Unit register
flag at zero.
It enables external interrupts, the 2-wire serial interface, and watchdog while disabling the
external oscillator. It stops all generated clocks.
It stops the central processing unit but allows the functioning of ADC, timer/counter and
external interrupts.
Stand By mode
In this mode, only oscillator can operate by slowing all other operation of microcontroller.
The high-performance Atmel AVR ALU operates in direct connection with all the 32-
general purpose working registers. Within a single clock cycle, arithmetic operations between
general purpose registers or between a register and an immediate are executed. The ALU
operations are divided into three main categories – arithmetic, logical, and bit-functions. Some
implementations of the architecture also provide a powerful multiplier supporting both
signed/unsigned multiplication and fractional format. For a detailed description,
The Status Register contains information about the result of the most recently executed
arithmetic instruction. This information can be used for altering program flow in order to
perform conditional operations. Note that the Status Register is updated after all ALU
operations.
The Status Register is not automatically stored when entering an interrupt routine and
restored when returning from an interrupt. This must be handled by software.
The Global Interrupt Enable bit must be set for the interrupts to be enabled. The
individual interrupt enable control is then performed in separate control registers. If the Global
Interrupt Enable Register is cleared, none of the interrupts are enabled independent of the
individual interrupt enable settings. The I-bit is cleared by hardware after an interrupt has
occurred and is set by the RETI instruction to enable subsequent interrupts. The I-bit can also
be set and cleared by the application with the SEI and CLI instructions, as described in the
Instruction Set Reference.
The Bit Copy instructions BLD (Bit Load) and BST (Bit Store) use the T-bit as source
or destination for the operated bit. A bit from a register in the Register File can be copied into T
by the BST instruction, and a bit in T can be copied into a bit in a register in the Register File
by the BLD instruction.
The Half Carry Flag H indicates a Half Carry in some arithmetic operations. Half Carry
is useful in BCD arithmetic. See the “Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.
Negative Flag
Zero Flag
The Zero Flag Z indicates a zero result in an arithmetic or logic operation. See the
“Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.
Carry Flag
The Carry Flag C indicates a Carry in an arithmetic or logic operation. See the
“Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.
The Register File is optimized for the AVR Enhanced RISC instruction set. In order to
achieve the required performance and flexibility, the following input/output schemes are
supported by the Register File:
Most of the instructions operating on the Register File have direct access to all
registers, and most of them are single cycle instructions as shown in Figure, each register is also
assigned a Data memory address, mapping them directly into the first 32 locations of the user
Data Space. Although not being physically implemented as SRAM locations, this memory
organization provides great flexibility in access of the registers, as the X-pointer, Y-pointer, and
Z-pointer Registers can be set to index any register in the file.
5.6.4. MEMORY
This section describes the different memories in the Atmel AVR ATmega8. The AVR
architecture has two main memory spaces, the Data memory and the Program Memory
space. In addition, the ATmega8 features an EEPROM Memory for data storage. All three
memory spaces are linear and regular.
Most of the instructions operating on the Register File have direct access to all
registers, and most of them are single cycle instructions As shown in Figure, each register is
also assigned a Data memory address, mapping them directly into the first 32 locations of the
user Data Space. Although not being physically implemented as SRAM locations, this memory
organization provides great flexibility in access of the registers, as the X-pointer, Y-pointer, and
Z-pointer Registers can be set to index any register in the file.
The lower 1120 Data memory locations address the Register File, the I/O Memory, and
the internal data SRAM. The first 96 locations address the Register File and I/O Memory, and
the next 1024 locations address the internal data SRAM.
The five different addressing modes for the Data memory cover: Direct, Indirect with
Displacement, Indirect, Indirect with Pre-decrement, and Indirect with Post-increment. In the
Register File, registers R26 to R31 feature the indirect addressing pointer registers. The direct
addressing reaches the entire data space. The Indirect with Displacement mode reaches 63
address locations from the base address given by the Y-register or Z-register. When using
registers indirect addressing modes with automatic pre-decrement and post-increment, the
address registers X, Y and Z are decremented or incremented.
