The Role of Syrian Refugees in the Sharing Economy and Technology Sector in Germany:

A Neoliberal Approach to Integration and Empowerment

by

Emma Grace Smith

Program in International Comparative Studies

Duke University

Date: 17 April 2016

Dr. Lori Leachman, Supervisor

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for graduation with

distinction in the Program in International Comparative Studies of Duke University
  

Acknowledgements

To Dr. Leachman – thank you for accompanying me on this journey starting two whole years ago.
You have patiently helped me to transform my wandering thoughts into academic ideas and
arguments. Your faith in my abilities brought me to this final result. Meanwhile, your artist spirit,
economist mind, colorful personality, and insight have never stopped inspiring me. You have left a
lasting mark on my Duke trajectory and my life as an advisor, mentor, and friend, and I hope this
thesis reflects that.

To Professor Settle – thank you for the calmness, kindness, and peace each time I walk into your
office or classroom. Thank you for everything from your stories in ICS 495 to showing me the birds
out of the window in Academic Advising to pushing my counter points further and further. Your
grounding presence is just what every thesis student needs. Thank you for being a rock for me, and
all of us.

To my new entrepreneur and Syrian friends in Germany - thank you for near-missing your trains for
an extra second on the phone with me, for brainstorming, reflecting and remembering, and for
sending me articles and information relevant to my work. You are the heart of this research, and I’m
so grateful for your contributions.

Thank you to all my family and friends for your unwavering support for and contribution to this

entire thesis-writing experience.

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Dedication:

To my Palestinian countrymate, my Yemeni sister, my favorite Israeli solider: your personal stories

of displacement led me to this topic. This work is for you.

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Contents

Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………...2

Dedication………...……………………………………………………………………………..3

Abstract………...……………………………………………………………………………......6

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….…7

Crisis Discourse and Dependency-Creating Aid Structures…………………………….8

Research Questions and Argument…………………………….……………………….12

Methodology……………………………………………………………………………16

Neoliberalism, Globalization, and Migration Theory…………………………………..17

Thesis Overview ……………………………………………………………………….24

1. Background: Syrian Refugees, Germany, and Social Entrepreneurship……………….26

1.1 The Humanitarian Imperative and Utilitarianism…………………………………..26

1.2 Syrian Refugees as Boon instead of Burden………………………………………..28

1.3 Syrian Displacement………………………………………………………………..29

1.4 Demographics of the Syrian Refugee Population…………………………………..36

1.5 Germany as a Host Country……………………………………………………...…40

1.5.1 Willkommenskultur Culture………………………………………………41

1.5.2 The German Economy……………….……………………………………44

1.5.3 The Aging German Population ……………….…………………………..47

1.6 Opportunities in Social Entrepreneurship…………………………………………...47

1.7 Conclusion……………….………………………………………………………….49

2. The Sharing Economy………………………………………………………………………51

2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………51

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2.2 Origins and Overview of the Sharing Economy …………………………………...53

2.3 Principles of the Sharing Economy…………………………………………………57

2.3.1 The Creation of Reciprocal Economic Value……………………………..58

2.3.2 Making Use of Underutilized Assets……………….……………………..61

2.3.3 Exchanges Within a Community ……………….………………………...64

2.4.4 Facilitating Transactions through Increased Accessibility ……………….67

2.4 Conclusion……………….………………………………………………………….70

3. How the Technology Sector Can Serve Syrian Refugees………………………………….72

3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..72

3.2 A Growing Start-Up Culture in Germany………………..…………………………..74

3.3 Case Studies: Syrian Refugees in the Technology Sector……………………………75

3.4 Conclusion………..…………………………………………………………………..89

Final Conclusion……………….…………………………………………………………………90

Appendix A………………………………………………………………………………………..95

Appendix B………………………………………………………………………………………..98

Works Cited……………………………………………………………………………………….101

Endnotes………………………………………………………………………………………..…106

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Abstract
From January through December of 2015, Germany accepted nearly one million refugees.

Though arriving with diverse skillsets and past experiences, nearly half of these refugees share one

thing in common: they are Syrian. As the influx of Syrians in Germany represented a larger trend of

what was happening throughout Europe during this time, it seemed fitting to study their case for this

thesis. This study sets out to answer these questions, as well as to explore solutions that give

refugees agency to contribute to their own advancement and integration. Over the course of three

months, twelve refugees were interviewed and fifteen were surveyed to produce the results for this

work. To this end, the work presented here suggests the existing dependency-creating aid structure

must be changed to give agency to refugees. Such changes improve integration of refugees and

enable them to contribute in a meaningful way to their host communities. The three chapters in this

work will narrow in on this topic. Chapter One will go on to provide further background and

context about Syrian refugees, German policies and practices as they relate to integration, and the

field of social entrepreneurship. Chapter Two argues that the sharing economy can be used to help

Syrian refugees integrate into their communities in Germany. Chapter Three argues that that the

technology sector can be used to improve the integration of Syrian refugees in Germany.

Comprehensively, this research contributes to a growing field of work around how refugees can

serve as economic boon instead of burden.

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Introduction
In August 2015, Germany announced a new policy that received overwhelming approval by

two-thirds of the country’s voters, that is, to offer refuge to asylum seekers.i A beneficiary of this

policy, Bidal Majeed, fleeing violence in his home country of Syria, arrived by minivan later that

month to a small town called Passau, on the German-Austrian border. Twenty-six-years-old, Bidal

is a graduate of English literature and the humanities from the University of Damascus, and

previously worked in office management. He was among the thousands of people arriving in

Germany to start a new life. “The local people were staring at us in wonder”ii, Bidal describes the

scene as he, his brother, and fifteen other refugees climbed out of a van, stepping onto German soil

for the first time. The Germans who greeted Bidal then helped him and his brother to buy train

tickets to Berlin and showed them the way to the train station. “It was all something new and

exciting for us,”iii Bidal reflects.

From January through December of 2015, Germany accepted nearly one million refugees

like Bidal.iv Though arriving with diverse skillsets and past experiences, nearly half of these

refugees share one thing in common: they are Syrian.v As the influx of Syrians in Germany

represented a larger trend of what was happening throughout Europe during this time, it seemed

fitting to study their case for this thesis. The work herein seeks to understand what happened to

refugees like Bidal after his train reached Berlin. How were they supported? Were they empowered

to assimilate? How were these diversely skilled individuals contributing to German society? How

did they find agency to create a new life? Were they given resources or training to help them adapt

and add value to the German community? If not, how can this be accomplished?

This study sets out to answer these questions, as well as to explore solutions that give

refugees agency to contribute to their own advancement and integration. To this end, the work

presented here suggests the existing dependency-creating aid structure must be changed to give
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agency to refugees. Such changes improve integration of refugees and enable them to contribute in

a meaningful way to their host communities.

Crisis Discourse and Dependency-Creating Aid Structures

Since Bidal’s arrival in August, the mass influx of refugees in Europe has been termed a

“refugee crisis.” Media headlines and world leaders alike have used this phrase repeatedly. As a

result, the words “refugees” and “Europe” are often associated with the word “crisis.” When

searching in the New York Times’s archive for the keywords, “refugee crisis,” nearly 5,000 articles

appear. The ubiquitous appearance of these words in such a venerated medium is notable. Figure 1

shows a search in The Guardian for the word “refugee”, in which the word “crisis” appears multiple

times. Teun van Dijk, professor of language at the Universitat Pompeu Fabra, notes that “recipients

tend to accept beliefs, knowledge, and opinions through discourse from what they see as

authoritative, trustworthy, or credible sources”.vi In other words, when leading media sources, such

as the New York Times and the Guardian, call the refugee situation a “crisis,” they instill in its many

readers and viewers the belief that it is.

Fig. 1. A search of leading news site The Guardian with key suggestions and word pairings for the word

“refugee.” The word “crisis” comes up multiple times.vii

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Crisis is defined as “a time of intense difficulty, trouble, or danger”.viii This definition of

crisis can be broken down into two parts. First, it refers to an interval or a moment in “time.”

Second, it refers to “trouble,” connoting a negative situation. As “crisis” is the principle word used

to connect “refugees” and “Europe,” it is no surprise that the arrival of refugees in Europe has come

to be viewed as a discrete and difficult event. As a result, as researcher Tamsin Murray-Leach

writes in his work, Crisis Discourses in Europe, “It is this crisis-discourse that determines how the

‘crisis’ is perceived and, therefore, prescribes and restricts where and by whom solutions are to be

found.”ix Marxist philosopher and professor of philosophy Louis Althusser argues that under

capitalism “(ideas) are elicited through non-government organizations that entwine with the

government in civil society, most notably the media, trade unions, charities, and political parties”.x

These organizations that convey the word “crisis” are the same ones that produce societal ideas.

Althusser and other scholars emphasize the importance of language in shaping meaning and action.

We understand then that the manner in which refugees have been treated and the solutions they

have been offered has been in response to the media’s “crisis” language.

The language of crisis inaccurately portrays the situation, however, and may contribute to

the unsuitable solutions offered to refugees. On average, a refugee is uprooted from his or her life

for 17 years.xi However, due to the nature of the word “crisis,” global actors such as government

and non-governmental organizations, address the refugee situation as though it exists in a single

moment of time, hindering long-term visions and planning. This is an unhelpful response as Miriam

Ticktin writes, “Actions and interventions in the name of the moral imperative – even when

grounded by a belief in a universal humanity – take place as exceptions, performed in situations of

crisis or with the rhetoric of emergency, when there is no other recourse”.xii Addressing the situation

at hand as though it were an exception therefore fails to consider the refugees’ need for long-term

solutions.
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According to the second part of the definition, refugees as a group in “crisis” connotes a

situation that is “difficult, trouble[some] or danger[ous]”.xiii However, that is a misnomer as there

are many positive cultural, economic, and social benefits of refugees, which the crisis discourse

may cause us to overlook. Dijk notes that this kind of discourse can by itself produce social

inequalityxiv as it creates a false image of who the refugee is, which accordingly affects how he or

she will be treated.

Given the vocabulary, it is not surprising that refugees have come to be seen as a burden,

particularly economically, on their host communities. This is exemplified by the humanitarian

structures in place to receive refugees. In her work, Casulaties of Care, Tictkin discusses how

victims of severe health impairments are offered asylum in France, while impoverished individuals

are not, given they are in less visible need of care.xv Victims of severe health issues attract the

attention of those in the humanitarian field and are thus granted asylum due to their visibly helpless

nature. Ticktin observes that in France, asylum seekers need to be in obvious need of rescue in order

to be granted asylum, making it difficult for victims of causes such as poverty to receive assistance.

Ticktin asserts that this bias ultimately reinforces an oppressive order, wherein inequalities are

reproduced, as well as racial, gendered, and geopolitical hierarchies.xvi

Humanitarian assistance for refugees is designed to provide for them as if they were

helpless; a common aid model throughout the world. Generally, refugees receive hand-outs in the

form of financial assistance for the first few months they spend in a country and are usually offered

other free services thereafter. As a consequence, they are considered a burden to society. An

example of this comes from the largest refugee camp in the world, located in Dadaab, Kenya.xvii If it

were a city, it would be one of the largest in the country, with over 300,000 residents in the camp

(Fig. 2).xviii Within the twenty-four-year-old camp, refugees are unable to work formally, nor are

they able to find jobs outside of the camp.

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Fig. 2. An aerial view of the refugee camps Dagahaley, Hagadera and Ifo, run by the UNHCR in Dadaab,
Kenya.xix

The governance structure of the camp operates in a way such that residents of the camp lack

the ability to change their own situation. Regulations ban refugees the formal permission to work,

causing them to stay in these holding-pen type situations. This sort of situation may be a result of

the language used, which Hall and Dijk have discussed as being deeply influential on society. For

example, commonly used phrases such as “burden sharing”xx or “refugee problem”xxi employ

language that produces a negative view of refugees and may lead to outcomes such as these camps.

The top-down approach to humanitarian assistance reflects and reinforces the idea that

refugees are victims, and does not empower them to use their diverse skills and abilities. Moreover,

Harvey notes that humanitarian attempts to assist refugees can be “clumsy, inefficient, and

wasteful”.xxii This victimizing produces and reproduces the model of assistance and charity that

creates dependence while also being ineffective. Laqueur notes that though the compassion of the

host community is helpful, it does so by “using an inherently exclusionary process”.xxiii That is, it

often creates an “us” versus “them” sentiment. Here is the challenge: when a host community views

refugees as helpless, it is also when they have the most compassion for them.

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Brian Reich, the director of the USA for UNHCR Hive innovation space, explains that “part

of the whole cry and buy, hope and horror dynamic is that the non-profit community kind of gets by

on finding the most extraordinarily awful stories, or the most hopeful stories, and saying those. The

whole idea of normalization gets lost”.xxiv

The “hope and horror” tactic for gaining support that Reich mentions can actually worsen

the situation and may need to be reconsidered. Ticktin continues to build on this idea of what she

calls the “politics of care,” explaining that such assistance is about the “exception and not the rule,

about generosity rather than entitlement”.xxv It is based on engaging a host community on an

empathetic level to prompt them to act out of their humanity. However, it unfortunately involves the

refugee having to play up or emphasize their suffering. This feeds the cycle of charity wherein the

refugee is without empowerment to become a member in the host community. Despite their

complex nature, and often good intentions, these exclusionary acts of compassion keep individuals

and organizations from viewing refugees for their unique backgrounds and experiences. These

obstacles cumulatively hinder the refugee’s ability to integrate and become fully contributing

members of their host community. As long as refugees remain economically segregated, they will

be socially and politically isolated as well, exacerbating the inequality.

Research Questions and Argument

The current framework to accept refugees deals with them as though they were part of a

negative, emergency event – a crisis – thus perpetuating a model of charity that creates dependence.

This existing aid structure is inadequate because it springs from and reproduces logic that refugees

are a burden.

This study proposes that improved integration can best be achieved through economic

empowerment and self-sufficiency, arguing that economic integration often drives social, political,
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and cultural inclusion. In a recent article, George Soros argues that opportunities for an effective

asylum system are available; they just need to be conveyed in a sound policy.xxvi He proposes that a

policy driven by economic goals, such as integrating students into universities and junior doctors

into hospitals, could achieve refugee integration across the EU over a gradual time period.xxvii He

suggests that a promising opportunity to fund such policies could be to re-open the European

Commission’s Multiannual Financial Framework, which establishes the EU budget, to allocate

more funding towards refugees.xxviii In doing this, he asserts that, “making large initial investments

will help tip the economic, political, and social dynamics away from xenophobia and disaffection

toward constructive outcomes that benefit refugees and countries alike.”xxix Such funding allocations

and policy changes are essential to consider as a practical step towards improving integration and

assimilation for refugees across the EU, as they could not only promote growth, but also decrease

negative social consequences for all people involved.

Importantly, in surveys conducted for this work, results showed that when asked about their

long term goal for the future, 86% of respondents said to find a job (see Appendix B). This evidence

further shows that economic integration is not only a primary concern of the EU, but for the Syrian

refugees themselves.

There are two recent and growing areas in the economic system that can support refugee

integration: the sharing economy and the technology sector. These parts of the economy suggest an

alternative model of integration, wherein refugees can be seen as a form of human capital as

opposed to being viewed as a burden to the host community. There are many overlapping themes of

the sharing economy and the technology sector; many of the examples proposed here are

entrepreneurial in nature.

The research for this project began in 2014 in Spain, Italy, and Morocco, where though there

were innovative approaches to the socioeconomic integration of refugees on a grassroots level – for
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example, a street market for refugee entrepreneurs in Morocco, or a project of my own, a LinkedIn

forum for highly-skilled refugees in Spain – there were few, if any, large scale initiatives that

challenged the current model of refugee integration. Most organizations perpetuated a model of

hand-outs, offering few opportunities for long-term integration through economic empowerment.

The goal of the research here is to explore the effectiveness of recent innovations and adaptations to

the old model, in order to inform future government and other large-scale integration programs and

policies.

When this research began, there were thousands of refugees flooding the European Union,

constituting the “refugee crisis.” As the situation unfolded in August 2015, something different was

happening in Germany compared to the rest of the European Union. While the United Kingdom

closed the channel tunnel that connects it to mainland Europe, and Macedonia closed its bordersxxx,

Germany was openly welcoming a mass influx of refugees.xxxi Germans flocked to train stations to

hang banners and cheer for the refugees entering into the country.xxxii They were launching start-up

businesses to help integrate refugees who had already arrived.xxxiii Meanwhile, groups of refugees

often broke out into chants of “Germany! Germany! Germany!” in train stations across the Balkans,

as they tried to make their way there.xxxiv Many photos illustrate scenes of Germans welcoming

Syrian refugees to their country as though they were joining a family reunion (Fig. 3). These early

arrivals of Syrian refugees in Germany provides an example of how the refugee “crisis” can actually

be a positive event.

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Fig. 3. Images of refugees waving to locals after disembarking in Germany.xxxv A German aid worker embraces a

Syrian child.xxxvi German locals await the arrival of refugees with donations.xxxvii Locals reach out to give small

gifts to the refugees.xxxviii

Despite this positive sentiment, Germany has still faced challenges and obstacles regarding

refugees, such as the January 2016 anti-refugee protests in Colognexxxix or the growing fear of

terrorists entering into Germany with refugee status.xl These events have exposed xenophobia and

anti-refugee sentiment among native Germans. Tensions have particularly risen through 2016, as

political parties have begun to speak out. One right-wing party in particular, Alternative for

Germany, has launched a campaign around restricting political asylum, while making negative

comments about Muslims.xli While the situation appears to be growing worse, future is still

unpredictable. Arguably, to the extent that we are able to push economic integration forward

through the sharing economy and the technology sector, it may be possible to mitigate or address

the emerging backlash. If refugees can be seen as economic boon instead of burden, they have the

potential to become more normalized in regular society.

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While these obstacles are present, there is still a general sense of optimism around refugees

that will be further explored in this paper. This paper will thus use Germany as case study to

understand how other nations could learn from its example. Is there something exceptional about

the combination of Syrian refugees and Germany that has led to this particular generally positive

outcome? Or could a similar mechanism for integration be implemented in other nations? This

paper will explore what has been done in Germany to understand how it could be replicated, built

upon, and implemented elsewhere to facilitate refugee integration.

Methodology

The research conducted for this paper sought to answer a number of questions, such as: How

can the technology sector and the sharing economy help refugees contribute meaningfully to their

host community in Germany? How does innovation in the model of refugee assistance promote

improved integration? The nature of this research, however, can best be articulated simply in the

broader question: How can Syrian refugees add economic value to their host community in

Germany? This is therefore the central research focus from which sub-questions will stem.

In order to answer this question, there are two key parties who must be represented: The

Syrian refugees, and the entrepreneurs and innovators working with them and on their behalf. Since

this study is on Syrian refugees and Germany, the majority of the interviewees were either Syrian or

German (see Appendices A and B). However, as there are limited examples in the technology sector

and the sharing economy as it relates to Syrian refugees in Germany, this paper employs relevant

examples from other countries and contexts. See Appendix A for more detailed information on how

the research data was collected.

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Neoliberalism, Globalization, and Migration Theory

This argument is contextualized in a broader framework of neoliberalism. According to

researcher Panos Paradongonas, anthropological perspectives from Gupta and Onga, and

geopolitical ones from Hardt and Negri, capitalism is a “global consolidation of its dominant

paradigm, neoliberalism”.xlii David Harvey describes neoliberalism as “a theory of political

economic practices that proposes that human well-being can best be advanced by liberating

individual entrepreneurial freedoms and skills within an institutional framework characterized by

strong private property rights, free markets, and free trade”.xliii This theory is essential to understand

as the argument of this thesis is situated in a neoliberal framework. Harvey asserts that

neoliberalism has social ramifications, such as increased inequalities and various other negative

impacts. He is highly critical of neoliberalism’s outcomes for a fair and equal society, claiming

more that it was created to improve the situation of the upper class alone. Harvey’s perspective is a

common one, and is upheld by many other leading scholars and critics, such as Pereira, Maravall,

and Przeworksi, who argue that there are many negative impacts of liberalizing reforms.xliv These

include inequalities between the rich and poor populations or between developed and undeveloped

nations or general risk of market failure.xlv

While there are negative implications of neoliberalism, it is a system that many Western

societies currently operate within. For the moment, it is not going anywhere. Therefore, instead of

critiquing and dismantling a system that other scholars already have many times before, this paper

will find ways to work within it. While acknowledging that there are other - perhaps better - ways of

running an economy, the argument of this work is situated within a neoliberal framework.

This paper’s argument is aligned with the contesting views of anthropologist, James

Ferguson. Ferguson suggests there are tenants of neoliberalism which could be used to combat

against the stratifying nature of the theory in order to promote progressive outcomes.xlvi He asserts
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that markets do not necessarily serve only those who have purchasing power, but that market-based

solutions could be redirected to serve and include the poor.xlvii He argues that markets can serve as a

means to progressive ends “in ways that may require us to revise some of our prejudices that

automatically associate market mechanisms with the interests of the well-to-do”.xlviii This argument

is interesting because it suggests that instead of dismantling or critiquing neoliberal systems, it is

possible to work within them to achieve social goals. Redirected neoliberal efforts, as Ferguson

proposes, could actually increase the purchasing power and inclusion of those who are

disadvantaged, such as refugees. Ferguson claims that while politics are often centered around “the

antis: anti-globalization, anti-neoliberalism, anti-privatization…even anti-capitalism,” there is much

to be said about being “pro.”xlix He therefore describes the various “uses of neoliberalism” to have a

more progressive perspective than the numerous critiques of neoliberal theory like Harvey’s.l

Throughout this work, many ideas will connect back to these various “use-cases to help understand

how neoliberalism could work to empower instead of exploit, and to solve the very problems

created by other forms of capitalism that Harvey criticizes.

As we will be discussing Syrian refugees in Germany, it is important to also anchor the

argument in a larger conversation about globalization. While Ferguson’s ideas of neoliberalism are

relevant, it is essential to note that globalization is not purely economic. Appadurai is one of the

leading scholars who argues this, describing various landscapes that relate to the international flow

of not only economic capital, but also other kinds of flows across borders.li One of these landscapes,

Appadurai calls an “ethnoscape,” which refers to the “landscape of persons who constitute the

shifting world in which we live: tourists, immigrants, refugees, exiles, guest workers, and other

moving groups”.lii

We often refer to globalization as the exchange of ideas, goods, and services, but we may

forget to consider the flow of people as well. Often our views of globalization may overestimate
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how smoothly these goods and actors move from place to place. The International Monetary Fund

(IMF) illustrates this tendency by optimistically defining globalization as “the process through

which an increasingly free flow of ideas, people, goods, services, and capital leads to the integration

of economies and societies”.liii However, Appaduari points out that there are people who “deal with

the realities of having to move or wanting to move,” such is the case of Syrian refugees, and that

such flows in globalization are not always smooth.liv Anthropologist Anna Tsing builds on this idea,

pushing back against the conceptions of globalization such as the IMF’s. Tsing notes that despite

the commonly held idea that globalization promotes free flows, there are actually many

“unexpected and unstable aspects of global interaction,” which she refers to as “friction”.lv

According to Tsing, “friction” can be either compromising or empowering.lvi However, she

notes that often friction “gets in the way of the smooth operation of global power. Difference can

disrupt”.lvii This is important to consider in the case of Syrian refugees in Germany, as within the

framework of Appadurai’s ethnoscape, there are differences to be reconciled and friction to be

considered as they arrive in Germany, a context vastly different from their own. The flow of Syrian

refugees into Germany is by no means simple, and goes beyond an economic exchange of goods or

services. Briggs addresses these issues of migration as a form of transnationalism that is “back and

forth,” wherein there is an exchange of goods, services, or people, across national borders.lviii

With the context that globalization is not just a movement of goods and services, but also a

complicated movement of people, we need to understand how the literature discusses migration and

its relevance to the global economic system. It is most helpful to look at international migration in

two categories: voluntary and involuntary migration.lix Voluntary and involuntary migrants differ

not only in their motivation to migrate but also in the volume, process, and direction of their

immigration patterns. Voluntary migration occurs when an individual makes a choice to leave his or

her home country for a social improvement such as better living conditions, better health care, or a
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wider array of education opportunities. Improved employment opportunities and higher wages may

contribute to the decision. Voluntary migration may be influenced by push factors, such as war or

discrimination. These are termed “pull” factors. For example, a low-income Eastern European

farmer is recruited by the US Agriculture Association to work for a higher wage in the United

States, or an Indian engineer moves to Silicon Valley to take a job or start a business.

