Hand out 02 /Basic refrigeration

FUNDAMENTALS
Matter
States of matter and how they relate to each other. Matter exists in four states: solid, liquid, gas, and
plasma. Matter can change states when heat transfer occurs. By heating a liquid you can cause it to
become a gas. For example; water exists in three states, solid (ice), liquid, and gas (evaporated water).
When you heat a block of ice it will melt and become a liquid. When you heat the liquid it turns into a
vapor which can be observed as steam.

Cold
The term "cold" describes a lack of heat, or a condition produced by removing heat. Most people think
of air conditioning and refrigeration as cold, or a cool ing process. However, these systems actually
remove heat from where it is unwanted and carry it away to be discarded. To accomplish the cooling
process, the heat must be removed faster than it enters, just like bailing water from a leaking boat.

Heat travels from hot to cold

Heat is a form of energy and is always in motion. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that heat
always travels from hot to cold. How fast heat travels depends on the temperature difference between
the two objects. The greater the temperature difference, the faster heat travels.

Heat Travel
Heat is transferred from one substance to another

Conduction, Convection and Radiation

  CONDUCTION
Conduction is the transfer of energy through solid matter from particle to particle. Heat is conducted
through a solid material much the same way electricity is. Conduction is slowed by insulation. is the flow
of heat through a substance. Most metals conduct heat very well. Copper and aluminium are excellent
conductors of heat, and these metals are used frequently.

 CONVECTION
Convection is the transfer of heat energy through a gas or liquid by movement of currents. Heat is
carried by the fluid. When warm air comes out of a register, it rises. This action is called thermal
buoyancy. As it cools, it falls. This rising and falling movement is called convection current. Convection
can be interrupted by a physical barrier

 RADIATION
Radiation is electromagnetic waves which directly transport heat energy through space. Sunlight is
radiated through space to our planet without the aid of fluids or solids. Through radiation, the sun
transfers heat through 93 million miles of empty space! Heat energy transferred through radiation can
be interrupted by a material which reflects it.
British thermal unit (BTU)
The definition of a British thermal unit is: The amount of heat required to change the temperature of one
pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. It is important to know this definition because just like a ruler
measures distance, and a pound measures weight, a BTU measures heat.

Three Physical States of Matter

Most substances can exist in three physical states: solid, liquid, or gas. As heat is added or removed, the
substance will change temperature, or physical state. When a substance changes from one physical
state to another, the temperature does not change until all the molecules are rearranged to the new
physical state. The same amounts of Btu’s are required whether adding or removing heat.
Sensible heat
Sensible heat causes a change of temperature, but no change of state. If heat is added and the
temperature rises, it is sensible heat. Likewise, if heat is removed and the temperature changes, it is
sensible heat.

Latent heat
Latent heat causes a change of state, but no temperature change. During a change of state, the
temperature remains constant until the change of state is completed. As shown, when ice is melting to
water, the temperature remains at 32°F (0°C) until the last bit of ice melts.

Latent heat (Btu/lb)

Latent heat of evaporation is where the action is, and high numbers are best. A good refrigerant should
have a low boiling/condensing point, and high latent heat values (Btu's per lb). Water would be an
excellent refrigerant because it has the high numbers, but it also boils at 212°F, which is not good.
Ammonia is a much better refrigerant because it has the high Btu's/lb, and boils at -28°F. However,
ammonia can be dangerous. Therefore, we choose refrigerants that are safe, low boiling points, and not
quite so high numbers.
Sublimation
Sublimation describes the process where a solid bypasses the liquid state and changes directly to a
vapor. Dry ice, or frozen CO2, is a good example of sublimation.

Four latent heat

Heat must be added or removed to cause a change of state. Four terms are used to describe the
different changes of state.
Melting and Freezing point
The melting or freezing point of a substance always occurs at the same temperature, but the
temperature is different for each substance. Water, for example, always freezes at 32°F (0°C), and
ammonia always freezes at -107°F (-77°C).

The same amount of heat energy is involved in a change of state, whether heat is being added or
removed. The same amount of Btu's are required to freeze one pound of water as it does to melt one
pound of ice. This is true of all substances

Boiling or Condensing
The boiling or condensing point of a substance al ways occurs at the same temperature. Exactly the
same amount of heat energy is involved, regardless of whether heat is being added or removed. It
requires the same amount of heat energy to boil one pound of water as it does to condense one pound
of steam. This is true of all substances.