Early exhibition of the reflected power RFID tags, semi passive and passive was
presented by Robert Freyman, Steven Depp and Alfred Koelle.
This portable system used around 12-bit tags and worked at 915 MHz And the first patent
associated with abbreviation of RFID was approved to Mr. Charles Walton in the year 1983.
Basic RFID consists of an antenna, transceiver and transponder. The working of a typical
RFID system is as explained below.
Antenna emits the radio signals to activate tag and to read as well as write information to
it. Reader emits the radio waves, ranging from one to 100 inches, on the basis of used radio
frequency and power output. While passing through electronic magnetic zone, RFID tag detects
activation signals of reader.
Powered by its internal battery or by the reader signals, the tag sends radio waves back to
the reader. Reader receives these waves and identifies the frequency to generate a unique ID.
Reader then decodes data encoded in integrated circuit of tags and transmits it to the computers
for use.
Active and passive RFID are different technologies but are usually evaluated together.
Even though both of them use the radio frequency for communication between tag and reader,
means of providing power to tags is different. Active RFID makes use of battery within tag for
providing continuous power to tag and radio frequency power circuitry. Passive RFID on the
other hand, relies on energy of radio frequency transferred from reader to tag for powering it.
Passive RFID needs strong signals from reader but signal strength bounced from tag is at
low levels. Active RFID receives low level signals by tag but it can create higher level signals to
readers. This type of RFID is constantly powered, whether in or out of the reader’s field. Active
tags consist of external sensors for checking humidity, temperature, motion as well as other
conditions.
RFID Reader Module, are also called as interrogators. They convert radio waves
returned from the RFID tag into a form that can be passed on to Controllers, which can make use
of it. RFID tags and readers have to be tuned to the same frequency in order to communicate.
An RFID system consists of two separate components: a tag and a reader. Tags
are analogous to barcode labels, and come in different shapes and sizes. The tag contains an
antenna connected to a small microchip containing up to two kilobytes of data. The reader, or
scanner, functions similarly to a barcode scanner; however, while a barcode scanner uses a laser
beam to scan the barcode, an RFID scanner uses electromagnetic waves. To transmit these
waves, the scanner uses an antenna that transmits a signal, communicating with the tags antenna.
The tags antenna receives data from the scanner and transmits its particular chip information to
the scanner.
The data on the chip is usually stored in one of two types of memory. The most common
is Read-Only Memory (ROM); as its name suggests, read-only memory cannot be altered once
programmed onto the chip during the manufacturing process. The second type of memory is
Read/Write Memory; though it is also programmed during the manufacturing process, it can later
be altered by certain devices.
The RFID tag consists of a powered or non powered microchip and an antenna. The
Passive tags are the simplest, smallest and cheapest version of an RFID tag as they do
not contain a built-in power source and consequently cannot initiate communication with a
reader. As the available power from the reader field diminishes rapidly with distance, passive
tags have practical read ranges that vary from about 10 mm up to about 5 meters.
Semi-passive tags have built-in batteries and do not require energy from the reader field
to power the microchip. This allows them to function with much lower signal power levels and
act over greater distances.
Just like you can tune a radio in various frequencies for listening to different channels,
RFID readers and tags need to be tuned in to a same frequency for communication. RFID system
uses various frequencies but most common and popularly used frequency is low, high and ultra
high frequency.
Low frequency is around 125 KHz, high is around 13.56 MHz and ultra high varies
between 860-960 MHz Some applications also make use of microwave frequency of 2.45 GHz.
It is imperative to choose right frequency for an application as radio waves work different at
various frequencies.
The role of RFID is not just confined to Aircraft identification anymore; it is also lending
a hand in various commercial uses. Asset tracking is one of the most popular uses of RFID.
Companies are using RFID tags on the products that might get stolen or misplaced. Almost each
type of Radio frequency Identification and Detection system can be used for the purpose of asset
management.