Involuntary migration, on the other hand, can result from a variety of “push” factors, which

motivate people to leave their home country. War, famine, discrimination, and lack of opportunity

are examples of push factors. The 7 million Syrians refugees illustrate involuntary migration,

having been pushed into host countries as a result of the conflict in Syria.lx In addition, involuntary

migration has vastly different implications for their host country. While voluntary migrants tend to

benefit the receiving country by providing trade, skills, and a cheaper work force, a large subset of

involuntary migrants often cause strain on the host country’s healthcare, education, welfare systems

and social fabric due to the fact that they are generally less self-sufficient upon arrival.

Still, it is important to note that there is not always a clear line between the “push” and

“pull” experience of a migrant. In the case of Syrian refugees, many have had to flee because of

war, but nonetheless most still weighed various factors to make a decision on where to go. In the

interviews conducted for this research, numerous refugees used language such as “I chose” and “I

decided” when explaining their migration to Germany.lxi This illustrates that voluntary and

involuntary migration is not fully discreet and it does a disservice to the complexity of the choices

that refugees make to assume they are. Refugees do not need to be seen as helpless victims, but as

individuals making decisions in difficult situations about their futures, and who experience some

combination of both voluntary and involuntary migration. Many current humanitarian support

systems are set up to perpetuate the idea that refugees are victims, rather than people who are also

seeking a better economic situation. It is thus essential to reexamine the sometimes blurry line
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between voluntary and involuntary migration in order to more adequately support refugees.

This is particularly important as it is clear from current data that migration rates, both

voluntary and involuntary, have been increasing in recent years. Work by Hatton and Williamson

finds that from 1965 to 1990, the number of people living outside the country in which they were

born rose from 75 to 120 million.lxii In 2011, the World Bank reported that immigrants made up

3.2% of the world’s population.lxiii Francis Deng notes that 25 million people in the world are

internally displaced within their country of origin (in comparison with 18 million refugees).lxiv The

map below illustrates the significance of migration as a trend throughout the world (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. This map shows that current migration routes touch every major continent across the world.lxv

Deng’s discussion of internally displaced people centers more on the involuntary side:

individuals who are forced to leave their homes for reasons related to war or famine. He emphasizes

the need for an international response to this situation as well as increased dialogue with experts on

global migration.lxvi Myron Weiner, in The Global Migration Crisis, discusses the consequences of

movements of populations across international borders.lxvii He highlights prominent issues in the

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discussion of international migration, such as citizenship, and the impact on the global economy. He

particularly underscores the importance of politics in the discussion about migrants, noting that

population movements can challenge the nature of regimes and societies.lxviii His work provides a

number of examples of how migrants can change the composition or creation of the state.lxix

Weiner’s discussion of migration focuses more on what Walter Wilcox would deem voluntary (i.e.,

an individual who chooses to move to a new country for reasons such as economic or social

opportunity).lxx

Though often deemed a migration “crisis,” the movement of large numbers of people can

have many positive impacts. Peggy Halpern’s work notes that despite the various obstacles like the

lack of language skills and lower education levels, migrants in the United States still enter the

workforce at a relatively high ratelxxi According to George Borjas, immigration increases the size of

the US economy by about 11% each year.lxxii He estimates the immigration surplus is around $35

billion annually, approximately 0.2 percent of the total US GDP.lxxiii Michael Katz and Carl Shapiro,

as well as David McKenzie, claim that the significant positive impacts of migration are largely the

result of network effects.lxxiv McKenzie’s work also suggests that migrant networks are established

after the first migrants arrive, and effectively lower the cost of migrants who come later by assisting

them with accommodation and employment.

Migration also impacts the country of origin. According to the World Bank, official

recorded remittances to developing countries from migrants approached $435 billion at the end of

2014.lxxv In 2013, remittances were significantly higher than foreign direct investment in developing

countries.lxxvi

Examples from Jaschke and Perea show that many governments close their borders and

refuse to integrate migrants into their countries.lxxvii However, Bade and Bommes have produced a

 22  

               
  
study which examines the distributional position of migrants.lxxviii They examine migrant access to

income, education, healthcare, and legal rights, producing evidence that suggests that migrants

experience social inequality on these dimensions. This contributes to their inability to integrate into

the broader society and is often why governments refuse to accept migrants in the first place.

Though integration is an essential issue for all migrants, it is especially imperative for

refugees, a particular kind of migrant, due to their inability to return home and their typical

unpreparedness for migrating. In his 2011 book, Alexander Betts discusses the magnitude of the

refugee issue.lxxix At the time of publication, there were 43.7 million refugees worldwide.lxxx Bhatt

notes that the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) is constantly seeking to

adapt its policies and programs to work with the times, and is currently focusing primarily on

stateless people, irregular migrants, urban refugees, and victims of natural disasters.lxxxi It is

especially imperative that governments and agencies support the integration of these refugee

populations in order to tap into the potential they have for benefiting the larger society and mitigate

the negative social factors and costs associated with segregation. These migrant communities are

generally more isolated, less economically and/or emotionally stable, and frequently exhibit lesser

skill sets. Hence, they create bigger challenges for governments and societies in their efforts to

incorporate them into the economic mainstream. Despite the fact that migrants are often viewed as

burdensome in their host countries, in 2013, immigrants in the United States were found to be

significantly more likely than native-born individuals to start their own businesses.lxxxii There is a

significant amount of evidence that refugees can be beneficial to their host communities, which we

will explore further in this work.

 23  

               
  
Thesis Overview

The introduction has provided background, a literature review, and an overview of the

research questions and methods.

Chapter One will go on to provide further background and context about Syrian refugees,

German policies and practices as they relate to integration, and the field of social entrepreneurship.

At the beginning of Chapter One, a literature review of relevant scholars who discuss refugee

integration and assimilation is presented. Following the literature review, Chapter One will discuss

the Syrian conflict, provide Syrian demographic information, and explain the asylum seeking

procedure in Germany. After that, we discuss Germany, presenting an overview of the culture,

economy, and demographics of the nation as it relates to migration. It will also provide a discussion

of the field of social entrepreneurship. A literature review of entrepreneurship is provided and used

to explain humanitarian assistance in this context, demonstrating how social entrepreneurship can

offer an alternative model of assistance.

Chapter Two argues that the sharing economy can be used to help Syrian refugees integrate

into their communities in Germany. The chapter ends with a literature review that discusses how

economy and relationships are interconnected. Four key principles of the sharing economy are

outlined, with examples of each that are relevant to refugees. By connecting the sharing economy

principles to examples of refugee integration, this chapter explains how concepts embedded in the

sharing economy can apply to Syrian refugees in Germany.

Chapter Three argues that that the technology sector can be used to improve the integration

of Syrian refugees in Germany. Technological innovation and entrepreneurship are introduced and

their influence on the Germany economy is examined. How Syrian refugees are currently utilizing

technology is outlined. This chapter shows examples of start-up businesses and other initiatives that

are helping to integrate refugees in their communities through the use of technology solutions.
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Finally, Chapter Three discusses proposals regarding how an alternative model to charity and

assistance, such as the sharing economy, can empower a refugee to add value to his or her own.

The conclusion examines the overlap between the sharing economy and the technology

sector. It argues that when initiatives are representative of both economic systems, they can be

especially effective in assisting refugees. It then explores how arguments made in this paper can be

extrapolated and understood in other contexts. Finally, the conclusion emphasizes the importance of

Syrian refugee economic integration in Germany as a means for refugees to build the necessary

skills to be able to return to and rebuild Syria after the war and to contribute meaningfully to the

Germany economy and society.

 25  

               
  

1. Background: Syrian Refugees, Germany, and Social

Entrepreneurship

[My  cousin]  was  able  to  build  a  friendly  relationship  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  

where  he  lived  (and  still  lives).  He  did  this  by  presenting  flowers  to  people  [native  Germans]  in  

the  streets  around  the  camp,  in  response  to  their  friendly  welcome  to  refugees  and  all  the  things  

they  offered.lxxxiii  

-­‐  Syrian  interview  participant

1.1 The Humanitarian Imperative and Utilitarianism

In the 1990s, the international non-governmental organization (NGO) community released

an impactful document.lxxxiv Created by the International Federation of the Red Cross and the

Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response, it was a Code of Conduct meant to provide

guidance on programming related to war. lxxxv The first article of the Code states:

The Humanitarian imperative comes first—the right to receive humanitarian assistance, and

to offer it, is a fundamental humanitarian principle which should be enjoyed by all citizens

of all countries. As members of the international community, we recognise our obligation to

provide humanitarian assistance wherever it is needed. Hence the need for unimpeded access

to affected populations is of fundamental importance in exercising that responsibility.lxxxvi

The humanitarian imperative can be examined in the same framework as Immanuel Kant’s

famous idea of the categorical imperative, wherein he argues that moral imperative is essential in

guiding human action as many individuals are otherwise inclined toward something other than

moral good.lxxxvii Kant explains that such an imperative is needed because we have obligations to

moral and ethical standards, regardless of the expected outcomes. Both Kant’s categorical

 26  

               
  
imperative and the humanitarian imperative apply directly to the Syrian “refugee crisis” in Europe,

wherein refugees are in need of humanitarian assistance due to their displacement from violent

conflict. In the 1949 Geneva Conventions, principle architect, Jean Pictet, defined humanitarian as

“being concerned with the condition of a man considered solely as a human being, regardless of his

value as a military, political, professional or other unit”.lxxxviii The Conventions discuss how

humanitarian assistance should be given unconditionally to those in need. According to the Code of

Conduct and the Geneva Conventions, international and local actors are called to provide

humanitarian assistance to Syrian refugees where needed, regardless of an individual’s perceived

value. Antonio Guterres, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, further builds on these

ideas, stating that “refugees have the right to be protected…under international law.” He explains

that “the question shouldn’t be ‘how many refugees can we take?’, it should be ‘how can we

organize ourselves to assume our international responsibilities?’”lxxxix

Despite the clearly defined responsibilities of global actors, humanitarian assistance to

Syrian refugees has continued to fall short. In the United States, more than half the nation’s

governors issued statements to say that refugees were unwelcome.xc In Bulgaria, officials erected a

fence that eerily resembled the Cold War barriers prohibiting refugees from entering West

Germany.xci Then there are the numerous neighboring Gulf states, who simply have not taken

refugees coming out of Syria. This is particularly controversial as both Saudi Arabia and Qatar have

provided financial support to rebel groups fighting Syrian president al-Assad.xcii

In the height of this global tension, Germany’s Chancellor, Angela Merkel, reminded

Europe of their humanitarian imperative. In a speech in September 2015, she claimed, “If Europe

fails on the question of refugees, its close connection with universal civil rights will be

destroyed”.xciii Speaking on the basis of Pictet’s humanitarian definition and the Code of Conduct,

Merkel’s speech emphasized Germany’s responsibility to care for the Syrian refugees in need. This
 27  

               
  
was one of the first of many moments to come wherein Germany would stand beside this imperative

when other world actors did not.

Arguably, however, Germany was able to stand by the humanitarian imperative because it

had additional reasons to act. With a diminishing workforce and aging population, Merkel

understood that Germany also had a need for the refugee population. Therefore, Merkel’s stance

may represent a combination of humanitarian and utilitarian incentives.

Differing from humanitarianism, utilitarianism theorizes that the best moral action to take is

the one that produces the highest outcome or utility. The founder of utilitarianism, Jeremy Bentham,

emphasizes utility as the total pleasure involved in completing an action that is usually based in

reason and law.xciv John Stuart Mill added to this definition the idea of maximizing quality of

pleasure based on a set of rules instead of individual actions.xcv Henry Sidgwick, R.M. Hare, and

Peter Singer also argued that the right decision is the one where utility can be maximized in quality

and quantity.xcvi As the field of utilitarianism has developed and changed over the past few hundred

years, today’s modern theory is diverse and contains various opinions. Despite criticisms from

Rosen, McCloskey, and Mill that discuss how utilitarianism ignores justice, is unable to calculate

consequences or utility, and is demanding as it forces one to consider the needs and desires of

strangers just as much as friends, it is still an important theoretical framework if one’s goal is to

maximize utility.xcvii This paper adopts a more utilitarian stance on the refugee situation as it

proposes a solution that produces maximum utility, not solely moral good. Notably, Merkel’s

speech and Germany’s action serve as evidence that the choice does not need to be a binary between

humanitarianism and utilitarianism.

1.2 Syrian Refugees in Germany as Boon instead of Burden

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While Merkel maintains a positive view of refugees, many global leaders believe refugees

are a net drain on their economic or cultural system. As King Abdullah of Jordan puts it, “Psyche of

the Jordanian people, I think, has gotten to a boiling point. Jordanians are suffering from trying to

find jobs; the pressure on the infrastructure for the government; it has hurt us when it comes to the

educational system, our healthcare...”.xcviii Similarly, on a recent World Economic Forum panel, the

Prime Minister of Greece called for Europe to “share the burden” of the refugees.xcix

Consequently, international actors have largely failed to act out of their humanitarian

imperative. Countries are not accepting high quotas of Syrian refugees, nor are they providing

comprehensive assistance to the refugees who they do accept. If the first article of the Code of

Conduct and Pictet’s humanitarian definition has failed to motivate global players to act on the

refugee situation, an alternative incentive that does is warranted. We must change the way we think

about refugees; that if global actors can view refugees as a boon instead of a burden, they may find

incentive to welcome and integrate them.

Within a more sociological framework, this paper proposes a way to eradicate the notion of

“the Other” between Germans and Syrian refugees. “Othering” occurs when a society defines who

and what Others are based on the ideas of who and what ‘We’ are.c Edward Said discusses

“Othering” within the context of Orientalism, wherein Westerners helped to strengthen their own

identity and superiority by setting themselves up against the East as a lesser society. This same

practice can be seen in the context of the refugee crisis as many nations treat refugees as lesser than,

denying them entry or else marginalizing them once they are within the country.

In the EU, many minorities are “Othered” as they may not meet certain social or cultural

norms that are accepted as mainstream. In Germany, similar to other Western countries post 9/11,

Muslim identities have increasingly come to signify this Other, which according to Peek has

contributed to them becoming “the victims of discrimination, harassment, racial and religious
 29  

               
  
profiling, and verbal and physical assault”.ci This is of particular consequence for Syrian refugees as

they already constitute a non-European population, but many also come from Muslim backgrounds.

Among the consequences of Othering are segregation and marginalization. This paper argues that

refugees can be less Othered if they can be seen as valuable and contributing members of the host

community.

There are many ways that a Syrian refugee can add value to his or her new community in

Germany. Refugees bring new languages, cultural traditions, and economic possibilities. This paper

focuses specifically on the potential of refugees as an economic advantage. Economic progress

often fuels social, political, and cultural change. While scholars Fligstein and Choo consider various

political and social factors as instrumental to economic progress,cii this work aligns with the views

of scholars, such as Ronald Dore, who assert that economic progress drives social change.ciii

Therefore, this paper seeks to explore how refugees may serve as economic human capital to benefit

their host community. It also seeks to explore how through economic integration, refugees will

achieve other forms of sociocultural integration.

It is important to note, however, that there is a period of time in which refugees may be

more burdensome. Leading migration scholar, Egon Kunz, calls this “initial cultural

incompatibility.” This is an obstacle for refugee integration.civ When a refugee first arrives, there are

fundamental differences, which Tsing has introduced as “friction,” between them and the host

culture that must be reconciled.cv

In order to advance the argument of refugees as an economic advantage, this paper focuses

particularly on the field of economic advancement for social good. Businesses in this field have

been called various names, including capitalism for a cause, community wealth enterprises,

corporate social responsibility enterprises, enterprising non-profits, social purpose businesses, and

third sector enterprises. cvi While the language is diverse, common characteristics of these initiatives
 30  

               
  
include finding a common good rather than solely acting for private profit. This paper describes

entities in this area using the terminology of “social entrepreneurship,” which this chapter will

define and explain. The utilitarian nature of social entrepreneurship provides an alternative to the

humanitarian imperative that is too often unmet.

1.3 Syrian Displacement

In 2011, pro-democracy protests in Syria erupted in parallel with the Arab Spring that was

occurring throughout the Middle Eastern and North African region.cvii Syrian protests were held in

response to the government regime, led by President Bashar al-Assad, for perpetrating various

policies that promoted inequality. As the protests grew, so did the violence that the government

exercised against its people. And as the violence grew, the more people felt the need to protest for

their freedom.cviii This cycle created tension and conflict that quickly grew into what has now been

called a civil war. Many armed groups began to form and the conflict continues to this day.The

international community and governance organizations, such as the United Nations, have been

trying to address this conflict, but it is deeply entrenched in the nation at present. Syrians who are

uninvolved in the war have been prompted to flee to save their own lives or to avoid being drafted

into one of the opposition groups or armies. This has left over 50% of the Syrian population

displaced.cxi

Since the beginning of the war, over 9 million Syrians have been uprooted, with nearly 5

million fleeing to countries such as Turkey, Lebanon, and Iraq.cxii It is important to point out that

while this paper considers the case of Syrian refugees in Europe, there are actually more Syrians

displaced living in neighboring countries (Fig. 5). cxiv

 31  

               
  

Fig. 5. The map shows the majority of Syrian refugees are in neighboring countries such as Turkey and
Lebanon.cxv

Nonetheless, this paper will focus on Europe, particularly Germany, for a number of

reasons. First, this is one of the first times that Europe has been engaged in a problem that has

previously confined to the “Third World.” According to anthropologist, Liisa Malkki, the rich

countries in the West have long tried to defend against immigration.cxvi Nobel famously described

this as an “arms race against humanitarianism” and “escalation of unilateral measures against

refugees”.cxvii Malkki continues by saying that “if rich countries do not have a ‘refugee problem’

within their borders, this fact is clearly not a simple accident of geography or history”.cxviii Malkki is

arguing here that many wealthier countries have had limited engagement with issues related with

migration. However, with a new situation comes new opportunity. This work seeks to explore how

Europe has and might respond to their new refugee situation. Germany provides relevant examples

of how Syrian refugees can be seen as a benefit instead of problem and is therefore a particularly

interesting country to examine. Germany is the nation that receives the highest number of Syrian

refugees in Europe. By October of 2015, Germany had received over 100,000 applications for

 32  

               
  
asylum from Syrians.cxix The figures below illustrate that Germany is the top country receiving

asylum seekers, and the majority of these asylum seekers hail from Syria (Fig. 6 & 7).

Fig. 6. The greatest number of asylum seekers in Europe are concentrated in Germany.cxx

Fig. 6. Syrians are by far the largest asylum seeking population in Europe.cxxi

 33  

               
  
Syrians have continued to flee to the European Union because they have been unable to find a

comfortable lifestyle in Syria’s neighboring countries.cxxii Among the countries in the EU, Syrians

tend to choose Germany because it is wealthy, welcoming, and offers opportunities in education,

jobs, and housing.cxxiii In one interview conducted, a Syrian man named Mohammad explained, “I’m

trying to travel to another country to get a job. I’m thinking of going to USA or Germany.”cxxiv Here

is an illustration of the blurred lines between the push and pull factors of migration. Mohammad is

being forced to flee, yet also has agency to choose where to go. Germany offers employment

opportunities for him and is thus an attractive option.

Moreover, Germany is also an easily accessible destination. At the height of the refugee arrivals

in 2015, Germany decided to suspend the Dublin regulation to help more refugees enter.cxxv The

Dublin regulation is a law in the European Union that decides how member states consider the

asylum status of an individual.cxxvi The regulation asserts that an individual’s asylum application

must be processed within the first state through which an asylum seeker enters the EU. Germany

suspended the Dublin regulation, thereby helping nations such as Greece and Italy - the EU nations

through which most refugees arrive - to process asylum seekers’ applications and adding to its

attractiveness as a destination.

According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Germany

is currently ranked as the second most popular country in the world for immigration.cxxvii It is also in

the top twenty countries that receive the most refugees.cxxviii Although there are important

differences between migrants and refugees, these historical immigration trends are also applicable

to Syrian refugees.

In order for a Syrian individual to apply for asylum in Germany, which is the status granted

once an individual is deemed to need international protection, he or she must fall into one of

Germany’s four categories for granting asylum: protection from political persecution; protection as
 34  

               
  
a refugee; subsidiary protection; or prohibition of deportation.cxxix Essentially, all of these categories

boil down to protecting a refugee from an unsafe situation in his or her home country.cxxx Among the

population of Syrian individuals seeking asylum, the success rate of being granted refugee status is

93.2%.cxxxi

After a refugee arrives in the European Union, he or she must wait between six and nine

months to be granted asylum.cxxxii During this waiting period, the EU obliges all host countries to

provide asylum-seekers with “harmonized standards of reception,” traditionally in the form of

services provided by NGOs and other aid organizations.cxxxiii It is not until an individual receives

asylum that he or she is granted access to employment opportunities in the host country. If asylum

is granted, the individual is given status as a refugee. As a refugee, an individual is given a

temporary residence permit with the same privileges as German natives with respect to the social

insurance system. This means that the refugee is allowed “social welfare, child and child-raising

benefits, integration allowance, and language courses,” as well as other assistance to help them

integrate.cxxxiv

However, even after Germany grants asylum, with the exception of a few circumstances, the

refugee is not able to immediately obtain a work permit. In addition, while waiting for asylum to be

granted, an individual is not allowed to work on a self-employed basis.cxxxv These are complications

that make not only finding a job, but also entrepreneurship, a legal challenge for asylum seekers and

refugees. Often a year goes by without a refugee being able to legally work in the German

economy. It is important to note that this applies not only to Germany, but also to other countries

across the EU. This thesis argues that it is during this waiting period that Syrian refugees should

receive intensive support and training in specific skills to support their integration into alternative

areas of the economy where they can meaningfully contribute once they are granted permission to

work. Chapters Two and Three of this paper will further elaborate on how this could be done.
 35  

               
  

1.4 Demographics and Composition of the Syrian Refugee Population

This work examines the experience of Syrian refugees, not only because they represent the

highest number of displaced people across the world today, but also because there appears to be

something distinct that equips them to be particularly beneficial to their host communities. The

following section explores these distinctions, discussing aspects of the Syrian economy before the

war and demographics of the currently displaced individuals.

Before the war, population surveys in Syria revealed an 87% Muslim majority.cxxxvi This had

various implications for the culture and customs of the country, but most relevant to the topic of this

paper, it meant that the banks and citizens broadly obeyed the rules of Islamic finance.cxxxvii In

Islamic finance, individuals are called to act in a socially conscious manner. The principles of

Islamic finance strive to ensure that few do not accumulate wealth while others suffer; that an

individual’s needs are balanced with society’s needs; and that people have a mutual responsibility

for one another.cxxxviii These goals of promoting social justice are directly correlated to those of this

thesis. That is, through reaching out to help others, and intentionally acting to participate in an equal

and fair society, individuals who obey the rules of Islamic finance are presumably community

minded and therefore in accordance with the ideals of social entrepreneurship.

It is important to note that Islamic finance is not the only inclination Syrians may have to

practicing social entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship, broadly speaking, has been a common trend in

Syria for many years. In 2011 (before the current war), nearly 35% of the Syrian work force was

self-employed.cxxxix The United States, home to Silicon Valley and one of the leading hubs for

entrepreneurship in the world, had only 6.8% self-employment in the same year.cxl

Syrian population demographics contain a number of statistics that reflect the strong human

capital. As of 2011, 86.4% of the total population was literate, defined as the percentage of the
 36  

               
  
population over the age of 15 that can read and write.cxli There had previously been a 97%

enrollment rate for children in primary school, making Syria a leader in education among its peers

in the region.cxlii Before the war, in the early 2000s, at any given time there were 100,000 Syrians in

university, upwards of 6% of the population at the time.cxliii The strong education system in Syria

helped its citizens to meaningfully contribute to both the private and public sector in the nation. In

2000, over 6% of the nation’s GDP came from non-Arab tourism, which illustrates that many

Syrians have the skills and abilities to interact with and accommodate other cultures and

languages.cxliv In research conducted for this thesis, the majority of surveyed Syrian refugees in

Germany spoke at least two languages, including English and German (see Appendix B). This is in

part because Syrian school systems also teach English and French as a second language. As many

Syrians are bilingual, this arguably gives them an advantageous role in facilitating international

exchanges and engaging with global issues.cxlv

In terms of producing a strong and able-bodied population, Syria has boasted one of the

highest birthrates in the world since before the war. As of 2011, over half the population was under

the age of 25.cxlvi These numbers serve as evidence that the Syrian refugees will bring young talent

and opportunity to Germany. Many have a long future ahead and will arrive in Germany at a critical

stage of development and growth. They are still able to absorb German language and culture during

their formative youthful years. They will also contribute to the pension system when they work.