Super Heat

Any temperature above the saturation point of a substance is called superheat. Superheated means
sensible heat was added after the substance became a gas. The steam shown here has been
superheated 5 degrees Fahrenheit to a temperature of 217°F.
Our atmosphere is composed of superheated gases because their boiling points are well below zero at
atmospheric pressure.

Heat Units

The most common units for heat are

 BTU (Btu) - British Thermal Unit

 Calorie
 Joule BTU -
British Thermal Unit
The unit of heat in the imperial system - the BTU - is

 The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through 1 oF
(58.5oF - 59.5oF) at sea level (30 inches of mercury).
 1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 1055.06 J = 107.6 kpm = 2.931 10-4 kWh = 0.252 kcal = 778.16 ft.lbf
= 1.0551010 ergs = 252 cal = 0.293 watt-hours an item
using one kilowatt-hour of electricity generates 3412 Btu.

Calorie

A calorie is commonly defined as

 the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water 1oC
  the kilogram calorie, large calorie, food calorie, Calorie (capital C) or just calorie (lowercase c) is
the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree
Celsius
 1 kcal = 4186.8 J = 426.9 kp.m = 1.163 10-3 kWh = 3.088 ft.lbf = 3.9683 Btu = 1000 cal
Be aware that alternative definitions exists - in short:

 Thermo chemical calorie

 4 °C calorie
 15 °C calorie
 20 °C calorie
 Mean calorie
 International Steam Table calorie (1929)
 International Steam Table calorie (1956)

IUNS calorie (Committee on Nomenclature of the International Union of Nutritional Sciences)

The calorie is outdated and commonly replaced by the SI-unit Joule.

Joule
The unit of heat in the SI-system the Joule is

 a unit of energy equal to the work done when a force of one ne wton acts through a distance of
one meter
 4.184 joule of heat energy (or one calorie) is required to raise the temperature of a unit weight
(1 g) of water from 0oC to 1oC, or from 32oF to 33.8oF
 1 J (Joule) = 0.1020 kpm = 2.778 10-7 kWh = 2.389 10-4 kcal = 0.7376 ft.lbf = 1 kg.m2/s2 = 1 watt
second = 1 Nm = 1 ft.lb = 9.478 10-4 Btu
Heat flow rate units
(1) J/sec (second) (2)
Cal/min (calary for minutes) (3)
B.T.U./hr ( B.T.U. for hour) (4)
TR (Ton of refrigeration)

Ton of refrigeration
Cooling capacity of an air conditioner or refrigerator equal to 12,000 British thermal units (Btu) per hour
200 Btu per minute and denotes the amount of heat required to melt one ton of ice in 24 hours.
1 refrigeration ton = 1 TONScond = 12,000 Btu/h = 3,025.9 k Calories/h = 12,661 kJ/h
Temperature
Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot
and cold. Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are
referred to as warm or hot. Quantitatively, temperature is measured with thermometers, which may be
calibrated to a variety of temperature scales.

Temperature Units

(1) Celsius (C) (2)

Fahrenheit (F) (3) Kelvin
(K) (4) Rankin (R)

Thermometer
A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient using a variety of
different principles. [1] A thermometer has two important elements: the temperature sensor (e.g. the
bulb on a mercury thermometer) in which some physical change occurs with temperature, plus some
means of converting this physical change into a value (e.g. the scale on a mercury thermometer).
Thermometers increasingly use electronic means to provide a digital display or input to a computer.
1/ Liquid thermometer

2/ Analog thermometer

3/ Digital thermometer

Liquid thermometer

Liquid-in-glass thermometer: glass tube filled with liquid (often mercury or alcohol) that
expands/contracts with air temperature

Analog thermometer

Analog thermometer is clock display with one needle for indicate temperature and sensor tube.

Digital thermometer
Digital thermometers are a quick, simple and effective way of obtaining temperature information.
Whether you are checking body temperature for illness, meat temperature to ensure safe cooking, or
outdoor temperature to see how hot those summer months are or how cold the winter chil l is.

Introduction to Heat Transfer

This book deals with heat transfer in the engineering context, particularly for chemical and
mechanical engineers. It includes the basic physics and technology which is used for heating and
cooling in industry. Of course, the principles may be applied in other fields if appropriate, and
engineers may deal with new technology quite unlike traditional ones. It is intended as a
beginning text for first or second year engineering degree students.

