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Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Components of the strain tensor related to deformation
4.3. Two-Dimensional Analysis of the Strain Tensor
4.4. State of deformation in a plane in arbitrary directions
4.5. Measurement of Strain
4
Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.1. Introduction
The displacement of the material points inside a solid body or a liquid mass may
be a consequence of a rigid body motion or of a deformation. Motion is generally
caused by force that is the consequence by acceleration. Deformation is almost always a
consequence of internal forces, temperature variation or the retraction of a concrete
mass during the curing process.
The deformation is always effected by the displacement, because the way material
deforms will influences the way the internal forces are distributed inside the body,
unless the case under consideration fits into the rare category of fully statically
determinate problems.
F1
F1
Motion
Displacement Deformation
F
F22 ma
5
Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.1. Introduction
In the non-homogeneous deformation, the same infinitesimal length, ds in parallel,
deform to various rotations and elongations in the different line segments. The
homogeneous deformation is rare; it occurs in a body with isostatic supports under a
uniform temperature variation or in an non-slender member under constant axial force.
Non-homogeneous deformation
Homogeneous deformation
6
Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.1. Introduction
Under the action of applied forces, the points of the solid move. As a result, for
infinitesimal fibers of matter, variations in length and variations in angle are called
(elongations and angular variations) deformations.
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Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.1. Introduction
In infinitesimal deformations, there are the elongation and the angular variation
of what were initially right-angles between the line segments. The elongation of
infinitesimal segment causes the longitudinal strain and the angular variation induces
the shearing strain.
s ' s
avg
s
s ' s
lim
B A along n s
s ' 1 s
8
Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.1. Introduction
' xy xy ' yz yz ' zx zx
2 2 2 9
Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.2. Components of the strain tensor related to deformation
In a rectangular Cartesian reference, there are three longitudinal strains and
three shearing strains to define the state of deformation around a point.
The initial position of the material points of the body is described by the coordinates
x, y, z of the point P and its displacement is defined by vector PP ' with components u, v, w
in the reference directions x, y, z, respectively.
P ( x, y , z )
P '( x u, y v, z w)
u u x, y , z ; v v x, y , z ; w w x, y , z
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Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.2. Components of the strain tensor related to deformation
P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and P1 ( x0 dx, y0 , z0 )
P '0 ( x0 u0 , y0 v0 , z0 w0 )
P '1 ( x0 dx u1 , y0 v1 , z0 w1 )
u
u1 u 0 du u0 dx
x
v
v1 v0 dv v0 dx
x
w
w1 w0 dw w 0 dx
x
x0 dx u1 x0 u0
P '0 P '1 : y0 v1 y0 v0
z w z w
P '0 P '1 P0 P1 P '0 P '1 dx 0 1 0 0
x
P0 P1 dx u u
dx u dx u dx dx
x
0 0
P '0 P '1 1 x dx x
v v
v0 dx v0 dx
x x
w w
w0 dx w0 dx
x x
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Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.2. Components of the strain tensor related to deformation
u v w
2 2 2
P'
2
1 x
2
0 P '1 dx dx dx dx
2
dx
x x x
2 2 2
u u v w
1 2 x 1 2
2
x
x x x x
u 1 u v w
2 2 2
x2
x
2 x 2 x x x
In the same way, the expressions relating strains in the directions y and z to the
displacement functions may be established yielding:
v 1 u v w
2 2 2
y2
y
2 y 2 y y y
w 1 u v w
2 2 2
z2
z
2 z 2 z z z
12
Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.2. Components of the strain tensor related to deformation
In the same way, the expressions relating strains in the directions y and z to the
displacement functions may be established yielding:
u
1 x dx
v
P '0 P '1 : dx
x
w
x dx
u
y dy
v
P '0 P '2 : 1 dy
y
w
dy
y
P0 P1 dx and P0 P2 dy
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Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.2. Components of the strain tensor related to deformation
The scalar product of vectors P '0 P '1 and P '0 P '2 may be expressed by:
u u v v w w
1 dx dy dx 1 dy dx dy 1 x dx 1 y dy cos xy
x y x y x y 2
u u u v v v w w
1 x 1 y sin xy
y x y x x y x y
u v u u v v w w
y x x y x y x y
sin xy
1 x 1 y a b a . b .cos
In the same way, the distortions θxz and θyz may be related to the derivatives of the
displacement functions:
u w u u v v w w
sin xz z x x z x z x z
1 x 1 z
u w u u v v w w
z y y z y z y z
sin yz
1 y 1 z
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Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.2. Components of the strain tensor related to deformation
In structural Engineering the longitudinal and shearing strains are small enough
2
to be considered as infinitesimal quantities, which allows the simplifications ,
2
, sin and makes it possible to disregard the strains.
u 1 u v w
2 2 2
x
x 2 x x x
u v u u v v w w
xy xy 2 xy
y x x y x y x y
Furthermore, if the rotations are sufficiently small to be considered as infinitesimal
quantities, the squares and the products of the derivatives may be disregarded.