Barry Stein, Professor of Political Science at Michigan State University, points out that,

“refugees are not poor people. They have not failed within their homeland; they are successful,

prominent, well-integrated, educated individuals who fled because of fear of persecution”.cxlvii

Geiger similarly claims that, “before they became refugees, however, they had experienced lives in

which there was peace, stability, enough food to eat today and tomorrow”.cxlviii Both Stein and

Geiger suggest that a refugee is not the incapable, poor individual that burden and crisis language
 37  

               
  
portrays them as. Most refugees previously had stable lives and are arguably capable of establishing

them again.

These points are rarely discussed, however, as global media distorts the reality with images

and language that display the worst of the situation. Syrian refugees are more often recognized as

hopeless or in despair. They are moreover categorized narrowly. According to migration scholar

Hein, “Research on refugees accumulated with minimal conceptual elaboration: Immigrants

constituted an economic form of migration, refugees a political form.”cxlix This has left little room

for refugees to present themselves as agents of economic change. Instead, the common connotation

of a Syrian refugee is often negative.

Fig. 7. These are some of the top image results from a Google search with the key words “Syrian refugee”. Many

resulting images are similar to these in that they show the “hope and horror” situations.

It is true that many Syrians have endured extreme hardship to reach their present

circumstance and their integration is an immense challenge. Refugee studies scholar Keller

describes various stages of the refugee experience, such as “the period of extreme danger and

flight” and then “the early and late stages of resettlement”.cl While overly broad, these stages are

useful to consider the various transitions and adjustments refugees must make. Those stages in

themselves are obstacles for refugees to overcome and venture through. In addition, during the
 38  

               
  
initial stage of exile, refugees “will confront the loss of their culture – their identity, their habits.” cli

Hence it is evident that refugees face significant challenges.clii Taylor and Nathan also add that “loss

of patterns of conduct is intensified by the uncertainty of what kind of behavior is acceptable or

non-acceptable in their new environment,” further illustrating the challenges for refugees.cliii Stein

summarizes these points in noting that while integrating, the refugee is “searching his way through

a strange and frightening society”.cliv These scholars only skim the surface of the challenges that

refugees face in their journey and upon arrival. More obstacles that refugees face are explored in

Chapter Two.

Yet, these challenges and the hopeless images too often become synonymous with “Syrian

refugee” (Fig. 2), and as a result the Syrian population is overlooked for its pool of diversely skilled

human capital. A Syrian interviewed for this paper, Ayman, commented on the strength and

resilient nature of refugees. He explains that a refugee is “somebody who challenged death and

danger and accepted all the risks to reach his goal and start a new life with all its difficulties.”clv He

recognizes that there are obstacles for refugees, but that they tend to be hopeful nonetheless.

Arguably, a typical Syrian refugee is an individual with a complex story and skill set who

can contribute positively to his or her host economy. As Brian Reich commented,

They [refugees] are all forced to flee - but their abilities, needs, and contribution to society

is always going to be different. And we need all of them. We need people who start small

businesses, the same as we need people who play music. We need people who go to school

and people who teach school. They [refugees] are not all helpless, they’re all valuable,

skilled and diverse in terms of their potential contribution to a community.clvi

Of the Syrian refugees surveyed and interviewed for this paper, there were professions

represented from students to interior designers, entrepreneurs and carpenters. They spoke languages

ranging from Arabic to English to Hindu to Turkish. In their free time, they did activities such as
 39  

               
  
writing short stories, playing guitar and piano, and going fishing. Among the hopes and dreams of

those interviewed were “to be reunited with family”clvii and to “become a contributing member of

society”clviii . The participants in this study thus represent a pool of hopeful individuals with unique

and diverse skills that could add value to their host community.

1.5 Germany as a Host Country

Syrian refugees are well equipped to integrate into Germany and Germany’s history illustrates

why they could be best prepared to integrate them. Over the course of the nation’s history, there has

been a long history of reconciling (and not reconciling) German migration. Though it would be

possible to discuss these topics beginning as early as the 1400s, when there was a multiplicity of

flourishing German nation-states, the focus here is on more recent events. It is important to note,

however, that before Germany became unified in 1871, it existed as various states with a diverse set

of cultural traditions and values. And even after the states became one nation, they still struggled to

share one common identity as Germany. An example of Germany reconciling difference comes

from recent history, when the fall of the Berlin wall unified the socially and economically diverse

East and West German communities.clix Arguably, events like these have prompted the German

nation throughout its history to navigate identity differences, therefore the arrival of Syrian refugees

is not a new challenge.

Germany’s relationship with migration in the modern era began with people flowing out of the

country, with individuals fleeing Germany as refugees, not arriving.clx During the time of Nazi rule,

Germans left behind their homes and lives to seek safety and security of a new environment, not at

all dissimilar to the experience of many Syrians.

In an attempt to recover from World War II, and the loss of human capital of those who fled,

Germany implemented a model of recruitment of temporary foreign workers.clxi By the end of the
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program, there were nearly four million foreign nationals working in Germany.clxii This led not only

to an economic recovery, but also to a boom in West Germany, leading to economic growth rates of

over 12%.clxiii Over the first ten years of the program’s implementation, the unemployment rate

plummeted from 11% in 1950 to below 1% in 1961.clxiv This is significant evidence that points to

the potential of migrants, when given proper assistance, to positively impact their new environment.

As Germany has already successfully facilitated using foreign guest workers as “human capital,”

the country seems well-equipped to use the economic contributions of Syrian refugees for similar

outcomes. It is important to note, however, that guest workers were primarily employed in low-

wage positions such as assembly lines, shift work, and other areas of employment that were

unattractive to Germans. By using the guest workers in these low-skilled jobs, Germans were able

to move into more desirable positions. Therefore, a more inclusive scheme to more fully utilize

today’s refugees as human capital is necessitated.

1.5.1 Willkommenskultur Culture

Since the beginning of 2015, Germany has become globally recognized for its

willkommenskultur, its welcoming culture with respect to the increasing migration flows. On

Twitter, the tag, #willkommenskultur clxv, shows photos of refugees being hosted by young Germans

and newspaper articles about how to get involved with helping refugees. As a practical result of the

attitude and mindset of willkommenskultur, Germany offers refugees free or cheap German

language classes, as well as integration and citizenship courses. The concept of willkommenskultur

has resulted in local communities all over Germany contributing time and resources to help make

refugees feel welcome.clxvi

It is hard to say exactly what it is about Germany that has created this culture, but we must

consider the German population. Whether politicians like Angela Merkel making political
 41  

               
  
statements of inclusion or young Germans opening their home to refugees, many German

individuals have spearheaded a cultural tone of acceptance for refugees. This is reflected in their

preferences and involvements in cultural activities across Germany.

A significant area of cultural involvement is on the sports field, specifically, the soccer field.

For many years, researchers such as Bainvel and Hough have been calling soccer the game that can

build peace between cultures.clxvii clxviii Kothy and Klein argue that sports in general can contribute to

“social integration and conflict resolution”.clxix Germany has in many ways exemplified these ideas

by sending the message “refugees welcome” to all attending matches in various ways (Fig. 9). At

one Bayern Munich game, the most popular team in Munich, the soccer players walked out onto the

field each accompanied by a refugee and German child. The players held hands with each of the

children and then all of the children joined hands in what the club called a “symbol for the

integration of refugees”.clxx As the delicate moment sunk in, the 75,000 fans of Bayern and opponent

Augsburg alike burst into a round of cheering and applause. Later, the Bayern Munich team donated

1 million Euros to assist with soccer training camps, German lessons, and other programs offered to

refugees.clxxi

Fig. 8. Soccer fans in matches across Germany holding banners stating, “Refugees Welcome”.clxxiiclxxiii

Not only have national sports teams sent a message supporting the integration of newly arrived

refugees, but local club teams have also been working to help more migrants join. This helps not

only the individual migrant to build camaraderie, but also encourages families to become more

involved in society through their children’s engagement in youth soccer leagues.clxxiv

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Apart from soccer, there are various aspects of German culture that favor the inclusion of

refugees. Among the top performing musicians in Germany are artists of migrant backgrounds,

including Xavier Naidoo, Sabrina Setlur, and No Angels. When it comes to eating out, a study

shows that among Germans under the age of 30, 70% prefer to eat foreign cuisine. In fact, migrant

owned Turkish kebab stores (Doner), have become more popular than their rival international

leaders in fast food such as McDonalds. For more than a decade, kebabs have been the product with

the highest sales figures among German restaurants.clxxv Even in terms of something so embedded in

a culture as language, Germany has seen a shift to accommodate refugees and migrants. There are

over fifty non-German newspapers currently produced in Germany and foreign languages are

becoming an integrated part of everyday life there.clxxvi

Clearly, there is infrastructure in place for refugees to be well-received and integrated in

Germany. A movement of the German people in the realm of culture has created a sentiment of

openness that prevails. As Germans seem to strive to welcome and accept refugees in new ways, the

country is strategically positioned to integrate Syrian refugees through the use of social

entrepreneurship. Moreover, studies by scholars, such as Alesine and La Ferra, have shown that

cultural diversity is no longer seen as a cause for failed integration, but actually something that

increases the competitiveness of an economy. According to a report by the European Commission,

“with the ongoing integration of global goods and factor markets, the knowledge of different

cultures, languages and foreign countries and regions in general are expected to gain in importance

in the future”.clxxvii Germany’s warm reception of refugees is not solely a humanitarian movement. It

could also fuel entrepreneurial initiatives to grow and enhance the competitiveness of Germany’s

economy.

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1.5.2 The German Economy

Germany boasts the largest economy in Europe, with the fourth largest nominal GDP in the

world.clxxviii It is strong and steady, one of few that weathered well the Eurozone crisis. Research and

development has always been important to the nation and has fueled the technology sector. But

these achievements are not all that make Germany distinct. It has a unique economic model and one

that may be advantageous in refugee reception.

In the mid-1940s, a group of economists came together to try to save Germany from its state of

chaos after World War II, namely Walter Eucken, Alfred Muller-Armack, and Ludwig Erhard.clxxix

These German economists proposed a new type of capitalist system, asserting that the laissez-faire

economy of the U.S. and as the command and control economies of communist countries were

ineffective. These individuals sought to create an economy that would obey the principles of the

free market while serving humanity.clxxx

The free market is an economy that instead of being regulated by government operates where

the markets balance supply and demand through pricing to regulate production and labor.clxxxi While

they have their own market regulations, the United States and Australia are the best examples of

free market economies. Though there are various ways that competition regulates the free market,

two particular ones are more choices for consumers and increased innovation among suppliers.clxxxii

To distinguish itself from the profit-driven free market economy, Germany designed a social

market economy in order to include another component: a strong welfare system. Within this

system, Germany provides social security to anyone unable to care for him or herself. In this way,

the social market economy seeks to achieve social inclusion and equal opportunity while abiding by

the rules of the free market. Interestingly, the principles of the social market economy are

thoroughly in-line with those of the aforementioned Islamic finance; both strive to create social

justice in a free market economy.clxxxiii Syrian refugees arriving in Germany will not only be
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welcomed into the social market economy, as it strives to include those in need, but they will also

be familiar with the way it functions.

Because of its success, Germany’s economic policies today are still in-line with the social

market economy model created nearly half a decade ago. However, though the country strives to

balance the free market and government regulation for the benefit of social inclusion, the social

aspect of the social free market has diminished over time. Today, there is less focus on welfare and

social good, and more of an emphasis on the free market system.

Nonethless, social market economies still suffer from many of the negative aspects of

capitalism. Karl Marx and Frederich Engles most classically critiqued capitalism in The Communist

Manifesto, released in the mid-1800s.clxxxiv Marx and Engles argue that market instability is a

permanent aspect of the capitalism system.clxxxv Meanwhile, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, one of Marx’s

contemporaries, declared himself an anarchist and called the capitalist employee as one who was

“subordinated” and “exploited”.clxxxvi Meanwhile, modern critic Ravi Batra focuses on the system

failures caused by inequalities that stem from capitalism.clxxxvii Similarly, Immanuel Wallerstein

notes that from a world-systems perspective, capitalism represents the rising of tax rates and

material inputs which has led to a crisis that could last a number of years.clxxxviii While these classic

critiques emphasize crisis, inequality, and exploitation as a result of capitalism, the social market

economy falls within its framework. This is to say, although there are upsides of the social market

economy, like any system, it has its shortcomings.

Still, the social market economy has many strengths that outweigh its shortcomings. Within its

own economy, Germany has a strong innovation system in place.clxxxix Due to its free market

policies, there is an “inherent, competitive, market-based dynamic” that drives innovation.cxc This is

in part also due to the collaborative approach to research that the German system is well known for

which prompts and drives creativity. There has been a recent focus on policies to help high-tech
 45  

               
  
areas, and those creating innovations, to build a strong system of research and development. As the

economy already supports and encourages innovation in these ways, Germany is arguably well

equipped to address the Syrian refugees in an unprecedented and novel way through social

entrepreneurship.cxci Moreover, the EU has now started an initiative and marketing campaign to

encourage entrepreneurship.

Thought leaders in social market economy theory have observed “The concept of the Social

Market Economy links the principle of freedom, the market and the institutional wisdom, but it lays

on a decision on values which is borne by the moral foundations of our European culture”.cxcii And,

as Stefan Muresan comments, “I do not believe that there are reasons to give up the participative

model we have developed. On the contrary, I believe it is superior to all the other models and not

just for socio-ethical reasons, but for economic reasons as well”.cxciii These scholars point out the

advantages of the social market economy in terms of social equality and inclusion.

Despite the welcoming nature of the social market economy as it relates to the refugee situation,

global sentiment continues to view refugees as an economic burden. It is a common opinion that

refugees and migrants adversely affect the welfare system of the local population.cxciv While

sometimes true, refugees can also bring significant economic benefits to Germany, and the social

market economy may help facilitate that growth. Inge Brees, a member of the Conflict Research

Group at the University of Ghent, notes that “refugees can also engender positive effects in the host

country, especially on the economic level”.cxcv Loeffelholz and Kopp estimate that immigrants make

a net contribution to the public budget by as much as 35 billion German Marks per year.cxcvi The

same study also shows that since 1998, immigration has created 85,000 new jobs and raised the

GDP by 1.3 per cent.cxcvii

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1.5.3 The Aging German Population

At the end of 2014, the German population was around 81.1 million people, but low birth rates

set the population on a path of inexorable decline.cxcviii According to a recent study by the Hamburg-

based World Economy Institute, Germany has the lowest birth rate in the world at 8.2 births per

1,000 people.cxcix Predictions show that by the year 2060 the population will have decreased to 73

million people.cc Moreover, with median age of approximately 45 years, without immigration,

Germany faces not only a declining population, but also an older one.cci These are important

statistics to consider because it shows that just as refugees and migrants need Germany, Germany

also needs them. Among the individuals who applied for asylum in Europe in 2015, over 81% of the

refugees were under the age of 35, with more than half between the ages of 18 and 34.ccii As

Germany begins to spend more on age-related pensions, health, and care (a predicted 5% increase in

the GDP by 2060), a young immigrant population of refugees will be there to help support them.cciii

1.6 Opportunities in Social Entrepreneurship

The preceding sections show that Syrian refugees could have a meaningful impact in diverse

areas of German society. There are many advantages for Syrians and Germans alike, and further

work could explore the various sociocultural and political reasons for refugee integration. The focus

of this work, however, will narrow in on the economic impact of Syrian refugees in Germany

through the lens of social entrepreneurship. This paper argues that social entrepreneurship can be a

mechanism to facilitate Syrian refugee integration in host communities in Germany, as well as a

method to help the refugees assist themselves and contribute meaningfully to the economy.

Before defining social entrepreneurship, it is important we first understand what

entrepreneurship means. According to scholars Shane and Venkataraman, “the entrepreneurial

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function implies the discovery, assessment and exploitation of opportunities, in other words, new

products, services or production processes; new strategies and organizational forms and new

markets for products and inputs that did not previously exist”.cciv Reynolds builds on this definition,

saying that “entrepreneurship –the entrepreneurial function- can be conceptualized as the discovery

of opportunities and the subsequent creation of new economic activity, often via the creation of a

new organization”.ccv These scholars, as well as many others, would likely agree that

entrepreneurship is the exploitation of a new market opportunity.

In 2010, migrants or children of migrants had founded up to 40 percent of Fortune 500

companies.ccvi Further research could explore is needed to explore whether this is because refugees

are more suited to entrepreneurship, or if it is because of the barriers refugees face in the formal

economy. Clearly, one way to integrate migrants into society is through entrepreneurship. Chang

found that entrepreneurship encourages self-employment which is a positive factor in productivity

growth.ccvii Carree notes that competition among firms, which is common in entrepreneurship, is

also a factor for contributing to positive growth in the economy as increases in competition lead to

an increase in efficiency.ccviii Acs claims that entrepreneurship is also advantageous because it

creates jobs and increases competition.ccix Todtling and Wazanbock assert that if entrepreneurs

channel their ideas and abilities they can create such new opportunities in an economy and generate

positive externalities.ccx Robbins, Pantuosso, Parker, and Fuller note that as a result,

entrepreneurship is relevant at the firm, industrial, national, and regional levels.ccxi

Social entrepreneurship becomes a bit more difficult to define. Low and Macmillian claim

that most definitions of social entrepreneurship are unable to accurately explain it.ccxii Even the Skoll

Foundation, one of the leading organizations to promote social entrepreneurship, admits it is similar

to its “for-profit cousin” in many ways.ccxiii What distinguishes social entrepreneurship, however, is

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the value proposition of the entrepreneurial endeavor. For the entrepreneur, the value proposition is

to provide a new product or service to a market that needs it, and reap a financial profit. However,

for the social entrepreneur, an additional aspect of the value proposition is the “large-scale,

transformational benefit that accrues either to a significant segment of society”.ccxiv Therefore, social

entrepreneurship may be best explained by Stevenson, Roberts, Gousbeck, and Schumpeter, who

describe it as the “process of creating value by combining resources in new ways…to explore or

exploit opportunities to create social value by stimulating social change”.ccxv This is the definition

that this paper will consider.

Social entrepreneurship is therefore the broad framework that these innovations in

capitalism – the sharing economy and the technology sector – fit within. The act of innovating new

products, services, and solutions helps improve the livelihood of not only Syrian refugees, but also

their host communities in Germany. Therefore, it is through the lens of, and with examples from the

field of social entrepreneurship, that these alternative economic systems of the sharing economy and

the technology sector among Syrian refugees in Germany will be examined.

1.7 Conclusion

This chapter argues that the humanitarian imperative is not sufficient to compel a nation to

act on the behalf of refugees. There needs to be an alternative utilitarian argument through which a

nation should consider integrating refugees. This chapter argues that there are unique characteristics

of the Syrian refugee population and the German context that make it an interesting case study.

There are various utilitarian arguments for refugee integration, such as cultural or language

diversity, and demographic solutions. While these arguments alone could be further explored as

reasons to accept refugees, this paper does not study them in greater depth. This paper instead

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argues for refugee integration through economic means. Social entrepreneurship is particularly

interesting as it can empower refugees to make change while giving the host community a model

for supporting their integration.

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2. The Sharing Economy

The sharing in the Arab world is very traditional, something that has happened throughout history,

it is not something new. People are used to sharing almost everything with their whole circle of

friends and family.ccxvi

- Ahmad Sufijan, CEO and founder of ArabShare

2.1 Introduction

2011 marked the beginning of the Syrian civil war and the onset of devastating violence that

would displace over half of the native Syrian population.ccxvii The same year, the sharing economy

was named one of Time Magazine’s top ten ideas that would change the world.ccxviii But what does

the sharing economy have to do with displaced Syrians? A lot, as we will see in this chapter.

Despite the strengths of the social market economy in Germany, there are still significant

barriers that prevent Syrian refugees from participating: limited knowledge of the German

language; truncated professional networks; and often poor physical or psychological health.ccxix

These barriers are particularly significant for women, who may not have had opportunities for

education in their home country and have limited opportunities for language and cultural

integration.ccxx Beyond these individual experiences, there are also societal and structural barriers.

For example, employers often do not recognize degrees or qualifications from outside the host

country, and will sometimes directly discriminate in hiring practices or behavior in the

workplace.ccxxi

Limited economic participation has a wide array of consequences for refugees. For example,

researchers have identified correlations between limited economic participation and poor health.ccxxii

Limited economic participation can also lead to individuals to lose their capacity for skilled
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employment over time,ccxxiii and contribute to a refugee’s isolation. Jahoda thus notes that having

economic opportunities improves a refugee’s psychological wellbeing, providing “time structure,

social contact beyond the realm of family,” and by “being a part of a collective purpose, and having

social status”.ccxxiv This is to say that economic integration helps refugees psychologically and

physically as well.

This chapter therefore builds on the argument that economic opportunities drive the Syrian

refugee integration process in Germany. It also argues that as there are significant barriers for

refugee participation in the current economic system, hence there need to be alternative

opportunities, such as the sharing economy. The sharing economy can facilitate refugees ability to

help one another to become financially self-sufficient. An individual who is financially self-

sufficient has fewer obstacles to overcome in order to assimilate and become a part of the

community. As refugees participate in sharing, not only among themselves, but also with the local

German community, they will form important economic relationships that will lay the foundation

for building social relationships that will improve integration.

This chapter therefore introduces the concept of the “sharing economy;” one possible

alternative economic structure. With examples from the theoretical framework of social

entrepreneurship outlined in Chapter One, it then discusses the principles of the sharing economy as

it applies to Syrian refugee integration in Germany. The chapter concludes by offering

recommendations for how Germany could support the refugees to help them further integrate into

the sharing economy, as well as presenting other opportunities for further investigation.

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2.2 Origins and Overview of the Sharing Economy

The “sharing economy” is “the value in redistributing excess to a community”.ccxxv It refers

to a new market space, somewhere between owning and gift giving, which encourages participants

to borrow and lend unused goods and services. The sharing economy can take place through in-

person exchanges as well as through online information-based transactions. It can refer to the

sharing of tangible goods and services, or intangible concepts and ideas. Although it produces a new

economic model, the sharing economy lacks a clear definition, but generally refers to the sharing of

access instead of individual ownership.ccxxvi

In Germany today, the “sharing economy” is a commonly used phrase and concept. At the

University of Leuphana in Germany, Professor Harald Heinrichs of the department of Sustainability

and Public Policy, recently conducted a survey of over 1,000 randomly selected local

individuals.ccxxvii Among his results, he found that over 55% of those surveyed had experience with

alternative methods of consumption and ownership.ccxxviii These were young individuals who had

access to the Internet to buy and sell goods, as well as high incomes and advanced education

backgrounds that allowed them to make use of the borrowing networks available to them. They had

decided to partake in the sharing economy primarily because of the quality and price of the goods

and services available to them, as well as the added social and environmental benefits of sharing.

Though these findings show a limited start in certain ages and classes, Heinrich is optimistic

about the growth of the sharing economy in Germany. Of those surveyed, a significant portion

between the ages of fourteen and thirty-nine had changed their consumer behavior to become

involved in the sharing economy.ccxxix This popularity of the sharing economy was evident at one of

Germany’s top information technology trade fairs, CeBIT, in which the sharing economy was

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recognized as the most common theme among attending businesses.ccxxx In another survey of five-

hundred German participants, 70% claimed that they would participate in the sharing economy if

they were not already doing so.ccxxxi By the beginning of 2015, more than one million individuals

across 490 cities and towns used a car-sharing program offered by one of the 150 German car-share

companies.ccxxxii An article titled “Germany Shares” argues that,

In light of the trend’s potential for having a positive sustainability impact…government

policy, business, and society in general should optimize the conditions for the further

development of an economy of sharing and common consumption as a complement to

property ownership and individualized consumption.ccxxxiii

This evidence reveals that the sharing economy has emerged as a significant alternative economic

system in which many Germans are participating.