If you add to or amend this (and you are most welcome) please do so either by careful reference
to an authoritative textbook, or on the basis of your trustworthy professional experience, if you
have this.

Here is a quick run through some basics, which will be covered in more detail in subsequent
chapters.

Contents
o

Basic Concepts

Heat transfer in engineering consists of the transfer of enthalpy because of a temperature

difference. Enthalpy is the name for heat energy, to distinguish it from other sorts, such as kinetic
energy, pressure energy, useful work. There has to be a temperature difference, or no heat
transfer occurs.

(If we insist on moving enthalpy from a cold body to a hotter one, we will have to do extra work,
as in the case of a refrigerator. This invariably involves some other process, such as mechanical
work, and cooling by expansion of gases, but within the overall activity heat transfer always goes
from the hotter to the cooler.)

The temperature difference is called the driving force. Other things being equal, a greater
temperature difference will give a greater rate of heat transfer.
Temperature

Temperature is an intensive property: that is it does not depend on the amount of substance. Thus
one kilogram of copper at 80 °C and 12 kg of copper at 80 °C both have the same temperature.
Note that unless we are dealing with radiated heat, it is not normally necessary to change these
values to the Absolute Temperature scale. The Celsius temperature is simply defined as the
number of kelvin above 273.15 K. If we wish to calculate heat transfer from these blocks of
copper to water at 20 °C, it is quite adequate to say the temperature difference is 80 °C - 20 °C =
60 K. We get the same answer with more effort by saying it is 353 – 293 = 60 K. (As I am
working to the nearest degree, I have omitted the 0.15 K). Temperatures may be given on the
Absolute or Celsius temperature scales, but temperature differences should be given in kelvin.

Enthalpy

Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy stored in a thermodynamic system. It includes the
internal energy, which is a function of temperature, and the amount of energy required to make
room for it by displacing its environment and establishing its volume and pressure.

The enthalpy is the preferred expression of system energy changes in many chemical, biological,
and physical measurements, because it simplifies certain descriptions of energy transfer. This is
because a change in enthalpy takes account of energy transferred to the environment through the
expansion of the system under study.

Enthalpy is a state property: the enthalpy of a system depends on measurable properties of the
system, but not on the history of the system.

Enthalpy is an extensive property: it depends on the amount of substance. Thus 12 kg of copper

at 80 °C will have 12 times the enthalpy of one kilogram of the same substance at the same
temperature. However, we generally express enthalpy (more properly specific enthalpy) per unit
mass. The unit of measurement for enthalpy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule,
but other historical, conventional units are still in use, such as the British thermal unit and the
calorie. The specific enthalpy hence has units of J/kg, or BTU/lb.

The total enthalpy, H, of a system cannot be measured directly. Thus, change in enthalpy, ΔH, is
a more useful quantity than its absolute value. ΔH of a system is equal to the sum of non-
mechanical work done on it and the heat supplied to it. If a body passes from a thermodynamic
state A to a thermodynamic state B at the same pressure as A, the heat transferred to the
environment is given by: Q = ΔH = Hend − Hstart Coupled systems, where heat transfer produces
changes in pressure or volume (and vice versa) will be treated later in the text.

Tables and graphs are available listing the specific enthalpy of many materials at various
thermodynamic states.

For each table, a reference state is chosen. The given enthalpy can be understood as the amount
of energy which would have to be put into the system to raise it from a reference temperature
(more precisely, a reference state). For water, a common reference state is 0 °C, atmospheric
pressure, with all the water in the liquid phase.

The standard state for copper is solid. The standard state for oxygen is gas. As a guide, the
standard state is the phase the material would have at normal laboratory conditions of
temperature and pressure. However, various engineering disciplines have their own conventions.

At 80 °C, water (at atmospheric pressure) has a specific enthalpy of 391.7 kJ/kg. Therefore one
kilogram of liquid water at 80 °C would have an enthalpy of 391.7 kJ, and 7.3 kg would have an
enthalpy of 7.3 x 391.7 = 2584 kJ.