Manufacturing plants have also been using RFID from a long time now. These systems
are used for tracking parts and working in process for reduction of defects, managing production
of various versions and increasing output. The technology has also been useful in the closed
looped supply chains for years. Not just manufacturers but retailers also are using this RFID
technology for proper placement of their products and improvements in the supply chain.
RFID also plays an important role in the access and security control. The newly
introduced 13.56 MHz RFID systems provide long range readings to the users. The best part is
that RFID is convenient to handle and requires low maintenance at the same time.
AVR Studio, the popular Software, combines Project Management, Source Code Editing,
Program Debugging, and Flash Programming in a single, powerful environment.
Selecting the compiler and creating the project name and click on the next button.
Choose AVR simulator from the left list and controller from the right list and press finish.
Save the program by pressing ctrl + S or choosing save from the file menu
6.3. ASSEMBLING
To convert your program to machine language press F7 or select build from the Build
menu or click the build icon in the toolbar.
See the Build window. The window shows if your program has syntax error or not. By looking at
the window, you can see the amount of memory which is used by your program.
Step 1:
Open the tool
Step 2:
Selecting the fuse bits and click on write button.
Step 3:
Click on Erase
Step 4:
Click on load flash
Step 5:
Click on write flash and verify flash in command mode
#include <avr/io.h>
#include <util/delay.h>
#include <avr/interrupt.h>
#include "lcd.h"
unsigned char
no_1[10]={"0002868456"},no_2[10]={"0002927831"},no_3[10]={"0002927825"},no_4[10]={"
0002868462"},dat=0,a[15],k=0,l=0,i=0;
void Init_USART()
UBRRL=0x33;
UCSRB=(1<<TXEN)|(1<<RXEN);
UCSRC=(1<<URSEL)|(0<<UMSEL)|(0<<UPM1)|(0<<UPM0)|(0<<USBS);
while ((*str)!='\0')
if(*str==0x0d)
tx(' ');
else
tx(*str);
str++;
while(!(UCSRA&(1<<RXC)));
return(UDR);
UDR=ch;
while(!(UCSRA&(1<<TXC)));
_delay_ms(50);
return(0);
char str[5]={0,0,0,0,0};
int i=4,j=0;
while(num)
str[i]=num%10;
num=num/10;
i--;
for(i=j;i<5;i++)
tx(48+str[i]);
ISR(USART_RXC_vect)
dat=UDR;
if(dat=='$')
PORTD&=~(1<<PD3);PORTD&=~(1<<PD2);
k=rx();
l=0;
while(k!=0x0d)
a[l]=k;
l++;
k=rx();
compare();
for(m=0;m<10;m++)
if(no_1[m]==a[m])
count++;
if(count>9)
card=1;
count=0;
for(m=0;m<10;m++)
if(no_2[m]==a[m])
count++;
if(count>9)
card=2;
count=0;
for(m=0;m<10;m++)
if(no_3[m]==a[m])
count++;
if(count>9)
card=3;
count=0;
for(m=0;m<10;m++)
if(no_4[m]==a[m])
count++;
if(count>9)
card=4;
count=0;
return card;
TCCR1B = 0 ;
TCNT1 &= 0;
_delay_ms(10);
TCCR1B = 0x02;
value = TCNT1 ;
return (value);
int main(void)
int i;
DDRD=0xfe;
DDRC=0xff;
InitLCD(0);
_delay_ms(100);
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Initialising...");
_delay_ms(5000);
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Welcome to ");
_delay_ms(2000);
sei()
if(f<60)
cli ();
PORTD&=~(1<<PD3);PORTD&=~(1<<PD2);
LCDClear ();
_delay_ms(10);
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Obj Detect:");
_delay_ms(10);
LCDWriteIntXY(10,0,f,4);
_delay_ms(10);
//
if (card==1)
cli();
PORTD&=~(1<<PD3);PORTD&=~(1<<PD2);
card=0;
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Authorised");
LCDWriteStringXY(0,1,"Flight 1 - allow");
relay_of;
_delay_ms(5000);
//sei();
else if (card==2)
cli();
PORTD&=~(1<<PD3);PORTD&=~(1<<PD2);
card=0;
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Authorised ");
relay_of;
_delay_ms(5000);//sei();
else if (card==3)
cli();
PORTD&=~(1<<PD3);PORTD&=~(1<<PD2);
card=0;
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Authorised ");
relay_of;
_delay_ms(5000);//sei();
else if (card==4)
cli();
PORTD&=~(1<<PD3);PORTD&=~(1<<PD2);
card=0;
LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Un-Authorised ");
LCDWriteStringXY(0,1,"Shoot ");
relay_on;
_delay_ms(5000);//sei();
relay_of;
Fig 8.5: Display the output as permission granted for an authorized plane
9.1. APPLICATIONS
Military area
• Radar, RFID tags have got wide application in military operations there are used in air,
naval and ground for defense purposes. Fire control and missile guidance is usually
employed.