Despite these advantages, researchers note that most of the policy responses to the sharing

economy have been negative.ccxxxiv This is largely due to the view that the competitive advantage of

these companies comes from their ability to avoid regulations that are meant to protect third

parties.ccxxxv George Mason University Professor of Law, Christopher Koopman argues, these

existing regulations were meant to solve problems that the sharing economy already addresses in its

innovative model, primarily through relationships and reputation systems.ccxxxvi

This theory of the sharing economy fits more broadly into the discourse about economic

relationships and social capital. In Lloyd Dumas’s book, The Peacekeeping Economy, he notes that

“at its most fundamental, economics is not really about money, nor is it about statistical analysis, or

mathematical or game theoretic models: it is about relationships”.ccxxxvii Dumas’s thoughts fit with

Adam Smith, who observed that there was a “certain propensity in human nature…to truck, barter,

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and exchange one thing for another”.ccxxxviii His words illustrate how negotiation plays a role in all

economic transactions, implying there is an essential relationship between the buyer and seller.

Meanwhile, Hobbes notes that many economic transactions depend on trust.ccxxxix Economists

Harvey Leibenstein and Gary Becker also assert that social relationships are a premise on which

economic transactions are built.ccxl

Dumas’s comments that the systems that are created to satisfy an individual’s wants and

needs are inherently driven by relationships – between individuals, to products, or to businesses. “It

is a… mistake to believe that economic relationships do not play a critical role in creating the

conditions that can either lead to explosions of violence or prevent them”.ccxli

The sharing economy offers a potential solution for Said’s “Othering”. By building trust and

connection for economic transactions, the sharing economy can improve the integration of refugees

by including them in its model. The sharing economy offers the potential for refugees to help one

another and their local community, as well as to allow the local community to help them. Still,

research shows that in the sharing economy, individuals tend to share with people who are similar to

them in some way, whether socioeconomically, professionally, culturally, or otherwise.ccxlii

The sharing economy can be understood through both a neoliberal framework (that defends

deregulation and free-trade) and a Marxist lens. Marx believed that the proletariat would replace the

capitalist mode of production with one that is founded on principles of collective ownership.ccxliii

These ideas directly apply to the sharing of goods and services that occurs in the sharing economy.

Meanwhile, Harvey notes that neoliberalism imposes social stratification, and it is this very class

struggle that Marx believed would cause the proletariat to break out from capitalism into an

alternative economic system.ccxliv

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The sharing economy fits within the Marxist discourse of collective ownership, regardless of

class differences. That is to say, the sharing economy is not entirely neoliberal in nature – there are

elements of it, such as the focus on collective consumption and relationships that are more in line

with Marxist ideals. The point of examining the sharing economy through these views is to assert

that it exists in a new theoretical space, somewhere between Harvey’s neoliberalism and Marx’s

ideas.

Within the sharing economy, Belk differentiates between “demand sharing” and “open

sharing”.ccxlv Demand sharing refers to the act of meeting the specific need of an individual. For

example, a woman stops someone to ask the time, and that person tells it to her. Open sharing,

meanwhile, refers to the non-requested, more privileged version of sharing that usually happens

only among family members or close friends. An example of open sharing is someone who says,

“My home is your home” and gives unlimited permission.ccxlvi

As Thomas Widlok suggests, demand sharing is not an unusual type of sharing, but actually

its archetype. Demand sharing will thus be the focus of this paper. Demand sharing is an important

form of sharing as it inverts the tone of the charitable bias and makes it clear that the taker or

“demander” usually initiates the act of sharing.ccxlvii Within demand sharing, there are two key

sharing models. First, there is the model of business to consumer (B2C). Within this model, a

business owns the inventory and rents it to the consumer. An example of B2C is Zipcar, a company

that rents out cars that it owns to individual drivers.ccxlviii The second model is peer to peer (P2P)

sharing. In this model, an individual who owns the inventory will share it with another consumer. In

this case, it is a private individual that does the sharing, not a formalized business. An example

company that utilizes the P2P model is Airbnb, a service which enables individual homeowners to

rent out their homes to consumers.ccxlix In this work, we consider the P2P model, which is “in the

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process of transforming society itself”.ccl P2P sharing presents a new way of sharing, outside of the

traditional B2C model.

An article written by co-founder Robin Chase of ZipCar notes that “Companies like these,

who tap directly into the full diversity and energy of their human marketplaces, are able to scale

faster, learn faster, innovate and adapt faster”.ccli That is, there are individuals with unique skillsets

that can be utilized in the sharing economy. Brian Reich, director of The Hive, said that, “Refugees,

save for the situation that forced them to flee, the war the persecution, they are exactly the same as

we are. They are doctors and lawyers and engineers and teachers and daughters and sons and

cousins and students”.cclii Clearly, within the refugee population there is a “human marketplace,”

including a number of individuals with unique skillsets.ccliii

Still, there are regulatory hurdles that impede growth opportunities in P2P exchange, due to

many factors, including the blurred lines between the personal and professional within anonymous

transactions.ccliv Overall, the P2P sharing model has created jobs and solved the problem of

underutilized goods and services, as well as unlocked idle capital, making a significantly positive

impact on society.

2.3 Principles of the Sharing Economy

Belk outlines four key principles of the sharing economy that this chapter discusses: the

creation of reciprocal economic value; making use of underutilized assets; exchanges within a

community; and facilitating transactions through increased accessibility. By adhering to these

principles of the sharing economy, refugees can become financially self-sufficient and meaningfully

contribute to their host communities, arguably helping them to better integrate. Drawing on

examples from the start-up ecosystem in Germany, this section examines how social

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entrepreneurship projects within the sharing economy can facilitate the integration of Syrian

refugees.

2.3.1 The Creation of Reciprocal Economic Value

In the sharing economy, reciprocal economic value occurs when the producer and consumer

of the good or service being exchanged both experience an economic benefit. An example of this is

RelayRides, a platform that allows car owners to share their cars when they are not being utilized.cclv

In the United States, personally owned cars are unused around 92% of the time.cclvi With

RelayRides, car owners can work this statistic to their advantage. By renting their car out during its

unused time, car owners can generate revenue in the time their car would otherwise sit idle.

Reciprocally, consumers who rent these cars can benefit from lower prices and easy access to

vehicles. This reciprocity is fundamental to the sharing economy – both parties engaging in the

transaction should benefit. This is one of the core reasons that refugee integration could be

facilitated through the framework of the sharing economy. This sharing economy principle could

empower both the refugee and the host community to have a mutually beneficial exchange.

The Berlin-based non-profit group, Refugees on Rails, is another example of the reciprocal

model. Refugees on Rails is a popular three-month long course in the website programming

language, Ruby on Rails. German tech entrepreneurs founded the company in hopes that free

coding lessons could help refugees find jobs in the technology industry. This is an example of the

sharing economy’s reciprocal economic value principle: Germany is in need of highly trained

programmers and refugees are in need of employment opportunities. According to the International

Labor Organization, “Skill mismatches and occupational shifts have worsened,” with Germany

being the worst of these as it cannot fill out all the jobs available in technical fields. For example, in

Germany, there were 13,900 vacancies in engineering jobs in 2014.cclvii Refugees on Rails seeks to
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solve this problem by implementing ideas of the sharing economy, harnessing the underutilized

labour of refugees in an area of industry need.

Lessons can also be drawn from a similar initiative, ReBoot Kamp, that teaches Syrian

refugees competitive coding skills.cclviii ReBoot Kamp has a distinct business model that is in line

with the sharing economy principle of reciprocal economic value. After a refugee completes the

course, and begins working in a technology company using his or her skills, he or she pays for the

next class of refugees to move through the coding program. This is a sustainable form of P2P

lending that not only finances the coding school, but also encourages refugees to give back and help

one another to become financially self-sufficient.

At both Refugees on Rails and ReBoot Kamp, the mission is to help the operation of

technology start-ups and companies while offering refugees the opportunity to become software

developers. These courses will teach refugees how to build a website, create a mobile app, and

manage databases, all of which are invaluable skillsets in today’s technology industry.

Refugees on Rails has opened their program to involve all members of the community,

including local Germans who are donating laptops, information communication technology (ICT)

specialists who are teaching the course, and of course, to the refugees themselves who are there to

learn. Companies such as Microsoft and Google have offered classroom space, immediately

integrating refugees into a professional network and community. This example demonstrates both

components of my argument: Refugees on Rails helps refugees to become integrated with local

technology experts and companies, while ReBoot Kamp supports refugees assisting each other to

become financially self-sufficient. Thus the sharing economy has helped refugees to integrate into

their communities by finding jobs and community in the technology industry. It is important to note

that this employment is only feasible after the asylum seeker has been granted protection, and

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consequently permission to work. However, training at Refugees on Rails and ReBoot Kamp can

take place before work permits are granted.

While these programs have their advantages, there are also various shortcomings. First, there

are still many barriers to enter these courses. A refugee must know how to use a computer, how to

comprehend the language of course instruction, and be able to commit to three months of class

attendance. There is also an obstacle for Syrian women, who typically do not work outside of the

home and often lack extensive experience with computers. Nonetheless, in this particular example,

advantages outweigh the disadvantages. Programs such as coding schools may not be solutions for

all Syrian refugees in Germany, perhaps only a particular subset that is young and male, but

nonetheless the impact can be meaningful.

If the young Syrian males can integrate, they may be able to provide for and support others

in their community to do the same. In an interview, a young Syrian man named Omar, who had

found a job in a design company in Germany, explained to me that Syrians who did not speak

English or German often came to him and asked for his help. As he was more well-connected and

integrated, he did his best to help his fellow Syrians in any way he could. Arguably, other Syrians

who have had more opportunities than others may do the same, illustrating the potential for positive

“network effects” that may prompt the creation of reciprocal economic value.

Refugees on Rails illustrates how Syrian refugees can learn a valuable and competitive skill

while building connections with local community members, and how local German technology

companies can benefit by acquiring new and skilled labor. Arguably, this model where both

refugees and locals benefit creates a less discriminatory and less “Othering” environment, in which

both parties recognize the economic importance of having a relationship with one another.

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2.3.2 Making Use of Underutilized Assets

The second principle of the sharing economy is to make use of underutilized assets. From

both human and physical capital, there are tangible and intangible goods and services all around that

could be utilized more fully. The sharing economy creates a system to utilize them; looking to find

value in assets that are idling.cclix Airbnb is a classic example of this. Airbnb famously provides a

platform for homeowners to rent out spare rooms or their entire home when they are not being

used.cclx This allows Airbnb users to generate revenue from the sharing of their vacant spaces, while

customers are able to have a low-cost, personalized experience. Thus, we find here also the aspect

of reciprocity. It is important to note that like these two principles, most aspects of the sharing

economy are interconnected and overlapping.

In the case of the Syrian refugees, it is helpful to think about whom instead of what is being

underutilized. Kiron University is a Berlin-based company that tackles this question.cclxi A start-up

that provides a free and accessible online university education for refugees, Kiron helps them to

continue their pursuit of higher learning, and prepares them to contribute in meaningful ways to

their host communities. In interviews conducted for this thesis, a recent college graduate in Syria,

Mohammad, spoke about his experience. His experience put in perspective why an online university

system could be helpful for Syrian refugees.

Mohammad had been studying structural engineering for a few years when the war broke

out. When the violence in his city grew intolerable, his family decided to flee to the United States

and Germany. He was close to finishing his degree at this time, so he stayed behind to do so. He

knew he wanted to finish his education, and was willing to risk the threat of violence.

When asked if he had considering fleeing, he replied, “I want to travel in a regular way, like

on a study visa or something like that.”cclxii He wanted to contribute meaningfully to his host

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country, and therefore figured he needed to finish his degree to do so, and didn’t see a way to finish

without staying in Syria. And he wasn’t the only one. “Many of my friends have stayed here [in

Damascus]”, Mohammad explained, “and the only reason they have stayed is because they want to

finish their study in university. They have just about one or two years left, so they want to finish and

graduate, then they want to leave Syria. And that’s why I stayed too.”cclxiii

Mohammad’s problem is a common one. Education is highly valued in Syrian culture, and

understood as necessary to build a career. Mohammad and his friends preferred to live in the middle

of a warzone than to abandon their education. He described the situation, saying that, “there were a

lot of roadblocks and the university frequently closed, as things were getting worse in Syria.”cclxiv

But if he wanted to continue his education, he saw no alternative.

Kiron University therefore offers a solution for students like him - an online university

specifically for refugees who aspire to finish their degree. In this way, Kiron helps refugees be

prepared to contribute to their communities after their graduation, helping to make use of the human

capital that would otherwise be underutilized. The Chief Technology Officer (CTO) of Kiron

comments that there is a practical curriculum for the students, so they, “can study things like

computer science or business administration”.cclxv This is essential for students like Mohammad,

who see finishing their degree as a stepping stone to entering the professional workforce. The CTO

of Kiron goes on to explain, “We saw that education was something that needed to be more tailored

to the needs of students. So we had the idea of creating the product, and having refugees as the

customer.”cclxvi 80% of the Kiron students are Syrian.cclxvii

After completing their online university education, students will ideally be able to find

careers in their areas of study in order to give back to the community. Not only is this important to

help prepare Syrian refugees to contribute to their communities in Germany, but it is also helps the

future of Syria for when its educated population one day returns home with the tools to rebuild their
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nation. This is another example of how neoliberal alternatives can be effective in the place of state-

planned interventions. While government universities have many obstacles to entry for refugees,

such as language or cultural differences, Kiron offers a solution. As James Ferguson comments,

such “market mechanisms, drawing on the power of vast self-organizing networks, are very

powerful and very efficient”.cclxviii In this case, Kiron is an example of how neoliberalism can be

reconfigured to serve those who are disadvantaged.

Nonetheless, Kiron and other programs to assist Syrian refugees focus most often on

harnessing the skillsets of males. That is because their skillsets are more visible to the global

economy, and thus easier to address. A significant amount of literature notes that women are often

“invisible workers,” when their labor largely occurs within the home.cclxix Accordingly, it is

important to point out that as men are the primary job seekers in Syrian culture, and have the most

applicable skillsets to the economy, the domestic skillsets of women often go underutilized in

Germany. This is problematic as these women and their children comprise three quarters of the

Syrian refugee population.cclxx If the sharing economy is going to truly utilize idle assets, there must

be consideration for how to employ the skills of women.

Before becoming refugees, most women in Syria were housewives and homemakers. In

2011, 13% of women were in Syria’s labor force in comparison with nearly 72% of men.cclxxi

Similarly, while over 90% of men were literate, only just above 70% were for Syrian women.cclxxii

The legal age for marriage in Syria is 17, and it is not unusual for Syrian women to get married this

young.cclxxiii These examples illustrate that though Syrian women have been allowed to participate in

everyday life, they have difficulty finding a role in political, social, cultural, and economic spaces.

Their skillsets are often in homemaking and raising a family. Yet, the role of Syrian women has

begun to change outside of Syria. From a study conducted by the renowned Gottlieb Duttweiler

Institute (GDI), the tendency of gender differences arose, finding that “women share more [of their
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goods, services and time] than men, grounded in classic role allocation”.cclxxiv Frick continues and

says that, “women are indeed more actively involved in co-consumption than men (68% vs.

58%).”cclxxv

Daniela Greco, the International Rescue Committee’s women’s protection coordinator, notes

that “a sudden push by displacement and violence” has caused women to come into roles as the

breadwinner of the family.cclxxvi The husbands that traditionally would have provided for their

families are many times across the border or have been killed in conflict.cclxxvii Thus women have

found themselves in new positions, wrestling with how to engage in their new host communities in

a way that will be socially and economically beneficial to them. It is important to note that even

women who are in the company of their husbands and families may be dealing with this issue.

Between the need to provide for their families, send money home, and pay for the expenses of

building a new life and acquiring new possessions, Syrian women may feel pressure to find a job.

This situation presents a unique challenge, because the skillsets that most Syrian women

have gained from working in the home are not applicable in the labor force of their host countries.

Women have not had experience in the traditional labor force that men have had, and therefore face

significant barriers while integrating into their host community’s economy. This paper therefore

suggests that Syrian women’s unique skillsets are underutilized and could be “shared” the way the

sharing economy allocates underutilized goods and services. There are few initiatives that currently

do this. Further research and action on this topic is necessary, such as in the area of time banking

that will be explained in the chapter conclusion.

2.3.3 Exchanges Within a Community

The notion of community has been a primary focus of successful companies in the sharing

economy. This aspect of the sharing economy goes beyond the essentials of supply and demand,
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and considers the human needs of consumers and producers. Economic sociologist Mark

Granovetter points out that economic transactions such as searching for a job are more efficient

when embedded in a social network.cclxxviii Alfred Marshall, one of the founders of modern

economics, coined the phrase “industrial districts” to emphasize the importance of collaboration

between workers and entrepreneurs.cclxxix Robert Lucas, founder of rational expectations economics,

also argues that social activity is a fundamental aspect of economic systems.cclxxx These leading

economists have pointed to the significance of social interaction and community to drive economic

exchange.

The sharing economy builds off of this notion of social capital. Through ratings, reviews,

and profiles, the sharing economy focuses on building trust within a community to validate a

transaction. One example of community in the sharing economy is on the website

“DogVacay.com”, where dog owners can find other dog enthusiasts with whom to leave their dog

when they go away.cclxxxi Dog owners are comforted by use of the site because they are assured that

other dog lovers will provide one-on-one attention to their pet, and owners can receive photo and

video updates from the dog-sitter. In this online community, because individuals share a common

love for dogs, they are able to build trust and a stronger business model. Swanstrom builds off this

idea of common connection, arguing that public policy should work to “creatively build economic

restructuring on existing social solidarities”.cclxxxii

With a similar concept of community as DogVacay.com, a start-up called Migration Hub is

working to harness the potential of refugees as human capital in Berlin. The Migration Hub is a co-

working space for like-minded start-up businesses and individuals who are using social innovation

and entrepreneurship to tackle the refugee situation.cclxxxiii The founder of Migration Hub, Kathrina

Dermul, comments that she launched the project after noticing that, “a lot of stuff was being done

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by tech people [to address the refugee “crisis”], but were lacking the human-centered design

approach of involving your user”.cclxxxiv She therefore founded the gathering space with the hopes

that it would bring tech entrepreneurs and refugees to work together towards solutions to the

refugee “crisis.” Her vision directly correlates to the “new growth theory” in mainstream economics

that economist Peter Herman discusses in his paper, Economic Performance, Social Progress, and

Social Quality, which emphasizes social structure as essential to promoting growth.cclxxxv

Dermul’s Migration Hub not only provides a physical space for innovators to gather; it also

hosts programs to encourage collaboration. Recent programs include workshops in how to

crowdfund for refugee integration projects and how to improve refugee targeted language-teaching

programs. She notes, “We wanted to make people aware to include their users to create products

made for the refugees and actually used at the end of the day…I think we can’t have the greatest

tech solution ever if it doesn’t serve the needs of the people we want to support.” She explains how

she plans to do this, “I see this as my mission: to get refugees involved in the process and to also

involve them in the execution process.”cclxxxvi

Migration Hub also serves as an example of this type of user-centered innovation, as Dermul

reflects, “About half of the staff at the Migration Hub have a refugee background, and I learn so

much from them.”cclxxxvii Through its collaborative approach to entrepreneurship, the Migration Hub

is well positioned to utilize the skillsets of refugees as well as the local community to come up with

innovative solutions to the refugee crisis in Germany. In doing so, it demonstrates the potential of

the sharing economy to harness the Syrian and German community to collaboratively come up with

solutions to pressing problems. It also shows how through the sharing economy, refugees may be

able to more easily participate as they do in Dermul’s Migration Hub.

While the sharing economy encourages collaboration and exchange, it is important to note

that there is not necessarily traditional “sharing” happening. An article in the Wall Street Journal
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notes that,

Increasingly, the goods being ‘shared’ in the sharing economy were purchased expressly for

business purposes, whether it’s people renting apartments they can’t afford on the theory

that they can make up the difference on Airbnb, or drivers getting financing through partners

of ride-sharing services Uber and Lyft to get a new car to drive for those same

services.cclxxxviii

Perhaps a more accurate name for the economy of “sharing” is arguably that of “collaborative

consumption,” which refers to the sharing, swapping, trading, or renting of products and services,

enabling access over ownership.cclxxxix It is reinventing not just what we consume, but how we

consume.ccxc Nonetheless, popular press refers to “the sharing economy” in headlines such as the

“Sharing Economy Can Help Financial Struggles,”ccxci “The People Have Said ‘Yes’ to the Sharing

Economy,”ccxcii and “Can the Sharing Economy Make Politicians More Responsive?”ccxciii The term

“sharing” has a psychological effect that can lead a consumer to believe they are participating in an

economy driven by morality and a charitable form of giving when this may not be not the case.

2.3.4 Facilitating Transactions through Increased Accessibility

The fourth and final principle of the sharing economy relates to accessibility. In order to

increase the utilization of idle goods and services, it must be easier for consumers to access them.

In the past, the number of customers and producers that could access a market were those that could

physically fit into the marketplace. For example, the largest marketplace in Europe is in Krakow,

Poland, which brings together merchants from miles away to perform transactions. Nowadays,

however, Krakow’s marketplace is miniscule in comparison to the Internet; a marketplace

accessible to almost all. At the end of 2014, almost two-thirds of the European Union’s population

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used the Internet daily.ccxciv Estimates show that by the end of 2015, Facebook alone will have a

greater population than the entire country of China.ccxcv

Such collaborative consumption is a key reason that the sharing economy has grown to the

magnitude that it has (both of the prior examples of Airbnb and RelayRides are companies that have

flourished online) because the connectivity between individuals on the Internet is all that is

necessary for transactions to take place. The Internet is unique in that it provides space for the

strangers to interact, regardless of social, geographic, or economic differences.

The accessibility component of the sharing economy puts emphasis on online sharing

through P2P marketplaces and could be transformational in the experience of refugees. The

technological advances of mobile phones and Internet allow Syrian refugees to find consistent

access to resources using online platforms. As an article in The New York Times notes, “[this] is

driven by the tens of thousands of middle-class Syrians who have been displaced by war. Such tools

are by no means limited to them.”ccxcvi Syrian refugees are familiar with the use of the Internet to

share goods and services. In fact, many use Facebook to go through a “How to Emigrate to Europe”

group with 39,304 members in order to share information about how to seek asylum.ccxcvii The

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, who is responsible for the majority

of Syrian refugees, has distributed 33,000 SIM cards to Syrian refugees in Jordan.ccxcviii Therefore,

Syrian refugees are familiar with using and sharing through mobile and online services, and will

quickly be able to adopt the online sharing aspects of the sharing economy.

While the advantages of the sharing economy’s concept of reciprocal economic benefit are

numerous, it is important to note the prevailing sharing economy critiques. The sharing economy

fits with Mason’s argument in The End of Capitalism Has Begun, stating that capitalism, “will be

abolished by creating something more dynamic that exists, at first, almost unseen within the old

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system, but which will break through, reshaping the economy around new values and

behaviors”.ccxcix Optimists such as Mason have argued that the sharing economy offers an alternative

to capitalism. However, as the sharing economy has grown, it has proven to perpetuate the same

monopoly of power, wealth inequality, and boom and bust cycles that capitalism does. William

Alden notes:

The so-called sharing economy is supposed to offer a new kind of capitalism, one where

regular folks, enabled by efficient online platforms, can turn their fallow assets into cash

machines...But the reality is that these markets also tend to attract a class of well-heeled

professional operators, who outperform the amateurs — just like the rest of the economy.ccc

The sharing economy is capable of producing similar negative outcomes as existing forms of

capitalism. Among the greatest of these is income inequality. A study by the OECD showed that the

move towards more “non-standard work” in place of full-time jobs actually hurts the economy and

its laborers. In an economy with numerous part-time and temporary jobs, more low-skilled workers

have access to the labor market, but at the consequence of greater inequalities in wages and

benefits. One example of this comes from Uber, which recently claimed that their New York drivers

were making a median income of $90,000 a year.ccci An investigation found that none of their

employees were actually making close to this amount, and were in fact making significantly less.cccii

The investigation found that Uber had both lowered the rates that drivers were paid per trip, and

increased the amount that they took of that wage, causing Uber drivers to earn close to a minimum

wage.ccciii The OECD argues that reducing the income inequality that harms growth should start not

with reducing poverty or other social initiatives, but rather addressing low incomes more broadly.