There are two components to enthalpy, one due to the temperature, another to the phase. For
example, from the above table, liquid water at 100 °C has a specific enthalpy of 419.1 kJ/kg, but
steam at 100 °C has a specific enthalpy of 2675.4 kJ/kg – quite a lot more! The difference,
2257.9 kJ/kg is the enthalpy which has to be put into water to change it from a liquid to a vapour.
This quantity is called the enthalpy of vaporization of water, or the latent heat of steam. “Latent”
means hidden, because the steam is not hotter than the water, but has all this hidden energy to
give up if it condenses.

Note that this phenomenon is not restricted to boiling. Water at a temperature of 37 °C has a
specific enthalpy of vaporization of 2414 kJ/kg: this heat is taken up if it evaporates at that
temperature, which is why sweating cools you down.

Similarly, when ice at 0 °C melts to water at 0 °C it requires the input of heat to match its latent
heat of melting, or enthalpy of crystallization.

Thus (according to this convention) liquid water at 0 °C has zero enthalpy. Ice at the same
temperature has a negative enthalpy. Other tables may give enthalpy relative to Absolute Zero,
0.0 K, or to a laboratory temperature of 298 K.

Chemical engineers sometimes use the ambient temperature (i.e. the temperature of the
surroundings) as a reference condition – perhaps 10 °C in a cold country, 30 °C in a hot country.
This means that all material stored or added to a system at ambient temperature has zero enthalpy
and they only have to worry about things that are hotter or colder. This can simplify the energy
balance.

Heat capacity or specific heat

If we have to heat something up (without a phase change), for example 12 kg of copper from 20
°C to 80 °C, the amount of enthalpy we have to put in depends on three things.

(1) The temperature difference to be achieved, in this case 60 K.

(2) The mass, in this case 12 kg.

(3) A property of the substance called specific heat capacity, which is a measure of how much
energy is required to raise the temperature of 1 kg by 1 K.

So, we have: H = mcp ΔT

The subscript p remembers that the value of specific heat capacity is valid only if the
transformation takes place at constant pressure. In practice, only for gases there's a relevant
difference between constant-pressure specific heat and specific heat for other transformations
(e.g. constant volume, polythropics...). Solids and liquids have only one value of specific heat
capacity. For example, copper has a specific heat capacity of 0.383 kilojoules per kilogram per
kelvin (0.383 kJ kg-1 K-1 ). Therefore we have to put in 0.383 x 12 x 60 = 276 kJ.

If on the other hand, we had to heat up 12 kg of water from 20 °C to 80 °C, we would use the
specific heat capacity of water, 4.184 kJ kg-1 K -1 , and our calculation would be: 4.184 x 12 x 60
= 3012 kJ.

Note that these terms tend to be used loosely. What is properly the specific heat capacity is often
referred to as the specific heat or the heat capacity. If in doubt, look at the units. Technically the
heat capacity refers to the whole body, the specific heat capacity to a mass – in the SI system
one kilogram. In thermodynamic tables, data is sometimes given per mole or kilomole instead of
per kilogram, especially for gases. You may also come across older data in which the obsolete
unit the calorie (= 4.184 J) is used and the mass is one gram. Sorry, but you will have to convert.
Always look at the units.

The definition of specific heat capacity allows to write, for a pressure-constant transformation: Q
= ΔH = mcp ΔT

Pressure-constant transformations in heat transfer problems, are often heat exchanges between a
fluid and other fluids or solids, e.g. in a heat exchanger. In these cases, mass m is not constant,
because it's flowing. So, we have to refer not to mass, but to mass flow rate , and not to
energy Q but to power . Hence:

A simple calculation

Suppose 15 kg of copper at 80 °C is put into a bath of 25 kg of water at 20 °C, and there are no
heat losses to the surrounding. What will be the final condition?

Answer Both the copper and the water will have the same temperature, somewhere between 20
°C and 80 °C. The total enthalpy will be unchanged.

Let us take the reference condition as 20 °C. Thus the water has zero enthalpy, and the copper
has 15 x (80-20) x 0.383 = 344.7 kJ. This is the enthalpy of the system.
Now the total heat capacity of the system is (mass x specific heat capacity of copper) + (mass x
specific heat capacity of water) = (15 x 0.383) + (25 x 4.184) = 5.75 + 104.6 = 110.4 kJ K -1

In other words, it would take 110.4 kJ of enthalpy to raise the temperature of the whole system
by 1 K (= 1°C).