• These provide the safety to aircraft from potential collision with other aircraft.
• Secure restricted areas for only authorized employee’s objects.
• These are also considered to be SAMs, although in practice it is expected that they would
be more widely used against sea skimming missiles rather than aircraft.
9.2. ADVANTAGES
9.3. LIMITATIONS
10.1. CONCLUSION
There are many wireless monitoring and control applications for industrial and home
markets which require longer battery life, lower data rates and less complexity than available
from existing wireless standards like Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. So, there was a need for a standard
based, interoperable wireless technology that addresses the unique needs of low data rate
wireless control and sensor-based networks. In this regard, ZigBee was poised to become the
global control/sensor network standard.
Zigbee promises to put wireless sensors in everything from factory automation systems to
home security systems to consumer electronics. Zigbee is a new standard that still needs to pass
through the circles or rigorous technology critics and establish its own place in the industry. The
next ZigBee challenge will be devising the proposed extension to the 802.15.4 standard,’4a’
which could be based on ultra-wideband (UWB).
To defeat modern and future threats, a wide range of options must be available to counter
the many scenarios in which drones can be employed. One option is left-of-launch capabilities:
Using cyber or electronic warfare to render enemy. A second option is to use directed energy
weapons, such as laser or microwave weapons, to bring down drones that pose a direct or
indirect threat to ground forces.
Directed energy weapons are promising, however, they are expensive to develop and the
technology is still being tested. More traditional forms of anti-air weapons, resembling the C-
RAM, relay on twin or revolver guns to fire either buckshot or head ammunition, providing a
cost-effective means to disable UAS. Many options for weapons carried by individual soldiers
are emerging, such as shoulder-fired net or jammer guns. To face new challenges in present day
situation in the military applications unmanned systems are more accurate, flexible and reliable.
REFERENCES
• http://www.arcic.army.mil/App_Documents/Army-CUAS-Strategy.pdf.
• http://www.rucker.army.mil/usaace/uas/US%20Army%20UAS%20RoadMap%202010
%202035.pdf.
• http://www.arcic.army.mil/App_Documents/Army-CUAS-Strategy.pdf.
• http://www.rucker.army.mil/usaace/uas/US%20Army%20UAS%20RoadMap%202010
%202035.pdf.
• http://www.rucker.army.mil/usaace/uas/US%20Army%20UAS%20RoadMap%202010
%202035.pdf.
• http://www.defensenews.com/articles/dod-weapons-designer-swarming-teams-of-
drones-will-dominate-future-wars.
• “C-UAS Briefing to the C-UAS Conference” by Col. Douglas E. White.
• http://usacac.army.mil/CAC2/MilitaryReview/Archives/English/MilitaryReview_201512
31_art012.pdf.
• http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-39277940.
• https://www.usnews.com/opinion/blogs/world-report/2014/04/04/russia-hacks-a-us-
drone-in-crimea-as-cyberwarfare-has-gone-wireless.
• http://breakingdefense.com/2017/04/boeing-upgrades-air-defense-vs-russians-avenger-
shorad/.