The sharing economy may be unable to do this, however, as it may simply transition low income

wages from shift-work to non-standard jobs. Nonetheless, while important to recognize these

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critiques as they relate to capitalism, as argued in the introduction, this paper does not seek to break

free of capitalism, but simply to work within the system already in place.

2.4 Conclusion

This chapter argues that instead of facing the barriers in the formal economy, refugees

should seek integration and financial self-sufficiency through the sharing economy. Government

and other organizations could facilitate this by supporting initiatives such as Kiron University,

Migration Hub, and Refugees on Rails. Sharing economy scholar Alex Stephany notes, the sharing

economy is a force that is revolutionizing the way the economy works anyway. The support for the

sharing economy is already in place, and we just need to consider how to include refugees in it. The

EU has already recognized that the sharing economy has in common many of its goals, including to

increase resource efficiency, create jobs, support micro-entrepreneurship, build community

participation, and advance digital innovation. The EU has therefore launched the “European Sharing

Economy Coalition” to support policies that put an emphasis on growing the sharing economy.ccciv

Its four goals entail mainstreaming, sustaining, scaling, and financing the European sharing

economy. Three of the four main organizations that promote the sharing economy – OuiShare,

Echo, and the European Sharing Economy Coalition – are based in Europe.cccv

Further research could explore how the sharing economy could help Syrian refugees in the

period before they are able to legally work in Germany, when they are more burdensome due to

initial obstacles. In an interview, Syrian social entrepreneur and CEO of ArabShare, Ahmad Sufijan

explained a concept of time banking that could be relevant in this interim, particularly for the

underutilized skills of women. Ahmad runs a start-up competition for entrepreneurs in Syria, and

this year’s winners created what he explains as an “offline time banking application as a solution for

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them to help Syrian youth to build more skills, resources, by using the time currency”.cccvi He

explains how time currency works:

Time banking is when you do someone a favor and instead of paying you in currency, they

pay you in an hour. Then you can take this hour to take to pay to someone else, to pay them

for another initiative. So for example, if you do a translation for me, that will take you one

hour. So I’ll give you one hour, then you go to someone else, for example, to translate

Arabic for you or teach you how to code and they’ll charge you that hour.cccvii

Ahmad explained that in the warzone, “people participate in the sharing economy due to

lack of resources.”cccviii There are few other alternatives for transactions and exchange. In a small

city, he told me, there is a club of over three hundred people who use time banking to create a

sharing economy. “Among them, they’ve exchanged something like 2,500 hours,”cccix Ahmad said

proudly.

In an environment in Germany where Syrian refugees are newly arrived and lack resources,

their economic situation is not entirely dissimilar to when they are in the warzone. They have

limited opportunities for transactions and exchange, and arguably in this setting, the time banking

system and broader sharing economy framework could offer potential opportunities for Syrians in

Germany. Moreover, Ahmad notes that most Syrians come from a society that is familiar with

sharing. Thus, while helpful to promote long term integration, initiatives in the sharing economy

such as time banking could be used as short term solutions before refugees are legally permitted to

work.

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3. How The Technology Sector Can Serve Syrian Refugees

What I’m saying is that we have one of the greatest opportunities probably in the history of human

civilization in the opportunities that are coming, in terms of the economy and technology. Why not

apply this great opportunity to solve one of the greatest problems were facing in the world: the

refugee crisis? cccx

– Dave Levin, Refugee Open Ware

3.1 Introduction

On February 9th, individuals from the technology industry came together to discuss solutions

to the refugee “crisis” at the Techfugees conference in New York City (Fig. 10). At this forum,

Melissa Powers, the United States ambassador to the United Nations, spoke not to her usual

political audience, but to a room of two hundred entrepreneurs, including coders, engineers, data

scientists, journalists, lawyers, and students, who shared a common goal of using technology to

address the refugee crisis. At the end of her talk about the importance of this work, Ambassador

Powers scanned the crowd with a solemn expression, “This is a 21st century crisis,” she stated, “and

we need a 21st century solution”.

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Fig. 9. Entrepreneurs in the room during a breakout session at the Techfugees conference.cccxi

The room fell silent for a moment, as the weight of responsibility seemed to sink in. The

conference was full of young, Silicon Valley techies who were handing out Twitter handles instead

of business cards; the kind of twenty-somethings who took notes on tablets instead of notepads, and

wore smart watches on their wrists. Why was an ambassador to the most influential global

governance organization looking to these individuals for a solution to one of the most urgent issues

facing the world today? What could their technology start-ups have to do with refugees?

The argument is that there needs to be an alternative to dependency-creating aid structures,

in order to give agency to refugees. The technology sector can arguably offer this alternative. It

offers opportunities to improve integration of refugees and enables them to contribute in a

meaningful way to their host communities.

Information and knowledge provided through technology is essential to social and

economic development.cccxii Hassan and Rachid assert that technology is a “core catalyst” for

socioeconomic progress.cccxiii The individuals participating in the Techfugees conference are

evidently not the only ones thinking about this topic. Similar to the sharing economy, the

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technology sector is a new part of the global economy, offering new ways for refugees and host

countries to mutually benefit.

3.2 A Growing Start-up Culture in Germany

According to the German Center for Research and Innovation, Germany is a country of

“ideas, inventions, and innovations”.cccxiv German companies file the third most Patent Cooperation

Treaty patents in technology sectors, demonstrating their commitment to creating new products and

services.cccxv A famous guide to international business calls Germany an international leader in

science and technology.cccxvi Meanwhile, the World Economic Forum’s “Global Competitiveness

Report” ranks Germany eighth out of 139 countries for innovation.cccxvii This is in part because the

government supports research and development, spending around 12 billion Euros on it in

2009.cccxviii Without a doubt, embedded in German culture is a dedication to technological

innovation.

Despite this commitment, however, it is important to note that mature companies drive most

of this research and development activity. Start-ups and entrepreneurialism is not common, as a

majority of German employees work for established companies started decades prior.cccxix According

to Nicola Breugst, a professor at the Technical University Munich’s Entrepreneurship Research

Institute, “Germans don’t view entrepreneurship that positively. In other countries, entrepreneurs

have a better reputation, but not in Germany”.cccxx She observes that there is a cultural fear of failure,

and this may be what keeps many Germans from starting their own businesses. According to the

Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Global Report in 2014, Germany was the 12th least entrepreneurial

country in the world, with only 2.3% of the population identifying as entrepreneurs.cccxxi

According to the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, there are nearly 65 million entrepreneurs

globally who plan on providing twenty or more jobs in the next five years, and 69 million people
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who plan to offer innovative products and services in the market.cccxxii The Global Entrepreneurship

Monitor found that there was a global steady increase in total economic activity that was

contributing to the growth of several economies.cccxxiii German leaders have recognized these

positive outcomes of entrepreneurial activity. Accordingly, the Social Democrat Party’s Economics

Minister Sigmar Gabriel wants to give start-up businesses more tax breaks and provide them with

easier access to the stock market,cccxxiv with the aim that these policies will encourage established

companies to invest in German start-ups; an essential step in helping the entrepreneurship culture to

grow. The German government has also set aside state funding for citizens to found new companies.

It has also launched a high-tech venture capital firm.cccxxv

If the German commitment to research and development, and the promotion of innovation

could be combined with a new push in entrepreneurship, it is conceivable that a successful start-up

dynamic could emerge to produce innovative technological services and products.

3.3 Case Studies: Syrian Refugees in the Technology Sector

The use of technology has risen dramatically in Germany and among Syrian refugees.

Studies show that a majority of Syrian refugees are familiar with mobile phones and other forms of

technology.cccxxviAcross the world today, there are almost 7 billion mobile phone subscriptions, and

5 billion of those are in developing nations like Syria.cccxxvii Results from a survey conducted for this

paper show that 93% of research participants owned a smartphone (see Appendix B).

According to an interview with a Syrian engineer named Ahmad, who was newly arrived to

Germany, “Technology can play a significant role in the integration process, as most of the refugees

already have smartphones that they normally use for communication with their families, navigation,

searching for supermarkets and flats, etc.”cccxxviii Some of this technology played a large role in

assisting the Syrian refugees in their journey to Europe. Ahmad notes that many refugees
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“participate in many groups on Facebook to get information from the older refugees, who can share

their experiences with them there.”cccxxix The refugees have access to diverse kinds of information

from their mobile phones, including maps and service providers, as they seek asylum.

Another Syrian individual living in Germany, Abed, noted that technology “is helpful in

various aspects and in so many ways…”cccxxx He claims, “A lot of people I met were able to navigate

in an easy way using these apps, even during their long trip on the way to Germany”.cccxxxi He

continues, “I searched the net to learn more about grammar and enhance my vocabulary, using some

free apps.”cccxxxii He also talked about how refugees “used available apps to learn about city traffic

and transport possibilities between cities” or even to “book their bus, train trips or Ridesharing

services.”cccxxxiii Clearly, refugees utilize technology services to help them along through in their

journey to Europe. According to the International Rescue Committee, the second most common

question when a refugee arrives on the shores of Lesvos, Greece is “Do you have Wi-Fi?”cccxxxiv This

question is more common than the question, “Where can I buy food and water?” illustrating the

necessity of connectivity to refugees.

Technology has helped aid workers to provide refugees with necessary services during their

journey. Geo-location features on mobile phones have also allowed data scientists to study

migration patterns and trends.cccxxxv Technology has also abetted public-private partnerships to help

refugees. For example, the UNHCR Innovation division has collaborated with the United Postal

Service to launch a system that will track the delivery of services and non-food items to refugees to

ensure their arrival.cccxxxvi

In 2010, a similar tracking system, called Refugees United, launched through a free mobile

service. Refugees United is a family tracing service carried out through NGOs, which allows

individuals possessing even the most basic technologies to connect with one another. The service

now has about 250,000 registered users, successfully transitioning family tracing away from the
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laborious and usually ineffective pen and paper methods.cccxxxvii Refugees and aid agencies have

begun collaborating to create maps that provide information about camps, border crossings,

transportation, and other crucial services.

This collaboration is interesting, because it is a departure from the traditional roles of aid

agencies as benefactors and refugees as beneficiaries. On open source maps such as the one shown

below (Fig. 10), refugees can access information about where they may find food distribution or

legal assistance.cccxxxviii This kind of open-source sharing is in line with the sharing economy, where

information is shared and collected collaboratively.

Figure 10: Screenshot of an open source map of the refugee routes through the Balkans.cccxxxix

Similarly, the website refugeemaps.org provides information and geolocation of specific

organizations that serve refugees, particularly on mainland Europe.cccxl Google MyMaps has also

created an initiative to map details about locations and services in areas with a large refugee

population.cccxli There has also been an open-source Google document titled “Balkan Route” that

shares important information using a combination of Emojis, Arabic, and English.cccxlii NGOs and

refugees have shared general advice there such as, “Taxi drivers are not your friends,” as well as

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location specific guidance, such as in Gevglija, MK, where the site explains that “registration in

camp is mandatory”.cccxliii

These resources are crowd-sourced, meaning that refugees are often those who build the

site’s content themselves by sharing data and information. These resources are accessible and

modifiable to any refugees who own or are able to navigate a mobile phone, making it easier to

receive assistance using this model of community-based sharing. Nonetheless, there are still barriers

(the maps are in English and the resource lists are disorganized). Still, these technologies do help

refugees become more self-reliant during their journey.

Technology transcends borders, which makes it a powerful tool to understand, provide

assistance for, and monitor the multinational refugee movement. It has enabled refugees to help one

another through the use of open-source platforms and crowdsourcing initiatives. Still, it is

nonetheless important to consider the ways that such technological solutions fall short.

Prominent web security researcher Thomas Nachbar observes that the Internet is widely

unregulated and there are evident dangers in this. cccxliv Other security researchers build on this

notion, asserting that despite the $7 billion that are spent each year on online security software, the

Internet is becoming less secure.cccxlv This is in part due to the professional criminal and terror

groups who have gained the technological skillsets to carry out attacks online.

This paper also assumes that most refugees are already using technology. The majority of

them will not be buying smartphones or computers for the first time to help them in their journey,

they will have already been using them, as the earlier statistics have shown. Therefore, although

there are security risks inherent to technology use, they are not new risks that refugees would be

taking on by using technology solutions.

Another shortcoming of these technology solutions is in the risk of a refugee’s dependence

on them. Geo-location with services such as GPS, for example, becomes for many refugees the only
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tool they use to navigate their journey through Europe. One Syrian refugee recently told the BBC,

“Without Google Maps we would be lost. Without digital technology, we can’t reach there”.cccxlvi

Many refugees depend on their phones’ GPS and geolocation services to tell them where they are

and where to go. While useful, this is not the only way that technology solutions can be helpful –

that is, GPS should not be the only solution available to refugees. There are various ways this

technology can fail. GPS often lacks coverage where signal may be blocked, such as in urban areas

or where there are obstructions between the user and the satellite.cccxlvii If geo-location fails, the

refugee could become lost and misguided, possibly without even realizing it. Then there is the issue

that in order to use geo-location services, an individual must have access to the Internet and a

functional device. It is quite possible that in the remote parts of the Balkans, through which many

refugees travel to get to countries such as Germany, the Internet signal could be weak or lost, and

the refugee would be stranded with no access to Internet. However, researchers predict that geo-

location services will dramatically improve in accuracy over the next decade, which may alleviate

future concerns.cccxlviii

Recent innovations in technology have also shown the potential to support the newly arrived

individuals with online skill training platforms. As with the sharing economy, technology solutions

could be used in this interim before refugees are legally able to work in order to provide them with

opportunities for skill development and engagement. In an interview with Syrian refugee Juan, he

supported this notion, saying that, “Through technology, refugees can get to know more and more

about the German lifestyle.”cccxlix Juan is one of many refugees interviewed who uses technology to

connect with his local community.

An example of technology solutions for refugees is the Welcome to Dresden mobile

application that was launched to help refugees learn about available services and resources in the

city. Peggy Reuter-Heinrich, the CEO of Heinrich and Reuter Solutions, said there were many
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initiatives to help refugees integrate, but they were not readily available to refugees. So she decided

to launch Welcome to Dresden.

When asylum seekers first arrive, they have more than three months where they can only

wait…it’s really complicated to find out what to do, how to access the health system, get

food. It’s important to do something at the beginning until they are allowed to work, go to

school and then afterwards the system works quite well.cccl

The Welcome to Dresden application therefore provides refugees with information about local

organizations and initiatives they may benefit from. It is currently available in English, French,

German, Arabic, and Russian to make it even more accessible. Syrian refugee Juan describes the

helpfulness of social media applications, commenting that, “Social media apps play the largest role

in integration process[es] especially if they are managed by German people and directed to the

refugee community”.cccli He explains that “through the help of technology, refugees can get to know

more and more about the German lifestyle.”ccclii

In host communities, technology services such as Welcome to Dresden have been important

tools to assist the refugees in integrating and becoming self-sufficient. It demonstrates how if

refugees could access opportunities that empower them socioeconomically, their integration could

be improved and they could contribute meaningfully to their communities.

In this sense, it is important to think of technology as embedded within a broader societal

context. Saskia Sassan suggests that society and technology constantly overlap, commenting that

there “is no purely digital economy and no completely virtual corporation or community…power,

contestation, inequality, hierarchy…inscribe electronic space and shape the production of

software”.cccliii She notes that there are “complex interactions” between the physical and the digital

world, and it is essential to account for them.cccliv Therefore, technological solutions should not exist

by themselves. They should be integrated with and complemented by non-technological programs

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for integration, such as community-based efforts, to avoid the development of inequality or

hierarchy.

An example of how technology can facilitate integration comes from the apartment-sharing

website “Refugees Welcome.” In 2014, three young Germans founded Refugees Welcome to

provide an online service in what has been called an “Airbnb for refugees”.ccclv The site allows local

Germans to offer a room in their home to an asylum-seeker and to accommodate them for as long as

they wish. This is an example of a program that fits in with Sessen’s framework of overlap between

technology and society. Though facilitated through an online platform, Refugees Welcome

promotes refugees to interact with Germans in the physical world. A founder of Refugees Welcome

notes, “We have people [hosts] like bus drivers and carpenters, to doctors and scientists”. ccclvi The

diverse array of people helps to advance the mission of Refugees Welcome to not only provide

basic housing services, but also the opportunity for refugees to integrate with their community.

“Living together is a key part of the project so if you have an empty flat, we turn you down because

that’s not what this project is about,” one co-founder of Refugees Welcome says. “It’s about living

with people and getting to know them”. ccclvii

Experiences such as those Refugees Welcome offer are essential, as there are a number of

sociocultural challenges that refugees face that would be difficult to facilitate through technology

alone. Fundamental to these is the concept of “Othering,” as first introduced by Said, which

Katherine Ewing describes as “racism” and “discrimination against minorities”.ccclviii ccclix In her book,

Stolen Honor, Ewing describes various controversies related to the integration of Muslims into

German society, such as the German public finding it troublesome that a Muslim teacher can wear a

headscarf in school. She cites these kinds of issues as evidence of a clash between Islamic practices

and German national identity. This was exemplified in 2000, when a conservative German

politician proposed a policy that focused on preserving a sense of “Germanness” and national
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identity in the midst of the large numbers of Turkish immigrants who had arrived as guest

workers.ccclx It is conceivable that a similar desire to protect German identity may occur with the

mass arrivals of Syrian refugees. As this is more of a political issue, it would be difficult to address

with technology and instead likely requires a real-world solution.

In reality, technology solutions can only facilitate integration; cooperation, acceptance, and

community welcome are also necessary for these initiatives to be successful. Therefore, the

examples and argument of this section assume that the German community will be receptive to

these innovations and welcoming towards refugees. This paper argues that some of these

technological innovations may also prompt Germans to see refugees in a different light, as self-

sufficient innovators and problem solvers that contribute meaningfully to the economy, which may

positively affect the sociological integration of refugees.

Though technology solutions, such as Refugees Welcome and Welcome to Dresden, have an

innovative nature, these technologies are still delivered in ways that reflect a traditional model of

relief assistance described in Chapter One. This section therefore considers not only technology

innovations that could help refugees, but also further explores the way assistance is conceptualized

and delivered. Through technology, refugees may not only benefit from services offered by the host

communities, but they may also use it to add value back.

The Arabic language-learning program Natakallam is an illustration of this. Through the

online platform, Arabic students can be matched with native Syrian Arabic speakers in order to

practice their speaking skills.ccclxi The Syrian conversation partners are refugees, and many come

from well-educated backgrounds. Sara, co-founder of Natakallam, notes that, “There’s this whole

group of middle-class Syrians who were really on their way to completing their degrees – who

might have had small businesses – a whole group of people that are really in need of support”.ccclxii

However, she continues on to emphasize that assistance is not a one-way street. “Frequently, people
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who study in the United States will go to Jordan, to Lebanon, and they’re speaking pretty much a

Shakespearean version of Arabic. There’s an increase in demand for the spoken version of the

language.”ccclxiii Sara’s words are evidence for the reciprocal model of assistance. That is, there are

refugees in need of income and work that the customer can provide to them. Meanwhile, the

refugees can also use their unique skillsets (i.e., cultural and language capital) to provide a valuable

service to individuals.

While initiatives such as Natakallam help refugees to support themselves as well as add

value to their host community, Syrians can also use technology to help their fellow refugees in

Germany. The results in a survey conducted for this paper showed that more than half of

participants had volunteered or helped out in some way with their fellow Syrian refugee population

(see Appendix B). A young man named Salah serves as an example of how this can be done. Salah

is a Syrian engineer who was living in Germany during the mass arrivals of refugees in 2015. He

noticed that many highly skilled Syrians where unable to utilize their skillsets. He gives the

example of “a friend who has a Ph.D. in chemistry, who is searching for a job for a while with no

success so far. And he is doing an hourly wage in non-relevant field.”ccclxiv Salah noticed that

refugees “need some assistance in the application process - for example, on how to write a CV, how

to search for the right job, and understanding what the different positions are that fit with their

skills.”ccclxv He wanted to do something to help his Syrian peers in this way, and set about doing it.

When he observed that refugees “participate in many groups on Facebook to get

information from the older migrants who share their experiences with them,”ccclxvi he decided to start

a Facebook group himself, specifically designed for Syrian engineers in Germany (Fig. 11). He did

this “to help other engineers to find a job or training.”ccclxvii To date, he posts almost daily about

“different subjects to explain how to write a CV or an application letter, and how to prepare for an

interview.”ccclxviii
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“Additionally”, he comments, “I helped many refugees to search for positions, according to

their skills.”ccclxix Salah uses his knowledge of Arabic to help explain to these Syrian refugee

engineers how the job recruitment process in Germany works. He uses his cultural understanding of

Syria, as well as his knowledge of the German economy, to serve as a bridge between the Syrian

engineers and their new environment in Germany. The group he built also allows other qualified

people in a similar situation to help other refugees.

Fig. 11. A screenshot of Salah's Facebook group called “Syrian Entrepreneurs in Germany”, with nearly 4,000

active members.ccclxx

Salah’s efforts are a poignant example of how Syrians give back to members of their own

community, particularly those who have already integrated into Germany. These ideas are not

dissimilar to those of the sharing economy, which encourages the exchange of ideas and advice for

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stronger transactions. Significant positive impacts of migration are largely the results of these

“network effects”.ccclxxi McKenzie suggests that migrant networks are established after the first

migrants arrive, and effectively lower the cost of migrants who come later by assisting them with

accommodation and employment.ccclxxii These networks, such as Salah’s Facebook group, not only

removes some obstacles for migrants, but also help them to have a sense of community and

belonging immediately upon their arrival.

Though positive in the short term, self-grouping from network effects can actually hinder

the refugees’ long-term integration. There is a risk in becoming isolated from the local community

outside the refugee network. In 1985, researchers Portes and Bach showed the extent to which this

can happen in “ethnic enclaves” that were developing in major cities in the United States at the

time.ccclxxiii A more recent example comes from Edmond Préteceille, who studies the banlieues of

Paris, where there are communities of immigrants distinctly segregated from the locals.ccclxxiv

Préteceille notes that there are a variety of reasons for self-aggregation, such as language, religion,

or especially economics.ccclxxv The economic argument Préteceille makes is similar the network

effects that McKenzie discusses, which is that self-aggregation happens when “your ethnic group’s

social network may be in a position to help you find work or housing”.ccclxxvi Technology is unique

in that it makes any size community viable because it is not constrained to the local market alone.

It is important to have a nuanced understanding of network effects, and the possible

consequences of self-grouping. For instance, there are various reasons why self-grouping occurs

beyond the reasons already listed. For example, Préteceille asserts that economic agents and public

agencies making “micro decisions” to discriminate against minorities may be another factor that

results in self-grouping and isolation.ccclxxvii So although McKenzie may assert that migrants

themselves create these networks, Préteceille argues that they only create them out of necessity, as

they cannot get the support they need from their host community.ccclxxviii The complex causes and
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effects of immigrant networks and groups are important to consider when we aim to build

successful initiatives based on a model of “Syrians helping Syrians,” such as Salah’s Facebook

group.

Though this section has given priority focus to ICT projects, as those constitute the majority

of technology solutions for refugees, it is important to note that technological innovations for

refugees can come in any form. In an interview, Dave Levin describes the present day and age as

“the next industrial revolution,” and notes that a variety of new technologies have recently emerged

that could have significant influence on the world today.ccclxxix Few people would think to connect

innovations such as 3D printing, artificial intelligence, or robotics to the refugee situation, but Levin

and his team at Refugee Open Ware have done exactly that.ccclxxx

Refugee Open ware is a company that focuses on providing conflict affected communities

with advanced manufacturing tools, so they can create the solutions to the problems they face on

their own.ccclxxxi Their aim is to lower the cost of humanitarian relief, while also empowering the

affected community to solve their own problems. According to Levin:

We have one of the greatest opportunities probably in the history of human civilization, in

terms of the opportunities that are coming in the economy and technology. Why not apply

this great opportunity to solve one of the greatest problems were facing in the world: the

refugee crisis?ccclxxxii

Levin goes on to explain how Refugee Open Ware has been printing 3D limbs and designing eco-

location devices for the blind. He tells the story of Hasem, a Syrian living in a Jordanian refugee

camp. The team at Refugee Open Ware taught Hasem how to use a 3D printer. “And what was

incredible…was that we taught him how to use a 3D printer within 2 weeks, and within one more

week, he had 3D printed a prosthetic limb for a refugee boy. And within 3 days, he learned how to

program an eco-location device for his friend, Ahmad, who was blinded in the war.”ccclxxxiii Such
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examples illustrate that Syrians can have the ability to improve their circumstances through the use

of technology.