u xy 1 u v
xy
x
x 2 2 y x
v xz 1 u w
y and xz
y 2 2 z x
w yz 1 v w
z yz
z
2 2 z y
15
Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.3. Two-Dimensional Analysis of the Strain Tensor
In the same way as in the case of the stress tensor, a two-dimensional analysis of the
strain tensor can also be performed, if one of the principal directions is known. If the
principal strain associated with this direction is zero, we have a state of plane strain.
u
x
z 0 x
v
xz zx 0 y
0 y
yz zy
u v
xy
y x
xy x y
16
Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.4. State of deformation in a plane in arbitrary directions
The homogeneous deformation of a rectangle may be defined by the elongation of its
sides (Δdx & Δdy) and by the variation of the initially right-angle between two sides (γxy).
dx x .dx
dx y .dy
x x .dx y .dy
y y .dy x .dx
dx ds.cos
dy ds.sin
xy 2. xy x y
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Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.4. State of deformation in a plane in arbitrary directions
Consider an infinitesimal line segment with infinitesimal length ds and orientation
defined by the angle θ, measured from axis x in the positive direction (from x to y). The
elongation in the direction of ds of line segment is:
ds x .cos y .sin
x .dx.cos y .dy.cos y .dy.sin x .dx.sin
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Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.4. State of deformation in a plane in arbitrary directions
The rotation β of the line segment ds is obtained as follow:
t dx dy dy dx
x . .sin y . .sin y . .cos x . .cos
ds ds ds ds ds
y x .cos .sin y .sin 2 x .cos 2
The rotation β’ in the line segment ds’, which make a right-angle with ds is obtained
as follow (which mean ' ):
2
' y x .cos .sin y .sin 2 x .cos 2
2 2 2 2
y x .cos .sin y .sin 2 x .cos 2
The double shearing strain γθ between the directions defined by the angles and
' is then given by:
2
' y x .2.cos .sin x y . cos 2 sin 2
x y .sin 2 xy .cos 2
xy
xy
x y
.sin 2
xy
.cos 2
2 2 2
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Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.4. State of deformation in a plane in arbitrary directions
The normal strain and shearing strain in a plane x’y’, which is have an oblique
angle θ from x to x’ in positive direction (counterclockwise), are defined as following:
x y x y xy x y x y
x ' 2 2 .cos 2 2 .sin 2 2 2 .cos 2 xy .sin 2
x y x y xy x y x y
y' .cos 2 .sin 2 .cos 2 xy .sin 2
2 2 2 2 2
x' y' x y xy x y
x' y' .sin 2 .cos 2 .sin 2 xy .cos 2
2 2 2 2
20
Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.4. State of deformation in a plane in arbitrary directions
Mohr’s Circle of the strains would be drawn as follow :
x y x y
x' .cos 2 xy .sin 2
2 2
2 2
x y x y x y x y
2 2
y' .cos 2 xy .sin 2 x' x' y' xy
2 2 2 2
x y
x' y' .sin 2 xy .cos 2
2
where:
2
x y x y
2
Avg ; R xy
2 2
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Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.4. State of deformation in a plane in arbitrary directions
Principal directions and principal strains :
- Principal normal strains :
Direction angles :
1 2 xy
2 arctan
x y
1 or 2
1 arctan 2 xy
2 x y 2
Principal values :
2
x y x y
2
1 or 2 xy
2 2
xy
xy
xy ,max
2
3 or 4 2
1 arctan y x 2
2 2 xy 2 22
Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.5. Measurement of Strain
The strain is commonly measure by the strain gage which is an electrical resistance
strain gage. It measures strain based on the change in resistance of the wire as the object
is strained. When a wire is strained, the wire’s resistance changes according to change in
the wire’s diameter (A), length (L), and resistivity (ρ):
.L
R
A
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Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.5. Measurement of Strain
The changes in resistance of the strain gages are most easily measured by a
Wheatstone Bridge.
Vmeas RG R3
Vin RG R2 R1 R3
Quarter-Bridge Circuit
x a
x a
1
y 2 b 2 c a
y b 3
2 2
xy b a c
xy b c
3
25
Chapter 4: Strain and Deformation
4.5. Measurement of Strain
Application of Bridge Circuit to find a strain gage:
- Quarter-Bridge Circuit Strain Gage
Vmeas GF . 1
Vin 4 1 GF .
2
Vmeas VO GF . Vmeas VO
GF .
Vin VEx 2 Vin VEx
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Reference
[1]. Economic Committee of World Steel Association (2016). Steel
Statistical Yearbook 2016. World Steel Association: Brussels, Belgium.
[2] Silva V.D. (2006). Mechanics and Strength of Materials. Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg: The Netherland.
[3] Timoshenko S. (1940). Strength of Materials-Part I: Elementary
Theory and Problem. D. Van Nostrand Company, INC.: New York, USA.
[4] Vong Seng (2007-2008). Résistance des Matériaux (R.D.M.). Institut
de Technologie du Cambodge
[5] Svetlana L.M., Angel M. & Dimitrina K. P. (2014). Strength of
Materials. University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy.
[6]. Jessica G. Rosette Strain Gages & Wheatstone Bridge. Retrieve
from: “ http://user.engineering.uiowa.edu/~bme_158/problems/rosette
ANDwheatsone.pdf ”.
[7]. Several images are gotten from Google.com
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