• http://asc.army.mil/web/portfolio-item/ms-c-ram_lpws/.
• http://news.lockheedmartin.com/2017-03-16-Lockheed-Martin-to-Deliver-World-
Record-Setting-60kW-Laser-to-U-S-Army?_ga=2.95440988.175385181.1497367101-
1134391669.1497367101.
• http://www.israeldefense.co.il/en/content/iai-unveils-drone-guard-drone-detection-and-
disruption-counter-uav-systems.
• “Countering the Unmanned Aircraft Systems Threat” by Col. Matthew Tedesco.
APPENDIX
SURFACE-TO-AIR-MISSILE
The first serious attempts at SAM development took place during World War II,
although no operational systems were introduced. Further development in the 1940s and 1950s
led to the first operational systems being introduced by most major forces during the second half
of the 1950s. Smaller systems, suitable for close-range work, evolved through the 1960s and
1970s, to modern systems that are man-portable. Ship borne systems followed the evolution of
land-based models, starting with long-range weapons and steadily evolving toward smaller
designs to provide a layered defense that have pushed gun-based systems into the shortest-range
roles.
Missiles able to fly longer distances are generally heavier, and therefore less mobile.
This leads to three "natural" classes of SAM systems; heavy long-range systems that are fixed or
semi-mobile, medium-range vehicle-mounted systems that can fire on the move, and short-
range man-portable air-defense systems (MANPADS).
Modern long-range weapons include the Patriot and S-300 (missile) systems, which have
effective ranges on the order of 150 km, and offer relatively good mobility and short unlimbering
times. These compare with older systems with similar or less range, like the MIM-14 Nike
Hercules or S-75 Dvina, which required fixed sites of considerable size. Much of this
performance increase is due to improved rocket fuels and ever-smaller electronics in the
guidance systems. Some very long-range systems remain, notably the Russian S-400, which has
a range of 400 km.
Medium-range designs, like the Rapier and 2K12 Kb, are specifically designed to be
highly mobile with very fast, or zero, setup times. Many of these designs were mounted on
armored vehicles, allowing them to keep pace with mobile operations in a conventional war.
Once major groups onto itself, medium-range designs have seen less development since the
1990s, as the focus has changed to unconventional warfare.
These are also considered to be SAMs, although in practice it is expected that they
would be more widely used against sea skimming missiles rather than aircraft. Virtually all
surface warships can be armed with SAMs, and naval SAMs are a necessity for all front-line
surface warships. Some warship types specialize in anti-air warfare e.g. Ticonderoga-
class cruisers equipped with the Aegis combat system or Kirov class cruisers with the S-
300PMU Favorite missile system. Modern Warships may carry all three types (from long-range
to short-range) of SAMs as a part of their multi-layered air defense.
GUIDANCE SYSTEMS
SAM systems generally fall into two broad groups based on their guidance systems,
those using radar and those using some other means.
Longer range missiles generally use radar for early detection and guidance. Early SAM
systems generally used tracking radars and fed guidance information to the missile using radio
control concepts, referred to in the field as command guidance. Through the 1960s, the semi-
active radar homing (SARH) concept became much more common. In SARH, the reflections of
the tracking radar's broadcasts are picked up by a receiver in the missile, which homes in on this
signal. SARH has the advantage of leaving most of the equipment on the ground, while also
eliminating the need for the ground station to communicate with the missile after launch.
TARGET ACQUISITION
Long-range systems generally use radar systems for target detection, and depending on
the generation of system, may "hand off" to separate tracking radar for attack. Short range
systems are more likely to be entirely visual for detection.
Hybrid systems are also common. The MIM-72 Chaparral was fired optically, but
normally operated with a short range early warning radar that displayed targets to the operator.
This radar, the FAAR, was taken into the field with a Gama Goat and set up behind the lines.
Information was passed to the Chaparral via a data link. Likewise, the UK's Rapier system
included simple radar that displayed the rough direction of a target on a series of lamps arranged
in a circle. The missile operator would point his telescope in that rough direction and then hunt
for the target visually.