Figure 12: The young boy who had a prosthetic limb made for him, which he uses to pick up his toys.ccclxxxiv

Levin goes on to say, “A lot of people think, ‘why do refugees need advanced technology

and why don’t we just start with the very basic stuff?’ But I think what’s really great about the next

industrial revolution is that it is fundamentally about the democratization of production.”ccclxxxv

According to Levin, technologies like 3D printing are making it easy and possible for anyone to

create solutions. He also advocates that refugees should be given the tools to help themselves.

Through the examples from Refugee Open Ware, we can begin to understand how empowering and

training refugees to use technology is a cost-effective, efficient, and productive way to address the

problems they face. Not only that, but empowering refugees through technology may begin to

address the stigmatization and view that they are an economic burden. As innovators and problem

solvers, refugees could be viewed in a more positive light not only economically, but also socially.

Still, it is essential to keep in mind where technological solutions fall short. According to

Boieri, current interest around technological innovation has “led some to question the exaggerated

optimism of information society as linked to creating enterprising subjects within neoliberal

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frameworks.ccclxxxvi This is important to consider as it could perpetuate the inequalities that many

scholars argue are inherent in neoliberal policies.ccclxxxvii

This is of significance for refugees, as there are those who are unable to use technology due

to their educational background, geographic origin, or financial situation. We have to remember that

there are “social factors, technical factors, financial factors, and legal policy factors” that serve as

barriers to integration.ccclxxxviii If an individual hails from a remote part of Syria, or a nomadic tribe,

he or she may not be familiar with technology. Or if a refugee lacks financial resources to pay for

the technology and Internet access, he or she will be unable to benefit from technology-based

initiatives. By shifting to technology-based support for refugees, there is a risk of excluding and

further disadvantaging those who have never had such resources to begin with. This is why it is

imperative that technological solutions first emphasize providing access and education to all who

wish to use them. As Wajcman notes, we need to accordingly see technology as a “socio-technical”

product.ccclxxxix Further research should explore how women could receive training and be included

in these initiatives, and how they could be equipped to teach their children.

It is also important to consider the obstacle of accessibility. Individuals who are partially

sighted, dyslexic, or have a hearing impairment, among other disabilities, will likely have difficulty

utilizing the technology solutions.cccxc According to experts in visually impaired technology use,

accessibility and mobility are particularly key issues for blind users.cccxci While progress on assistive

technologies has been made, such as audio feedback to guide visually impaired technology users, it

still falls short. As some refugees may have impairments, possibly as a result of the war in Syria, it

is important to consider that technology solutions do discriminate by nature. Researchers in the field

of web access, Brophy and Craven, suggest that this could be improved with better design of

technology platforms. For example, instead of having a user interface made entirely of text, it could

include audio, visuals, and multimedia.cccxcii Henry asserts that everyone should have the right to
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access the Internet, regardless of their situation, and technology solutions should therefore consider

these barriers in order to be as inclusive as possible.

3.4 Conclusion

Technology has proved to be useful in helping to integrate and empower Syrian refugees in

Germany. As innovations such as GPS tracking transcends borders, technology has also enabled aid

workers to better reach refugees and understand their movements on their way to Germany.

Examples of initiatives in the technology sector are diverse. This chapter draws on examples from

the field of advanced technology to show how robotics and 3D printing can lower the cost of

humanitarian relief, while also empowering the affected community to solve their own problems.

Other examples stem from technology’s interaction with the sociocultural aspects of refugee

integration, such as Refugees Welcome’s online platform to encourage refugees’ interactions with

Germans. Many of the examples in this chapter, such as the open-source aid maps, are in line with

the sharing economy, where information is shared and collected collaboratively. This consequently

empowers refugees to have agency to help themselves to improve their situation.

While technology is part of the response we should consider to help refugees, it is not the

sole solution for Syrian refugee integration in Germany. Technology solutions, particularly those

that are web-based, need to be complemented by real world goods and services. Most technology

solutions cannot provide a refugee with food, water, or shelter. Rather, technology appears to be

most effective when it is used to share information about how to find those necessary goods and

services. These tech-oriented solutions are not meant to solve all the problems refugees face, but

can help offer support and guidance to empower the refugees to solve some on their own.

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Final Conclusion
This paper examines the role of alternative economic systems to improve the integration

experience of Syrian refugees in Germany. Using interviews and case studies from German

entrepreneurs and Syrian refugees, it explores the role of the sharing economy and technological

innovation in the context of the 2015-2016 European “refugee crisis.” While Chapters Two and

Three examine the sharing economy and technology sector independently, the two subjects are

tightly connected with one another. They both offer an alternative in terms of greater economic

accessibility and ease of exchange in the market. Technology provides the infrastructure that

improves accessibility and enables exchanges in the sharing economy to happen. Meanwhile,

principles of the sharing economy such as the open exchange of ideas and other forms of

intellectual collaboration, have given rise to various technological advancements.

An illustrative example of both of the sharing economy and technological innovation is

Bitcoin. Bitcoin is a significant technological innovation of our time - a mathematical based digital

currency that can be traded for sales as well as exchanged for traditional non-digital currencies.

According to author Emily Little, this digital currency illustrates principles of the sharing economy

in that Bitcoin’s “value and security are inherently dependent upon the trust of the Bitcoin

community”.cccxciii Little notes that, “Bitcoin has value because its users ascribe value to it and are

willing to trade it for things and services of value”.cccxciv Bitcoin illustrates components of the

sharing economy in other ways too. For example, the process of creating a Bitcoin involves

complex sharing in a network using a collaborative public ledger system called block-chain.cccxcv

When combined, the sharing economy and the technology sector serve as a meaningful

avenue for economic engagements. Bitcoin is important in the context of this paper because it

shows how combinations of these alternative systems can add value to humanitarian causes. In an

interview conducted for this paper, a software engineer at the most prominent BitCoin exchange
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platform CoinBasecccxcvi explained,

For refugees on the move, it can be hard to move cash/money, especially between countries.

Government may have ceased assets in banks or cash may be taken from you at checkpoints.

You also cannot be paid (as banks are controlled by government) for work if the host nation

does not allow it (like in the case of Turkey). Bitcoin gets around all these controls, no one

can stop you sending or receiving it. cccxcvii

Bitcoin illustrates the interconnectedness of the sharing economy and technology innovation, as

well as how together these new areas of the economy can add social value, particularly in the case

of refugees. Though there are shortcomings of this currency for refugee use, such as the inability to

monitor or track transactions that can lead to illegal or risky exchanges, these drawbacks are

outnumbered by the numerous benefits. It is also important to point out that the argument for

BitCoin, as well as many other solutions in this paper, is in line with views of technological

optimism. According to authors James Krier and Clayton Gillette, technological optimism will be

able to rise above politics.cccxcviii However, there are many problems that technology solutions cannot

address, such as racism between the host communities and refugees, or gender conflicts within

familial structures when women go to work. Further research could explore precisely what issues

are beyond the solutions of the technology sector and alternative strategies to address them.

While this thesis has focused on specific examples of how the sharing economy and the

technology sector can benefit Syrian refugees in Germany, this paper argues that many of these

arguments can be extrapolated to other contexts. As migration trends continue globally, both the

sharing economy and the technology sector are on the rise as well.

Botsman and Rogers suggest that the sharing economy could be as important as the

Industrial Revolution in changing the way people think about ownership.cccxcix There are already

billions of people in the world participating in the sharing economy. In Europe, Nielsen data found
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that 54% of Europeans were willing to share their own assets, and 44% were willing to share from

others.cd Another statistic shows that there are 30,000 cooperatives that have 1 billion members

globally, which is more than the number of people working for multinational corporations,

demonstrating society’s engagement in this area. The projected revenue of the sharing economy is

estimated to be $335 billion by 2025.cdi In the Harvard Business Review, Robin Chase emphasizes

governments’ need to give more recognition to “this new third way of working which is neither full-

time nor temporary part-time, but a new way of life”.cdii

In terms of technology, there is also significant progress in European engagement. Across

Europe, there are 250 million people who use the Internet daily. Driven by such Internet usage, the

digital economy is growing 7 times as fast as the rest of the economy.cdiii As a result of this, the ICT

sector comprises around 5% of the entire EU economy.cdiv A continent connected to wide-range

cellular towers, with world leading universities and top ranking research firms, Europe is home to

numerous technology innovations and will likely bring forth even more. The principles of the

sharing economy and the innovations in the technology sector are relevant across Europe – not only

in Germany.

Importantly, while these alternative economic systems are relevant in countries across

Europe outside of Germany, they are also applicable in various refugee populations besides Syrians.

In refugee camps in parts of Africa, the NGO Refugees United uses refugees’ personal information

from their mobile phone data to help reconnect separated family members.cdv This work shows how

technology and crowdsourcing (based off of principles of the sharing economy) can help improve

the situation of refugees. Further research could explore how principles of the sharing economy and

the technology sector could be replicated elsewhere to improve the livelihoods of host communities

and refugee populations alike.

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One specific area of investigation could be how refugees could impact underdeveloped or

underprivileged communities, not only in the EU, but also around the world. As skilled human

capital, refugee populations have the potential to utilize their abilities to rebuild communities. A

recent article in The New York Times, “Let Syrians Settle Detroit” explains:

Detroit, a once great city, has become an urban vacuum. Its population has fallen to around

700,000 from nearly 1.9 million in 1950. The city is estimated to have more than 70,000

abandoned buildings and 90,000 vacant lots. Meanwhile, desperate Syrians, victims of an

unfathomable civil war, are fleeing to neighboring countries, with some 1.8 million in

Turkey and 600,000 in Jordan. Suppose these two social and humanitarian disasters were

conjoined to produce something positive.cdvi

As refugees need a safe place to settle, and there are many towns that need human driven

revitalization, there is potential to combine these two needs for a meaningful outcome. This article

by David Laitin and Marc Jahr notes that Syrian refugees, despite their traumatic experiences, have

still managed to be entrepreneurial.cdvii Similarly, of those surveyed for this paper, well over half had

either run their own business in the past or had aspirations of running their own business in the

future (see Appendix B). It is possible that through modes of sharing and technological tools

exemplified by the case of Syrian refugees in Germany, other refugees could utilize their skillsets to

have a positive economic impact.

While the focus of this paper has been on Syrian refugees adding value to their communities

in Germany, and how similar lessons can be drawn for other refugees adding value to communities

outside of their origin country, it is important to also consider how refugees can bring value back to

their home countries. In reference to the destruction in Syria, Melissa Fleming, head of

communications for the UNHCR, says that, “This [Syria] will need to be rebuilt. By architects, by

engineers, by electricians. Communities will need teachers and lawyers, and politicians interested in
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reconciliation and not revenge. Shouldn’t this be rebuilt by the people with the largest stake – the

societies in exile, the refugees?”cdviii Today’s refugees are tomorrow’s Syrian citizens, working to

rebuild their country destroyed by war. The refugees therefore need experiences using and building

new skills, as they have an immense challenge of reconstruction ahead. In addition, as Fleming

notes, “Refugees have a lot of time to prepare for their return”.cdix This time could be used to help

empower the change-makers that Syria will need to help it rebuild. Alternative economic systems

can give refugees opportunities to be able to grow their skills to take on those roles.

This paper therefore recommends that both local and international governance institutions

consider alternative mechanisms for integrating refugees and helping them to improve their

livelihood. More programs and initiatives in this area will prove beneficial to the host community as

well. As migration continues to be a trend throughout the world, there needs to be alternative

mechanisms to cope with it – so that migration is not a crisis, but instead an experience that can

benefit both the a nation and the refugees themselves.

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Appendix A

In order to interview Syrian refugees, I initially tried to gain contact through refugee aid

agencies to speak with a wide array of refugees – women, the elderly, children, and so on. However,

this was unsuccessful due to the high security and private nature of these organizations. So, instead,

I reached out directly to refugees on Facebook through the use of Facebook topic groups for Syrian

refugees in Germany. While this allowed me to recruit many individuals, and provided a random

sample, it was also self-selecting. Most active users on the “Syrian refugees in Germany” Facebook

pages are male, a deeper reflection of the social order in Syria. So, consequently, all of my

interviewees were men. Furthermore, most of those who are online are generally young and

technology savvy. So, this also limited my interviewee pool – all of my interviewees were under the

age of 35. Though helpful as the majority of Syrian refugees in this age group from 23-35. I was

still unable to capture the perspectives of the older or more vulnerable refugee population that may

have provided a more critical perspective of my topic.

Another obstacle was the need to conduct the spoken interviews in English, which

reinforced the selection bias of the sample population. The individuals I spoke with had an educated

background that provided them with a working knowledge of English. These shortcomings likely

shaped my results in various ways. This young, educated, male population is likely more inclined to

be engaged with technology than an older, female, uneducated population may be, which skews the

results. Thus it is essential to consider that the solutions that I propose could be less effective for

these populations. Future research could target individuals who are women, not highly educated,

and over the age of 35. This would lend to a more in-depth exploration of the research question.

Over the course of three months, twelve refugees were interviewed. Some interviews were

conducted by telephone/Skype; others via email exchange, WhatsApp conversation, and Facebook

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messaging. The refugees usually guided the conversations, which were principally based around the

topics of innovation, entrepreneurship, and their integration experience in Germany. I also created a

survey that I shared on a Facebook group with 100,000 members designated for Syrian refugees in

Germany that is analyzed in Appendix B. I collected fifteen responses, and will include some ideas

and themes that emerged from these surveys in this paper. Finally, I launched a Facebook group

titled “Syrian entrepreneurs in Germany” in collaboration with two Syrian individuals in Germany.

We created the page in Arabic and German, and before long had over four hundred members. Some

examples and ideas come from posts that were shared in this group.

Fig. 13. The image above shows the home page of the Syrian Entrepreneurs in Germany Facebook group.

To interview Germans and other individuals working on the behalf of refugees, I drew from

the Techfugees non-profit organization, a community of humanitarian innovators. I attended a

Techfugees conference in New York City, and a Techfugees online conference hosted in London,

from which I cumulatively recorded over 40 live interviews. While in New York City, I also

 96  

               
  
interviewed in person the director of the United Nations Innovation lab. I recorded perspectives

from UNHCR, Al-Jazeera, and the IRC representatives, as well as those from founders of smaller

refugee-focused start-ups. I therefore believe I was able to get a diverse representation of those who

are working on behalf of refugees to improve their integration process. Though I couldn’t include

all interviews conducted in this paper, I have drawn ideas and constructed arguments from them.

 97  

               
  

Appendix B

This appendix shows the results from the survey mentioned in Appendix A, conducted in a

sample of 15 randomly selected refugees. Participants were provided with a question and a blank

paragraph sized text box using survey software Qualtrics. Some answers were yes/no; others were

longer response questions that required more elaboration. The questions and answers have been

analyzed and sorted into the tables below.

Survey Questions

Q1 What languages do you speak?

Q2 What was your profession in your home country?

Q3 Did you ever run your own business?

Q4 Do you have a smart phone?

Q5 Have you ever volunteered in the Syrian refugee community?

Q6 What has been the greatest obstacle to your integration in Germany?

Q7 What are your dreams for five years from now?

Survey Responses

Q1 Arabic and Arabic and Arabic and Arabic only

English German Kurdish

What languages 73% 33% 26% 6%

do you speak?

 98  

               
  

Q2 Entrepreneur/self- Employed (i.e., Student

employed/freelance engineer,

(tailor, business electrician, etc.)

owner, etc.)

What was your 46% 40% 20%

profession in your

home country?

Q3 Yes

Did you ever run 33%

your own

business?

Q4 Yes

Do you own a 93%

smart phone?

Q5 Yes

Have you ever volunteered 53%

in the Syrian refugee

community?

 99  

               
  

Q6 Language Basic needs Finances

(housing, food)

What has been your 60% 20% 13%

greatest obstacle to

integration in Germany?

Q7 Employment Language Financially Run own

acquisition self-sufficient business

What are your dreams 86% 20% 26% 26%

for five years from

now?

 
100  

               
  

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Endnotes

i
“Germany’s Refugee Crisis is Getting Worse”. The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company.
ii
Participant 1. Personal Interview. 20 February 2016.
iii
Ibid.
iv
"Germany on Course to Accept One Million Refugees in 2015." The
Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 07 Dec. 2015. Web. 12 Apr.
2016. <http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/08/germany- on-course-to-accept-one-million-refugees-in-
2015>.
v
Nardelli, Alberto. "Germany Receives Nearly Half of All Syrian
Asylum Applicants." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 05
Nov. 2015. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://www.theguardian.com/world/
2015/nov/05/asylum-applications-to-germany-see-160-rise>.
vi
Van Dijk, Tuen. "Critical Discourse Analysis." (2010): n. pag. Discourses.org. Web.
<http://www.discourses.org/OldArticles/Critical%20discourse%20analysis.pdf>.
vii
“News, Sport and Opinion from the Guardian's US Edition. The Guardian." The Guardian. Guardian News and
Media, 12 Apr. 2016. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://www.theguardian.com/us>.
viii
Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/crisis>.
ix
Murray-Leach, Tamsin. "Crisis Discourses in Europe Media EU-phemisms and Alternative Narratives."
Gcsknowledgebase.org. Civil Society and Human Security Research Unit London School of Economics and Political
Science, June 2014. Web. <http://www.gcsknowledgebase.org/europe/files/2014/07/CrisisDiscoursesinEurope.pdf 123.
Stuart Hall, Rojek. 123. Stuart Hall, Rojek>.
x
Hall, Rojek. "Crisis Discourses in Europe." (Book, 2003) [WorldCat.org]. Crisis in Discourse Stewart Hall, 2014.
Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://www.worldcat.org/title/stuart-hall/oclc/49959368>.
xi
UNHCR. "What We Do." Unrefugees.org. UNHCR, n.d. Web. <http://www.unrefugees.org/what-we-do/ Tictin.
Casulaities of Care, introduction. 11. Djik. 358. Critical discourse analysis. Tictin. Casuliaties of Care. 5.>.
xii
Ticktin, Miriam I. "Casualties of Care." University of California Press. University of California Press, Aug. 2011.
Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http:// www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520269057>. 11.
xiii
Ibid.
xiv
Van Dijk, Teun. "Critical Discourse Analysis." Discourse Studies Reader : Essential Excerpts (n.d.): n. pag.
Discourses.org. Web. <http://www.discourses.org/OldArticles/Critical%20discourse%20analysis.pdf>.
xv
Ticktin, Miriam I. "Casualties of Care." University of California Press. University of California Press, Aug. 2011.
Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http:// www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520269057>. 11.
xvi
Van Dijk, Teun. "Critical Discourse Analysis." Discourse Studies Reader : Essential Excerpts (n.d.): n. pag.
Discourses.org. Web. <http://www.discourses.org/OldArticles/Critical%20discourse%20analysis.pdf>.
xvii
"Sanctuary without End: The Refugees the World Forgot." CNN. Cable News Network, 2015. Web. 04 Apr. 2016.
xviii
Ibid.
xix
“Polio Outbreak in Refugee Complex in Kenya Being Contained, Say UN Agencies." UN News Center. UN, 31 May
2013. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp? NewsID=45051#.Vv7BAGPr_tY>.
xx
Boswell, Christina. "Burden-sharing in the New Age of Immigration.” Migrationpolicy.org. Migration Policy
Institute, 01 Nov. 2003. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/burden-sharing- new-age-
immigration>.
xxi
Bittner, Jochen. "Can Germany Be Honest About Its Refugee Problems?" The New York Times. The New York Times,
15 Jan. 2016. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/16/opinion/can-germany-be-honest-about-its-
refugee-problems.html?
xxii
Ferguson, James. "The Uses of Neoliberalism." Antipode 41 (2010): 166-84. Osisa.org. Department of
Anthropology, Stanford University, 2009. Web. <http://www.osisa.org/sites/default/files/schools/
ferguson_2009_users_of_neoliberalism.pdf>.
xxiii
Ticktin, Miriam I. "Casualties of Care." University of California Press. University of California Press, Aug. 2011.
Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http:// www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520269057>. 30.
xxiv
Reich, Brian. Personal interview. 9 February 2016.
xxv
Ibid.

 
106  

               
  

xxvi
Soros, George. "Europe: A Better Plan for Refugees." The New York Review of Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2016/04/09/europe-how-pay-for-refugees/>.
xxvii
Ibid.
xxviii
Ibid.
xxix
Ibid.
xxx
"Merkel, Hollande Urge Unified EU Response to Refugee Crisis." EurActivcom Merkel Hollande Urge Unified EU
Response to Refugee Crisis Comments. N.p., 25 Aug. 2015. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://
www.euractiv.com/section/justice-home-affairs/news/merkel- hollande-urge-unified-eu-response-to-refugee-crisis/>.
xxxi
Hall, Allan, and John Lichfield. "Germany Opens Its Gates: Berlin Says All Syrian Asylum-seekers Are Welcome to
Remain, as Britain Is Urged to Make a 'similar Statement'" The Independent. Independent Digital News and Media, 24
Aug. 2015. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http:// www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/germany-opens-its- gates-berlin-
says-all-syrian-asylum-seekers-are-welcome-to-remain- as-britain-is-10470062.html>.
xxxii
Hacho, Hicham. "The Arrival of Syrian Refugees to Germany (Welcome in Germany )." YouTube. YouTube, 06 Sept.
2015. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKyY2F90srY>.
xxxiii
"Refugees Welcome! Crowdsourcing a Citizen Solution." Senior Planet. N.p., 29 Sept. 2015. Web
xxxiv
Rueters. "Refugees Welcome! Crowdsourcing a Citizen Solution." Senior Planet. The Guardian, 1 Sept. 2015. Web.
12 Apr. 2016. <http://seniorplanet.org/refugees-welcome-crowdsourcing-a-citizen- solution/>.
xxxv
Hall, Melanie. "Migrant Crisis: Refugees Welcomed in Germany like
War Heroes as Berlin Expects 10,000 in One Day." The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group, 1 Sept. 2015. Web. 12
Apr. 2016. <http:// www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/11847545/ Migrant-crisis-Refugees-
welcomed-in-Germany-like-war-heroes-as- Berlin-expects-10000-in-one-day.html>.
xxxvi
Graham-Harrison, Emma, Patrick Kingsley, and Tracy McVeigh. "Cheering German Crowds Greet Refugees after
Long Trek from Budapest to Munich." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 05 Sept. 2015. Web. 12 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/05/refugee-crisis-warm-welcome-for-people-bussed-from- budapest>.
xxxvii
McCarthy, Barbara. "Refugee Crisis: Voices from the Streets of Germany." Al Jazeera.com. ALjazeera, 17 Sept.
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150917065620167.html.
xxxviii
Paterson, Tony. "Refugee Crisis: Munich's Citizens Welcome Refugees with Open Arms."
Http://www.independent.co.uk. Independent Digital News and Media, 7 Sept. 2015. Web.
xxxix
"German Far-right Protests against Refugees Turn Violent." Violent Protests in Germany Against Refugees.
Aljazeera America, 9 Jan. 2016. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/ 2016/1/9/germanys-
merkel-toughens-tone-on-refugees-amid- competing-protests1.html>
xl
Murdock, Heather. "Fear, Frustration Among Refugees in Germany as Terror Tensions Rise." Voanews.com.
Voice of America, 22 Nov. 2015. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://www.voanews.com/content/fear- frustration-among-
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xli
"Germans Turn to Trump-Style Politics in Challenge to Merkel." Bloomberg.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2016.
xlii
Papadongonas, Panos. "A Short Literature Review of Neoliberalism and the New World Order." Panos-
Papadongonas.weebly.com. N.p., 24 May 2013. Web.
xliii
Ibid.
xliv
Griffith, Benjamin. "The Paradox of Neoliberalism: A Critique of the Washington Consensus in the Age of
Globalization." Digitalcommonconncoll.edu. Connecticut College, 28 Apr. 2006. Web.
<http://digitalcommons.conncoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hisphp>.
xlv
Ibid.
xlvi
Ferguson, James. "The Uses of Neoliberalism." Osisa.org. Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, n.d.
Web. <http://www.osisa.org/sites/default/files/schools/ferguson_2009_users_of_neoliberalism.pdf. Intro.>.
xlvii
Ibid.
xlviii
Ibid. 181.
xlix
Ibid.
l
Ibid.
li
Appadurai, Arjun. "Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy." Arjun Appadurai RSS. Sage
Publications, 23 Apr. 2010. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://www.arjunappadurai.org/publications/>.
lii
Ibid.