Therefore adding 344.7 kJ of enthalpy would raise the temperature of the system by 344.7 ÷
110.4 = 3.1 K, so the final temperature would be 23.1 °C.

Looking at this a different way, we can see that the specific heat capacity of water is 4.184 ÷
0.383 = 10.92 times greater. Thus 15 kg of copper has the heat capacity of only 15 ÷ 10.92 =
1.37 kg of water. Thus adding this amount of water to 25 kg would dilute the 60 K temperature
difference as 60 x 1.37 ÷ 26.37 = 3.1 K.

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

There are three modes of Heat Transfer: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation. Conduction is
concerned with the transfer of thermal energy through a material without bulk motion of the
material. This phenomenon is fundamentally a diffusion process that occurs at the microscopic
level. Convection is concerned with the transfer of thermal energy in a moving fluid (liquid or
gas). Convection is characterized by two physical principles, conduction (diffusion) and bulk
fluid motion (advection). The bulk fluid motion can be caused by an external force, for example,
a fan, or may be due to buoyancy effects. Finally, Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy
through electro-magnetic waves (or photons). It is interesting to note that Radiation requires no
medium.

Conduction

Conduction is the diffusion of thermal energy i.e., the movement of thermal energy from regions
of higher temperature to regions of lower temperature. On a microscopic level, this occurs due to
the passing energy through molecular vibrations.

Rate of Heat transfer is denoted as . The units of heat transfer rate arewatts. It should be noted
that heat transfer rate is a vector quantity. It is often convenient to describe heat transfer rate in
terms of the geometry being studied. Thus we define , , and as the heat transfer rate
per unit length, area (a.k.a. heat flux), and volume, respectively. It is useful to note that different
conventions are often used with notation, and heat flux (heat transfer rate per unit area) is often
denoted by .

Nice to know:

The governing rate equation for conduction is given by Fouriers Law. For one dimension,
Fourier's law is expressed as:
or

Where x is the direction of interest, A is the cross-sectional area normal to x, k is a

proportionality constant known as thermal conductivity and is the temperature gradient at

the location of interest. The negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature.

The thermal conductivity is a measure of how readily a material conducts heat. Materials with
high conductivity, such as metals, will readily conduct heat even at low temperature gradients.
Materials with low conductivity, such as asbestos, will resist heat transfer and are often referred
to as insulators..

Convection

Convection is the transfer of thermal energy between a solid and a moving fluid. If the fluid is
not in motion (its Nusselt number is 1), the problem can be classified as Conduction. Convection
is governed by two phenomenon. The movement of energy due to molecular vibrations and
large-scale motion of fluid particles. In general, Convection is of two types, Forced Convection
and Free Convection.

Forced Convection occurs when a fluid is forced to flow. For example, a fan blowing air over a
heat exchanger is an example of Forced Convection. In Free Convection, the bulk fluid motion is
due to buoyancy effects. For example, a vertical heated plate surrounded by quiescent air causes
the air surrounding it to be heated. Because hot air has a lower density than cold air, the hot air
rises. The void is filled by cold air and the cycle continues.

The governing rate equation for Convection is given by Newton's Law of Cooling:

where h is the heat transfer coefficient, Ts is the surface temperature of the solid, and is the
temperature of the fluid far from the surface. This expression, in spite of its name, is not law.
Rather, it is an empirical expression of proportionality of the heat flux and the temperature
difference between the solid and the fluid. The heat transfer coefficient is typically determined
by experiment. Correlations for heat transfer coefficient for various kinds of flows have been
determined and are documented in literature.
Radiation

It is phenomena in which,the transfer of heat between two objects without contact between them.
Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy between two objects through electro-magnetic waves.
Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy between two objects through electro-magnetic waves.
Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not require a medium. In general, gasses do
not take part in radiation heat transfer.

Radiation is based on the fact that all objects of finite temperature, i.e. not absolute zero, emit
radiation in the form of electro-magnetic waves. These waves travel until they impinge another
object. The second object in turn either absorbs, reflects, or transmits the energy. It should be
noted that if the second object is of a finite temperature, it is also emitting radiation.

A basic fact of radiation is that the heat of radiation is proportional to the fourth power of the
temperature of the radiating source. The heat loss is related to the emissivity ε of the material by
the equation:

An idealized material called a black body has an emissivity of 1. A is the surface area of the
radiating object and sigma is a constant 5.670x10 − 8 W / (m2 K4 )