 
107  

               
  

liii
IMF Staff. "Globalization: A Framework for IMF Involvement -- An IMF Issues Brief." Globalization: A Framework
for IMF Involvement -- An IMF Issues Brief. International Monetary Fund, Mar. 2002. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<https://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/ib/2002/031502.htm>.
liv
Ibid
lv
Tsing, Anna Lowenhaupt. Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 2005. Print.
3.
lvi
Ibid.
lvii
Ibid
lviii
Briggs, Laura, JT Way, and Glayds Mccormick. "Transnationalism in the Balkans." American Quarterly 60.3
(2008): n. pag.663 Criticism.english.illinois.edu. Project Muse, 2008. Web.
<http://criticism.english.illinois.edu/pdf_docs/briggsmccormickway_transnationalism.pdf>.
lix
Richmond, Anthony. "Sociological Theories of International Migration: The Case of Refugees." Sage Social Science
Collections (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
lx
De Be-Air, Francoise. "Syrian Refugees." Syrian Refugees. European University Institute, Jan. 2013. Web. 12 Apr.
2016. <http://syrianrefugees.eu/>.
lxi
Participants 5 & 7. Survey responses. 25 March 2016.
lxii
Clemens, .Michael. "Economics and Emigration: Trillion-Dollar Bills on the Sidewalk? ." (n.d.): n. pag. Cgdev.org.
Center For Global Development, Aug. 2011. Web.
<http://www.cgdev.org/files/1425376_file_Clemens_Economics_and_Emigration_FINAL.pdf>.
lxiii
Worldbank. The World. Washington: National Geographic Society, 1970. Siteresources.worldbank. Worldbank.
Web. <http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934-1199807908806/World.pdf>.
lxiv
Cohen, Roberta. "The Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement: An Innovation in International Standard
Setting." Global Governance 10 (2004), 459–480 The Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement: An Innovation in
International Standard Setting (n.d.): n. pag. Brookings.edu. Global Governance, 2004. Web.
<http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/articles/2004/10/01humanrights-cohen/cohenr_20041001.pdf>.
lxv
Conant,Eve Maps by Matthew Chwastyk and Ryan Williams, National Geographic PUBLISHED September 19,
2015, "The World's Congested Human Migration Routes in 5 Maps." National Geographic. National Geographic
Society, 19 Sept. 2015. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150919-data-points-
refugees-migrants-maps-human-migrations-syria-world/>.
lxvi
Cohen, Roberta. "The Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement: An Innovation in International Standard
Setting." Global Governance 10 (2004), 459–480 The Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement: An Innovation in
International Standard Setting (n.d.): n. pag. Brookings.edu. Global Governance, 2004. Web.
<http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/articles/2004/10/01humanrights-cohen/cohenr_20041001.pdf>.
lxvii
Weiner, Myron. "The Global Migration Crisis." Google Books. HArperCollins College Publishers, 1995, 1995. Web.
12 Apr. 2016. <https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Global_Migration_Crisis.html?id=8h4xAQAAIAAJ>.
lxviii
Ibid.
lxix
Ibid.
lxx
Cortina, Jeronimo, and Enrique Ochoa-Reza. "New Perspectives on International Migration and Development."
Google Books. Columbia University Press, 9 July 2013. Web. 12 Apr. 2016.
lxxi
Halpern, Peggy. "Refugee Economic Self-Sufficiency: An Exploratory Study of Approaches Used in Office of
Refugee Resettlement Programs.” Refugee Economic Self-Sufficiency: An Exploratory Study of Approaches Used in
Office of Refugee Resettlement Programs (n.d.): n. pag. Aspe.hhs.gov. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Nov. 2008. Web. <https://aspe.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/75561/report.pdf>.
lxxii
Borjas, George. "Immigration and the American Worker A Review of the Academic Literature." Hksharvard.edu.
Harvard Center For Immigration Studies, Apr. 2013. Web.
<http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/gborjas/publications/popular/CIS2013.pdf Ibid.>.
lxxiii
Ibid.
lxxiv
Cuellar, Steven S. "Next Generation Access Networks and Market Structure." OECD Digital Economy Papers
(2011): n. pag. Sonoma.edu. 8 Mar. 2002. Web. <https://www.sonoma.edu/users/c/cuellar/research/networkeffects.pdf>.
lxxv
Worldbank. "Migration and Remittances Factbook 2016." Worldbank.org. Worldbank, 2016. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/migrationremittancesdiasporaissues>.
lxxvi
Ibid.
lxxvii
Kolb, Hogar, and Henrick Egbert. "Migrants and Markets: Perspectives from Economics and the Other Social
Sciences." Book.google. N.p., 1992. Web. 12 Apr. 2016.

 
108  

               
  

lxxviii
Boswell, Christina, and Gianni D'amato. "Immigration and Social Systems." Books.google.es. N.p., n.d. Web. 13
Apr. 2016.
lxxix
.Betts, Alexander, Gill Loescher, and James Milner. "The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR): The Politics and Practice of Refugee Protection." Rsc.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, n.d. Web. 13 Apr.
2016. <http://www.amazon.com/United-Nations-Commissioner-Refugees-UNHCR/dp/0415782821>.
lxxx
Ibid.
lxxxi
Ibid.
lxxxii
Weins, Jason, Christina Jackson, and Emily Fetsch. "Immigrant Entrepreneurs: A Path to U.S. Economic Growth."
Immigrant Entrepreneurs: A Path to U.S. Economic Growth. Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, 22 Jan. 2015. Web.
12 Apr. 2016. <http://www.kauffman.org/what-we-do/resources/entrepreneurship-policy-digest/immigrant-
entrepreneurs-a-path-to-us-economic-growth>.
lxxxiii
Participant 15. Personal Interview. 10 January 2016.
lxxxiv
Slim, Hugo. "Claiming a Humanitarian Imperative: NGOs and the Cultivation of Humanitarian Duty." Refugee
Survey Quarterly 21.3 (2002): 113-25. Hugoslim.com. 2002. Web.
<http://hugoslim.com/Pdfs/Claiming%20a%20Humanitarian%20Imperative.pdf>.
lxxxv
Unicef. "4.2 UNICEF’s Humanitarian Principles." UNICEF USA. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
lxxxvi
Coppola, Damon. "Introduction to International Disaster Management." Google Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr.
2016.
lxxxvii
Slim, Hugo. "Claiming a Humanitarian Imperative: NGOs and the Cultivation of Humanitarian Duty." Refugee
Survey Quarterly 21.3 (2002): 113-25. Hugoslim.com. 2002. Web.
<http://hugoslim.com/Pdfs/Claiming%20a%20Humanitarian%20Imperative.pdf>.
lxxxviii
Mackintosh, Kate. ""The Principles of Humanitarian Action in International Humanitarian Law."" The Principles
of Humanitarian Action in International Humanitarian Law - HPG Reports 5 - Research Reports and Studies (n.d.): n.
pag. Odi.org. Humanitarian Policy Group, 2000. Web. <http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-
assets/publications-opinion-files/305.pdf>.
lxxxix
Guterres, Antonio. "Refugee Have the Right to Be Protected." Ted.com. N.p., Dec. 2015. Web.
<https://www.ted.com/talks/antonio_guterres_refugees_have_the_right_to_be_protected#t-330443>.
xc
Fantz, Ashley, and Ben Brumfield. "Syrian Refugees Not Welcome in 31 U.S. States." CNN. Cable News Network,
19 Nov. 2015. Web. 04 Apr. 2016. <http://www.cnn.com/2015/11/16/world/paris-attacks-syrian-refugees-backlash/>.
xci
"Hungary’s PM Urges Building of Fence on Bulgarian, Macedonian Borders with Greece." Rt.com. N.p., 22 Jan.
2016. Web. <https://www.rt.com/news/329865-hungary-fence-border-refugees/>.
xcii
Alsharif, Asma, and Andrew Roche. "Saudi Arabia and Qatar Funding Syrian Rebels." Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 23
June 2012. Web. 04 Apr. 2016. <http://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-saudi-idUSBRE85M07820120623>.
xciii
Merkel, Angela. "The Guardian View on Europe’s Refugee Crisis: A Little Leadership, at Last." Theguardian.com.
N.p., 1 Sept. 2015. Web. <http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/01/guardian-view-on-europe- refugee-
crisis-leadership-at-last-angela-merkel>.
xciv
3/3/11. Classical Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) (n.d.): n. pag. Oyc.yale.edu. 2012. Web.
<http://oyc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/Bentham_1.pdf>.
xcv
Mill, John Stuart. "UTILITARIANISM." UTILITARIANISM.COM. N.p., 1863. Web.
<http://www.utilitarianism.com/mill1.htm>.
xcvi
Adams, Roberta. "Virtue Ethics and the Moral Significance of Animals." Google Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr.
2016.
xcvii
Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill (Routledge Studies in Ethics and Moral Theory)
xcviii
JT. "Jordanians Nearing 'boiling Point' as Refugee Burden Grows Heavier." Jordan Times. N.p., 02 Feb. 2016. Web.
04 Apr. 2016.
xcix
Lowe, Josh. "World Share the Burden: EU Leaders Call for Refugee Reforms.” Europe.newsweek.com. N.p., 21 Jan.
2016. Web. 04 Apr. 2016. <http://www.newsweek.com/share-burden-eu-leaders-refugee-reforms-davos-dublin-
regulation-418171>.
c
Bendixsen, Synnøve. The Religious Identity of Young Muslim Women in Berlin: An Ethnographic Study. N.p.: n.p.,
n.d. 17 Apr. 2013. Web.
ci
Bendixsen, Synnøve K. N. The Religious Identity of Young Muslim Women in Berlin: An Ethnographic Study. N.p.:
n.p., n.d. Print.
cii
Goel, Sandeep. "Chapter 1 Corporate Goverance." Strategic Infrastructure Development for Economic Growth and
Social Change. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. Print.

 
109  

               
  

ciii
. Phillips, Christopher. "Sectarianism and Conflict in Syria." Third World Quarterly 36.2 (2015): 357-76. pg 105 Web.
Pierret, Thomas. "Reforms and Revolution." The Sunni Ulama from Coup to Revolution Religion and State in Syria
(2012): 212-38. Web.
"Syria: The Story of the Conflict - BBC News." BBC News. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2015.
<http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868>.
civ
Kunz, Egon F. Exile and Resettlement: Refugee Theory. New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1981. Print.
cv
Tsing, Anna Lowenhaupt. Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 2005. Print.
3
cvi
"Social Entrepreneurship: The Role of Social Purpose Enterprises in Facilitating Community Economic
Development." - Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2016.
https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-48740274.html.
cvii
Phillips, Christopher. "Sectarianism and Conflict in Syria." Third World Quarterly 36.2 (2015): 357-76. Web.
cviii
Pierret, Thomas. "Reforms and Revolution." The Sunni Ulama from Coup to Revolution Religion and State in Syria
(2012): 212-38. Web.
cxi
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/09/syrias-refugee-crisis-in-numbers/
cxii
http://syrianrefugees.eu
cxiv
An interactive data visualization of the migration routes of Syrians can be found at this address:
http://www.lucify.com/the-flow-towards-europe/
cxv
"Migrant Crisis: Migration to Europe Explained in Seven Charts." Bbc.com. N.p., 4 Mar. 2016. Web.
<http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34131911>.
cxvi
Refugees and Exile: From "Refugee Studies" to the National Order of Things
cxvii
http://graduateinstitute.ch/files/live/sites/iheid/files/sites/mia/shared/mia/cours/IA023/Week%206/Malkki.pdf
cxviii
Malkki, Liisa H. "Refugees and Exile: From "Refugee Studies" to the National Order of Things." Jstor.org. N.p.,
1995. Web. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/2155947?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents>.
cxix
]Asyl Und Migration. "Statistics." Asylumineurope.org. N.p., 2015. Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.asylumineurope.org/reports/country/germany/statistics>.
cxx
"Migrant Crisis: Migration to Europe Explained in Seven Charts - BBC News." BBC.com. N.p., 4 Mar. 2016. Web.
05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34131911>.
cxxi
"Migrant Crisis: Migration to Europe Explained in Seven Charts - BBC News." BBC.com. N.p., 4 Mar. 2016. Web.
05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34131911>.
cxxii
Martinez, Michael. "Syrian Refugees: Which Countries Welcome Them, Which Ones Don't." Edition.cnn.com.
CNN International Division, 10 Sept. 2015. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://edition.cnn.com/2015/09/09/world/welcome-
syrian-refugees-countries/>.
cxxiii
Greenway, Osie. "What's Life Like For Syrian Refugees In Germany?" International Business Times. Newsweek, 4
Sept. 2014. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://www.ibtimes.com/whats-life-syrian-refugees-germany-2083610>.
cxxiv
Participant 2. Personal interview. 30 January 2016.
cxxv
"Dublin Regulation - European Council on Refugees and Exiles." Ecre.org. European Council on Refugees and
Exiles, n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://ecre.org/topics/areas-of-work/protection-in-europe/10-dublin-regulation.html>.
cxxvi
"From Dublin Convention to Dublin Regulation: A Progressive Move?" Whose Freedom, Security and Justice? :
EU Immigration and Asylum Law and Policy (2007): n. pag. Web.
cxxvii
Webb, Alex. "Germany Top Migration Land After U.S. in New OECD Ranking." Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg, 20
May 2014. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-05-20/immigration-boom-propels-
germany-past-u-k-in-new-oecd-ranking>.
cxxviii
Buchanan, Elsa. "EU Migrant Crisis: UN Calls for Europe to Welcome 200,000 Refugees." International Business
Times RSS. N.p., 04 Sept. 2015. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/eu-migrant-crisis-un-calls-europe-
welcome-200000-refugees-1518434>.
cxxix
"Asylum-Seekers." UNHCR News. UNHCR, n.d. Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646c137.html>.
cxxx
"Applying for Asylum and Refugee Status in Germany." Open Borders Immigration. Navigating the Immigration
System, 06 Sept. 2015. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://openbordersimmigration.com/applying-for-asylum-and-refugee-
status-in-germany/>.
cxxxi
Bershidsky, Leonid. "German Response to Refugees Puts U.S. to Shame." Bloomberg View. N.p., 17 Nov. 2015.
Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-11-17/german-response-to-refugees-puts-u-s-to-
shame>.

 
110  

               
  

cxxxii
"Asylum Procedures." Ec.europa.eu. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-
do/policies/asylum/common-procedures/index_en.htm>.
cxxxiii
Ibid.
cxxxiv
"Asylum and Refugee Policy in Germany." Bundesministerium Des Innern. Federal Ministry of the Interior, n.d.
Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.bmi.bund.de/EN/Topics/Migration-Integration/Asylum-Refugee-Protection/Asylum-
Refugee-Protection_Germany/asylum-refugee-policy-germany_node.html>.
cxxxv
Informationsverbund Asyl Und Migration. "Access to the Labour Market." Asylumineurope.org. Asylum
Information Database, n.d. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.asylumineurope.org/reports/country/germany/reception-
conditions/employment-education/access-labour-market>.
cxxxvi
"Middle East :: Syria." Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 29 Mar. 2016. Web. 05 Apr.
2016. <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html#Econ>.
cxxxvii
"IFN Country Analysis - Syria." Islamic Finance News, 1 July 2015. Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.islamicfinancenews.com/ifn-country-analysis-syria>.
cxxxviii
"Islamic Finance For Dummies." Cheat Sheet. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.dummies.com/how-
to/content/islamic-finance-for-dummies-cheat-sheet.html>.
cxxxix
"Self-employed - Total (% of Total Employed) in Syria." Self-employed - Total (% of Total Employed) in Syria.
Trading Economics, n.d. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.tradingeconomics.com/syria/self-employed-total-percent-of-
total-employed-wb-data.html>.
cxl
"Self-employed, Total (% of Total Employed)." Self-employed, Total (% of Total Employed). The World Bank, n.d.
Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.SELF.ZS>.
cxli
"Middle East :: Syria." Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 29 Mar. 2016. Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html>.
cxlii
"Infographic: Education Crisis in Syria." UNICEF USA. Unicef, n.d. Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<https://www.unicefusa.org/stories/infographic-education-crisis-syria-statistics>.
cxliii
Ward, Sally. "What's Happening to Syria's Students during the Conflict?" What's Happening to Syria's Students
during the Conflict? British Council, 17 July 2014. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <https://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-
magazine/whats-happening-to-syrias-students-during-the-conflict>.
cxliv
"Middle East :: Syria." Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 29 Mar. 2016. Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html>.
cxlv
Ménacère, Karim, Dr. "Education in Syria." OpenLearn. The Open University, 3 Feb. 2010. Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.open.edu/openlearn/society/international-development/international-studies/education-syria>.
cxlvi
Shaoul, Jean, and Chris Marsden. "World Socialist Web Site." The Bitter Legacy of Syria's Hafez Al-Assad -.
International Committee of the Fourth International, 16 June 2000. Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2000/06/assa-j16.html>.
cxlvii
Malkki, Liisa H. "Refugees and Exile: From "Refugee Studies" to the National Order of Things." Jstor.org. Annual
Review of Anthropology Volume 24,pg 509 1995. Web.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/2155947?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents>.
cxlviii
Ibid.
cxlix
Malkki, Liisa H. "Refugees and Exile: From "Refugee Studies" to the National Order of Things." Jstor.org. Annual
Review of Anthropology Volume 24, 1995. Web.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/2155947?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents>.
cl
Malkki, Liisa H. "Refugees and Exile: From "Refugee Studies" to the National Order of Things." Jstor.org. Annual
Review of Anthropology Volume 24, 1995. Web.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/2155947?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents>.
cli
Malkki, Liisa H. "Refugees and Exile: From "Refugee Studies" to the National Order of Things." Jstor.org. Annual
Review of Anthropology Volume 24, 1995. Web.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/2155947?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents>.
clii
Malkki, Liisa H. "Refugees and Exile: From "Refugee Studies" to the National Order of Things." Jstor.org. Annual
Review of Anthropology Volume 24, 1995. Web.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/2155947?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents>.
cliii
Ibid.
cliv
Ibid.
clv
Participant 3. Personal Interview. 18 February 2016.
clvi
Reich, Brian. Personal interview. 9 February 2016.

 
111  

               
  

clvii
Participant 4. Survey Response. 23 February 2016.
clviii
Participant 5. Survey Response. 23 February 2016.
clix
Westerhof, Gerben, and Corey Keyes. "The Journals of Gerontology: Series B." After the Fall of the Berlin Wall:
Perceptions and Consequences of Stability and Change Among Middle-Aged and Older East and West Germans. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.
clx
Rippley, LaVern, and Eberhard Reichmann. "GermAmChron." GermAmChron. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.eds-resources.com/GermAmChron.htm>.
clxi
Oezcan, Veysel. "Germany: Immigration in Transition." Migrationpolicy.org. Migration Policy Institute, 01 July
2004. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/germany-immigration-transition/>.
clxii
"Demographic Impact of Immigration on the United States." Asian American Society: An Encyclopedia (n.d.): n.
pag. Ec.europa.eu. Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, Oct. 2005. Web. <http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-
affairs/what-we-do/networks/european_migration_network/reports/docs/emn-studies/illegally-resident/de-finalstudy-
eng_en.pdf>.
clxiii
Ibid.
clxiv
"Migration History in Germany." Domid.org. N.p., 2015. Web. <http://www.domid.org/en/migration-history-
germany>.
clxv
https://twitter.com/search?q=%23willkommenskultur&src=typd
clxvi
Opbroek, Floortje. "Grassroots Responses to the Refugee and Migrant Crisis." New Europe. N.p., 7 Sept. 2015.
Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <https://citiesintransition.eu/cityreport/grassroots-responses-to-the-refugee-crisis>.
clxvii
Ndlovu, Sifiso Mxolisa. "Sports as Cultural Diplomacy: The 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa's Foreign
Policy." Taylor & Francis. N.p., 16 Dec. 2009. Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14660970903331466>.
clxviii
Eden, Jon Theis. Major Research Paper: Soccer and International Relations (2013): n. pag. Ruor.uottawa.ca. 23
July 2013. Web. <https://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/26069/1/EDEN,%20Jon%20Theis%2020135.pdf>.
clxix
"Demographic Impact of Immigration on the United States." Asian American Society: An Encyclopedia (n.d.): n.
pag. Ec.europa.eu. Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, Oct. 2005. Web. <http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-
affairs/what-we-do/networks/european_migration_network/reports/docs/emn-studies/illegally-resident/de-finalstudy-
eng_en.pdf>.
clxx
Times of Israel Staff and AP. "Migrants Applauded by 75,000 Fans at German Soccer Game." The Times of Israel.
The Times of Israel, 12 Sept. 2015. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.timesofisrael.com/migrants-applauded-by-75000-
fans-at-bundesliga-game/>.
clxxi
Goldberg, Eleanor. "Famed German Soccer Club Donates $1 Million To New Refugees." Huffingtonpost,com.
Huffington Post, 14 Sept. 2015. Web.
<http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/refugee_us_55e9bae3e4b093be51bb4ba0>.
clxxii
"Bayern Munich's Gesture to Refugees Is Just the Latest Showing of German Football's Welcoming Spirit."
Breaking News. N.p., 04 Sept. 2015. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.breakingnews.ie/sport/other/bayern-munichs-
gesture-to-refugees-is-just-the-latest-showing-of-german-footballs-welcoming-spirit-694236.html>.
clxxiii
"Football Fans in Germany Raise Banners Welcoming Refugees to the Country." Middleeasteye.net. Middle East
Eye, 30 Aug. 2015. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/football-fans-germany-raise-banners-
welcoming-refugees-country-1376902237>.
clxxiv
"Migration and Home Affairs Reports." European Commission. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2016.
<http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/e-library/index_en.htm>.
clxxv
Ibid
clxxvi
Ibid
clxxvii
Ibid.
clxxviii
Chandler, Alfred D., Jr. "Scale and Scope The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism." — Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.
Belknap Press, Mar. 1194. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674789951>.
clxxix
Chandler, Alfred D., Jr. "Scale and Scope The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism." — Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.
Belknap Press, Mar. 1194. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674789951>.
clxxx
Hill, Steven. "Europe's Promise." Google Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<https://books.google.com/books?id=36NM38haLCEC&pg=PA19#v=onepage&q&f=false>.
clxxxi
Ibid.

 
112  

               
  

clxxxii
"BMWi - Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy - The Social Market Economy." BMWi - Federal
Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy - The Social Market Economy. Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs, n.d.
Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.bmwi.de/EN/Topics/Economy/social-market-economy.html>.
clxxxiii
"Key Sharia Principles and Prohibitions in Islamic Finance." Dummies.com. For Dummies, n.d. Web. 13 Apr.
2016. <http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/islamic-finance-for-dummies-cheat-sheet.html>.
clxxxiv
Marx, Karl, Friedrich Engels, and E. J. Hobsbawm. The Communist Manifesto: A Modern Edition. London: Verso,
1998. Print.
clxxxv
Ibid.
clxxxvi
Watrin, Christian. "The Principles of the Social Market Economy — Its Origins and Early History." Zeitschrift Für
Die Gesamte Staatswissenschaft / Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics (n.d.): n. pag. Mohr Siebeck
GmbH & Co. KG.
clxxxvii
Batra, Ravi. Studies in the Pure Theory of International Trade. London: Macmillan, 1973. Print.
clxxxviii
Wallerstein, Immanuel. "World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction." Duke Press (2004): n. pag.
clxxxix
Harding, Rebecca, and William E. Paterson. The Future of the German Economy: An End to the Miracle?
Manchester: Manchester UP, 2000. Print. 84.
cxc
Ibid.
cxci
Siebert, Horst. The German Economy: Beyond the Social Market. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 2005. Print.
cxcii
Muresan, Stefan Sorin. "Social Market Economy - The Case of Germany | S Muresan | Springer." Springer.com.
Springerlink, pg 375 2014. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783319092126>.
cxciii
Muresan, Stefan Sorin. "Social Market Economy - The Case of Germany | S Muresan | Springer." Springer.com.
Springerlink,pg 329 2014. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783319092126>.
cxciv
"Demographic Impact of Immigration on the United States." Asian American Society: An Encyclopedia (n.d.): n.
pag. Ec.europe.edu. Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, Oct. 2005. Web. <http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-
affairs/what-we-do/networks/european_migration_network/reports/docs/emn-studies/illegally-resident/de-finalstudy-
eng_en.pdf>.
cxcv
Brees, Inge. "Burden or Boon: The Impact of Burmese Refugees on Thailand Through Sovereign Borders:
Population Migrations 11 Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations 2010." Heinonline.org. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals%2Fwhith11&div=9&id=&page=>.
cxcvi
Ibid.
cxcvii
"Islamic Finance For Dummies." Cheat Sheet. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.dummies.com/how-
to/content/islamic-finance-for-dummies-cheat-sheet.html The future of the German economy.>.
cxcviii
Karaian, Jason. "The Numbers behind Germany’s Demographic Nightmare." Qz.com. N.p., 29 Apr. 2015. Web.
<http://qz.com/394456/the-numbers-behind-germanys-demographic-nightmare/>.
cxcix
"Europe Needs Many More Babies to Avert a Population Disaster." Theguardian.com. The Guardian, 23 Aug. 2015.
Web. <http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/23/baby-crisis-europe-brink-depopulation-disaster>.
cc
Karaian, Jason. "The Numbers behind Germany’s Demographic Nightmare." Qz.com. Quartz, 29 Apr. 2015. Web.
<http://qz.com/394456/the-numbers-behind-germanys-demographic-nightmare/>.
cci
"13. Koordinierte Bevölkerungsvorausberechnung Für Deutschland." 13. Koordinierte
Bevölkerungsvorausberechnung. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<https://www.destatis.de/bevoelkerungspyramide/index.html#!>.
ccii
Desilver, Drew. "Refugee Surge Brings Youth to an Aging Europe." Pew Research Center RSS. Pew Research
Center, 08 Oct. 2015. Web. 05 Apr. 2016. <http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/10/08/refugee-surge-brings-
youth-to-an-aging-europe/>.
cciii
Peston, Robert. "Why Germany Needs Migrants More than UK." Bbc.com. BBC News, 7 Sept. 2015. Web.
<http://www.bbc.com/news/business-34172729>.
cciv
Cuervo, Álvaro, Domingo Ribeiro, and Salvador Roig. "Entrepreneurship: Concepts, Theory and Perspective.
Introduction." Entrepreneurship (2007): 1-20. Uv.es. Web.
<http://www.uv.es/bcjauveg/docs/LibroCuervoRibeiroRoigIntroduction.pdf>.
ccv
Ibid
ccvi
"The Economic Case for Welcoming Immigrant Entrepreneurs.” (n.d.): n. pag. Kauffman.org. Entrepreneurship
Policy Digest, 8 Sept. 2015. Web.
<http://www.kauffman.org/~/media/kauffman_org/resources/2015/entrepreneurship%20policy%20digest/september%2
02015/the_economic_case_for_welcoming_immigrant_entrepreneurs_updated_september_2015.pdf>.

 
113  

               
  

ccvii
Chang, Milton. "Toward Entrepreneurship: Establishing a Successful Technology Business." Google Books. Milton
Chang 2011, 2011. Web. 12 Apr. 2016.
<https://books.google.com/books/about/Toward_Entrepreneurship.html?id=VzoDmAEACAAJ>.
ccviii
Carree, Martin, Andre' Van Stel, Roy Thurik, and Sander Wennekers. "Economic Development and Business
Ownership: An Analysis Using Data of." Link.springer.com. Springer International Publishing, n.d. Web. 12 Apr. 2016.
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1019604426387>.
ccix
Sternberg, Rolf, and Sander Wennekers. "Determinants and Effects of New Business Creation Using Global
Entrepr." Eneurship Monitor Sternberg, Rolf, and Sander Wennekers. "Determinants and Effects of New Business
Creation Using Global Entrepr." Eneurship Monitor Data. Springer International Publishing, Apr. 2005. Web. 12 Apr.
2016. <http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11187-005-1974-z>.
ccx
Ekmekçioğlu, Ercan. "The Impact of Entrepreneurship on Economic Growth." The Impact of Entrepreneurship on
Economic Growth. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Apr. 2016.
<https://www.academia.edu/1600957/The_Impact_of_Entrepreneurship_on_Economic_Growth Ibid.>.
ccxi
Ibid.
ccxii
Cuervo, Álvaro, Domingo Ribeiro, and Salvador Roig. "Entrepreneurship: Past Research and Future Challenges."
Entrepreneurship: Past Research and Future Challenges. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Apr. 2016.
<http://jom.sagepub.com/content/14/2/139.abstract>.
ccxiii
Martinez, Roger L., and Sally Osberg. "Social Entrepreneurship: The Case for Definition (SSIR)." Ssir.org.
Stanford Social Innovation Review, Apr.-May 2007. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<http://ssir.org/articles/entry/social_entrepreneurship_the_case_for_definition>.
ccxiv
Martin, Oger L., and Sally Osberg. "Social Entrepreneurship: The Case for Definition." Stanford Social Innovation
Review (n.d.): 479-506. Skoll.org. Stanford Graduate School of Business, 2007. Web. <http://skoll.org/wp-
content/uploads/2015/10/2007SP_feature_martinosberg.pdf>
ccxv
Mair, Johanna, and Ignasi Marti. "Social Entrepreneurship Research: A Source of Explanation, Prediction and
Delight." Management Science 17.2, Application Series, Educational Issues in the Management Sciences and
Operational Research (1970): n. pag. Iese.edu. IESE Business School, Mar. 2004. Web.
<http://www.iese.edu/research/pdfs/DI-0546-E.pdf>.
ccxvi
Participant 6. Personal interview. 18 March 2016.
ccxvii
"Syria: The Story of the Conflict - BBC News." BBC News. BBC News, 11 Mar. 2016. Web. 12 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868>.
ccxviii
Walsh, Bryan. "10 Ideas That Will Change the World." Time. Time Inc., 17 Mar. 2011. Web. 12 Apr. 2016.
<http://content.time.com/
ccxix
Barraket, Jo, and Janelle Weissman. Social Procurement and Its Implications for Social Enterprise: A Literature
Review. Brisbane: Australian Centre for Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies, Queensland U of Technology, 2009. Print.
ccxx
Ibid.
ccxxi
Ibid.
ccxxii
Ibid.
ccxxiii
Ibid.
ccxxiv
Denny, Simon, and Frederick A. Seddon. Social Enterprise: Accountability and Evaluation around the World. N.p.:
Routlege, n.d. Print. 103.
ccxxv
Stephany, Alex. The Business of Sharing: Making It in the New Sharing Economy. N.p.: Palgrave Macmillan, n.d.
Print. 9.
ccxxvi
"The Sharing Economy: Why People Participate in Collaborative Consumption." ResearchGate. N.p., n.d. Web. 14
Apr. 2016.
<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255698095_The_Sharing_Economy_Why_People_Participate_in_Collaborat
ive_Consumption>.
ccxxvii
Schiel, Fanny. "The Phenomenon of the Sharing Economy in Germany." University of Twente (n.d.): n. pag. Web.
ccxxviii
Ibid.
ccxxix
Ibid.
ccxxx
"CeBIT News." - CeBIT. N.p., 24 Mar. 2017. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://blog.cebit.de/2012/09/10/shareconomy-
top-thema-cebit-2013/>.
ccxxxi
Schiel, Fanny, Vorwerkstraße 1, 01067 Dresden, and F.schiel@student.utwente.nl. "The Phenomenon of the
Sharing Economy in Germany." University of Twente (n.d.): n. pag. Essayutwente.ul. 20 Aug. 2015. Web.
<http://essay.utwente.nl/68106/1/Schiel_MA_MB.pdf>.

 
114  

               
  

ccxxxii
"Sharing Trends." Young-germany.de. Young Germany, 20 July 2015. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://www.young-
germany.de/topic/live/travel-location/sharing-trends>.
ccxxxiii
Harald, Heinrichs. "Sharing Economy - "Germany Shares"" Leuphana.de. University of Lunberg, 2016. Web.
http://www.leuphana.de/en/current-affairs/news/cover-stories/2013/sharing-economy-germany-shares.html.
ccxxxiv
Ibid
ccxxxv
Horton, John J., and Richard James Zeckhauser. "Owning, Using and Renting: Some Simple Economics of the
"Sharing Economy"" The National Bureau of Economic Research (2016): n. pag. Print.
ccxxxvi
Koopman, Christopher, Matthew D. Mitchell, and Adam D. Thierer. "The Sharing Economy and Consumer
Protection Regulation: The Case for Policy Change." Papers.ssrn.com. Social Science Research Network, 15 May 2015.
Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2535345>.
ccxxxvii
Dumas, Lloyd J. The Peacekeeping Economy: Using Economic Relationships to Build a More Peaceful,
Prosperous, and Secure World. New Haven: Yale UP, 2011. Print.
ccxxxviii
Granovetter, Mark. "Economic Action and Social Structure." American Journal of Sociology 91.3 (1985): n. pag.
2.bc.edu. University of Chicago Press. Web.
<https://www2.bc.edu/~jonescq/mb851/Feb26/Granovetter_AJS_1985.pdf>.
ccxxxix
Ibid.
ccxl
Ibid.
ccxli
Ibid
ccxlii
Hamari, Juho, and Antti Ukkonen. "The Sharing Economy: Why People Participate in Collaborative Consumption."
SSRN Electronic Journal SSRN Journal (n.d.): n. pag. Web.
ccxliii
Marx, Karl, Friedrich Engels, and E. J. Hobsbawm. The Communist Manifesto: A Modern Edition. London: Verso,
1998. Print.
ccxliv
Harvey, David. A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2005. Print.
ccxlv
Belk, Russell. "You Are What You Can Access: Sharing and Collaborative Consumption Online." Journal of
Business Research 67.8 (2014): 1595-600. Web. 1596.
ccxlvi
Ibid.
ccxlvii
Widlok, Thomas. "Sharing." HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 3.2 (2013): 11. Web.
ccxlviii
Car Sharing: An Alternative to Car Rental with Zipcar. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2016. <http://www.zipcar.com/>.
ccxlix
Airbnb: Rent Unique Places to Stay From Local Hosts in 190+ Countries. Web. 14 Apr. 2016.
<https://www.airbnb.com>.
ccl
Ibid.
ccli
"Who Benefits from the Peer-to-Peer Economy?" Harvard Business Review. N.p., 28 July 2015. Web. 14 Apr. 2016.
<https://hbr.org/2015/07/who-benefits-from-the-peer-to-peer-economy>.
cclii
Reich, Brian. Personal Interview. 9 February 2016.
ccliii
Ibid.
ccliv
Atcheson, John. "Car Sharing and Pooling: Reducing Car Over-Population and Collaborative Consumption."
Stanford Precourt Institute for Energy. N.p., n.d. Web. <http://energyseminar.stanford.edu/node/425>.
cclv
RelayRides. Web. 14 Apr. 2016. <https://www.relayrides.com>.
cclvi
Atcheson, John. "Car Sharing and Pooling: Reducing Car Over-Population and Collaborative Consumption."
Stanford Precourt Institute for Energy. N.p., n.d. Web. <http://energyseminar.stanford.edu/node/425>.
cclvii
Schneiderman, Ron. "Skills Shortage Challenges European Tech Industry." Engineering and Technology Jobs.
IEEE Job Site, Apr. 2014. Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://careers.ieee.org/article/European_Job_Outlook_0414.php>.
cclviii
"RBK." ReBootKamp. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2016. <http://www.rebootkamp.org/>.
cclix
Stephany, Alex. The Business of Sharing: Making It in the New Sharing Economy. N.p.: Palgrave Macmillan, n.d.
Print. 10. "Vacation Rentals, Homes, Apartments & Rooms for Rent - Airbnb." Airbnb. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
<https://www.airbnb.com/>.
cclx
"Vacation Rentals, Homes, Apartments & Rooms for Rent - Airbnb." Airbnb. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
<https://www.airbnb.com/>.
cclxi
Techfugees. "#TechfugeesLive." YouTube. N.p., 23 Feb. 2016. Web. 12 Apr. 2016.
<https://youtu.be/bhJwiT3Cxqo?t=6h20m57s>.
cclxii
Participant 7. Personal interview. 20 January 2016.
cclxiii
Ibid.
cclxiv
Ibid.
cclxv
Participant 8. Techfugees Live interview. 3 February 2016.

 
115  

               
  

cclxvi
Ibid.
cclxvii
Ibid.
cclxviii
Ferguson, James. "The Uses of Neoliberalism." Osisa.org. Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, n.d.
Web. <http://www.osisa.org/sites/default/files/schools/ferguson_2009_users_of_neoliberalism.pdf. 181.>.
cclxix
The Secretary: Invisible Labor in the Workworld of Women
cclxx
"UNHCR Stories from Syrian Refugees." N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
<http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/syria.php>.
cclxxi
"Syria." UNdata. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
<http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Syrian%2BArab%2BRepublic>.
cclxxii
"Syria - Educational System Overview." N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
<http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1483/Syria-EDUCATIONAL-SYSTEM-OVERVIEW.html>.
cclxxiii
Ibid.
cclxxiv
Schiel Vorwerkstraße, Fanny, and 1. "The Phenomenon of the Sharing Economy in Germany Consumer
Motivations for Participating in Collaborative Consumption Schemes." (n.d.): n. pag. Essayutwente.ul. 20 Aug. 2015.
Web. <http://essay.utwente.nl/68106/1/Schiel_MA_MB.pdf>.
cclxxv
Schiel Vorwerkstraße, Fanny, and 1. "The Phenomenon of the Sharing Economy in Germany Consumer
Motivations for Participating in Collaborative Consumption Schemes." (n.d.): n. pag. Essayutwente.ul. 20 Aug. 2015.
Web. <http://essay.utwente.nl/68106/1/Schiel_MA_MB.pdf>.
cclxxvi
"With Men out of Work, Syrian Women Become Sole Providers - Al-Monitor: The Pulse of the Middle East." Al-
Monitor. N.p., 29 Mar. 2015. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
cclxxvii
Ibid.
cclxxviii
Putnam, Robert D. "Social Capital and Public Affairs." Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
47.8 (1994): 5-19. Staskulesh. Web. <http://staskulesh.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/prosperouscommunity.pdf>.
cclxxix
Ibid
cclxxx
Ibid.
cclxxxi
"Dog Vacay” N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2016. <http://www.dogvacay.com>.
cclxxxii
http://search.proquest.com.proxy.lib.duke.edu/docview/208425218/FD9CDEA1A3F148A1PQ/4?accountid=10598
cclxxxiii
"Migration Hub – Coworking Space for Social Innovations." Projekt Zukunft Berlin. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr.
2016. <http://www.berlin.de/projektzukunft/en/networking-events/new-in-berlin/article/migration-hub-coworking-
space-for-social-innovations/>.
cclxxxiv
"#TechfugeesLive." YouTube. N.p., 3 Feb. 2016. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<https://youtu.be/bhJwiT3Cxqo?t=2h36m58s>.
cclxxxv
Putnam, Robert D. "Social Capital and Public Affairs." Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
47.8 (1994): 5-19. Staskulesh. The American Prospect. Web. <http://staskulesh.com/wp-
content/uploads/2012/11/prosperouscommunity.pdf>.
cclxxxvi
"#TechfugeesLive." YouTube. N.p., 3 Feb. 2016. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<https://youtu.be/bhJwiT3Cxqo?t=2h36m58s>.
cclxxxvii
Ibid.
cclxxxviii
Smith, Yves. "The Shafting, Um, Sharing Economy | Naked Capitalism." Naked Capitalism. N.p., 26 May 2015.
Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://www.nakedcapitalism.com/2015/05/the-shafting-um-sharing-economy.html>.
cclxxxix
Botsman, Rachel. "The Sharing Economy Lacks A Shared Definition." Co.Exist. N.p., 21 Nov. 2013. Web. 13
Apr. 2016. <http://www.fastcoexist.com/3022028/the-sharing-economy-lacks-a-shared-definition>.
ccxc
Ibid.
ccxci
Kidd, Robb. "Sharing Economy Can Help Financial Struggles." Sharing Economy Can Help Financial Struggles.
Phys Org, 24 Nov. 2015. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://phys.org/news/2015-11-economy-financial-struggles.html>.
ccxcii
http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/inquirer/the-people-have-said-yes-to-the-sharing-economy/story-e6frg6z6-
1227621545626?nk=d3fb8ab29ee5aeb381c58598e2da6202-1448932297
ccxciii
http://www.publicceo.com/2015/11/can-the-sharing-economy-make-politicians-more-responsive/
ccxciv
"Internet Usage by Individuals in 2014." Digital Agenda for Europe. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
<http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/news/internet-usage-individuals-2014>.
ccxcv
Stephany, Alex. The Business of Sharing: Making It in the New Sharing Economy. N.p.: Palgrave Macmillan, n.d.
Print. 24.

 
116  

               
  

ccxcvi
Brunwasser, Matthew. "A 21st-Century Migrant’s Essentials: Food, Shelter, Smartphone." The New York Times.
N.p., 25 Aug. 2015. Web. 04 Oct. 2015. <http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/26/world/europe/a-21st-century-migrants-
checklist-water-shelter-smartphone.html?_r=0>.
ccxcvii
Ibid.
ccxcviii
Ibid.
ccxcix
Mason, Paul. "The End of Capitalism Has Begun." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 17 July 2015. Web.
14 Apr. 2016. <http://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jul/17/postcapitalism-end-of-capitalism-begun>.
ccc
Alden, William. "The Business Tycoons of Airbnb." The New York Times. The New York Times, 29 Nov. 2014.
Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/30/magazine/the-business-tycoons-of-
airbnb.html?+action=click&pgtype=Homepage&module=c-column-middle-span-region®ion=c-column-middle-span-
region&WT.nav=c-column-middle-span-
region&_r=0&mtrref=undefined&gwh=F5B3A07799901B0D1C199B9513387210&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_now>.
ccci
Smith, Yves. "The Shafting, Um, Sharing Economy | Naked Capitalism." Naked Capitalism. N.p., 26 May 2015.
Web. 12 Apr. 2016. <http://www.nakedcapitalism.com/2015/05/the-shafting-um-sharing-economy.html>.
cccii
Ibid.
ccciii
Ibid.
ccciv
"European Sharing Economy Coalition | Euro Freelancers." Euro Freelancers. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
<http://www.euro-freelancers.eu/european-sharing-economy-coalition/>.
cccv
"Economy Of Hours | Banking Time." Economy Of Hours. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
<http://economyofhours.com/>., "OuiShare - Connecting the Collaborative Economy." OuiShare. N.p., n.d. Web. 04
Oct. 2015. <http://ouishare.net/>., "European Sharing Economy Coalition | Euro Freelancers." Euro Freelancers. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015. <http://www.euro-freelancers.eu/european-sharing-economy-coalition/>.
cccvi
Participant 9. Personal interview. March 12.
cccvii
Ibid.
cccviii
Ibid.
cccix
Ibid.
cccx
"#TechfugeesLive." YouTube. N.p., 3 Feb. 2016. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<https://youtu.be/bhJwiT3Cxqo?t=2h36m58s>.
cccxi
Photo by author. 8 February 2016.
cccxii
Pade-Khene, C. "Sustainable Rural ICT Project Management Practice for Developing Countries: Investigating the
Dwesa and RUMEP Projects." Information Technology Success Factors and Models in Developing and Emerging
Economies. Information Technology for Development, n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233157922_Sustainable_rural_ICT_project_management_practice_for_devel
oping_countries_investigating_the_Dwesa_and_RUMEP_projects>.
cccxiii
Hassan, Fatimah. “Information and Communications Technology Development Products Towards Strengthening
Rural Communities in Malaysia.” CS Canada.
<http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/css/article/viewFile/j.css.1923669720120805.1075/3059>.
cccxiv
"German Center for Research & Innovation." German Center for Research and Innovation. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr.
2016. <http://www.germaninnovation.org/research-and-innovation/german-innovations>.
cccxv
Bolger, Catherine. "Germany The Home of Smart Innovation." The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company,
n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://online.wsj.com/ad/article/germany-innovation.html>.
cccxvi
Bolger, Catherine. "Germany The Home of Smart Innovation." The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company,
n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://online.wsj.com/ad/article/germany-innovation.html>.
cccxvii
Ibid.
cccxviii
Ibid.
cccxix
Geiger, Freidrich. "The Giant Hole in Germany's Economy: Startups." Wall Street Journal. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr.
2016. <http://www.wsj.com/articles/the-giant-hole-in-germanys-economy-startups-1425517694>.
cccxx
Ibid.
cccxxi
Barba, Ronald. "Top 15 Most Entrepreneurial Countries in the World." Tech.com. N.p., 30 June 2015. Web. 13
Apr. 2016. <http://tech.co/top-15-entrepreneurial-countries-world-2015-06>.
cccxxii
Ciccone, Alicia. "Global Entrepreneurship Is On The Rise." The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 20 Jan.
2012. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/01/20/global-entrepreneurship-is-on-the-
rise_n_1216921.html>.

 
117  

               
  

247 Ciccone, Alicia. "Global Entrepreneurship Is On The Rise." The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 20 Jan.
2012. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/01/20/global-entrepreneurship-is-on-the-
rise_n_1216921.html>.cccxxiii
cccxxiv
http://www.wsj.com/articles/the-giant-hole-in-germanys-econ-omy-start-ups1425517694
cccxxv
Koch, Thilo. "A Glance on German Start Up Culture." Pymetrics.com. N.p., 16 Apr. 2015. Web.
<www.wsj.com/articles/the-giant-hole-in-germanys-econ-omy-startupstart-ups>.
cccxxvi
"Country Comparison :: Telephones - Mobile Cellular." Central Intelligence Agency. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr.
2016.
cccxxvii
Rango, Marizio. "How Big Data Can Help Immigrants." Weforum.org. N.p., 5 Oct. 2015. Web.
<https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/10/how-big-data-can-help-
migrants/?utm_content=buffer97ed2&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer>.
cccxxviii
Participant 10. Personal interview. 17 January 2016.
cccxxix
Ibid.
cccxxx
Participant 11. Personal interview. 25 January 2016.
cccxxxi
Ibid.
cccxxxii
Ibid.
cccxxxiii
Ibid.
cccxxxiv
Jump, Tyler. "What Refugees Ask When They Reach Europe - Uprooted IRC." Medium. N.p., 16 Oct. 2015.
Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <https://medium.com/uprooted/what-refugees-ask-when-they-arrive-in-europe-
e09c72c80ea9#.au9rg9x1z>.
cccxxxv
Rango, Marizio. "How Big Data Can Help Immigrants." Weforum.org. N.p., 5 Oct. 2015. Web.
<https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/10/how-big-data-can-help-
migrants/?utm_content=buffer97ed2&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer>.
cccxxxvi
Robson, Sean. "The Technology Aiming to Help Refugees - BBC News." BBC News. BBC News, 13 Dec. 2013.
Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://www.bbc.com/news/business-25351763>.
cccxxxvii
Ibid
cccxxxviii
Ulbert, Katja. "Refugee Crisis Balkans and Central Europe - UMap." Refugee Crisis Balkans and Central Europe
- UMap. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://umap.openstreetmap.fr/en/map/refugee-crisis-central-europe-and-the-
balkans_55091#7/46.585/18.298>.
cccxxxix
Ibid.
cccxl
"RefugeeMaps.org | Visualising Help for the #RefugeeCrisis." RefugeeMaps.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.refugeemaps.org/>.
cccxli
Refugee Volunteer Map. N.p., n.d. Web.
<https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid=zddfRUtGScOc.kQBgTQcoV5FM&hl=en_US>.
cccxlii
"Balkan Route Info." Balkan Route Info. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<https://docs.google.com/document/d/1fZlNfQkC3EFLrjAuszFm-fjuDDVNvtfcyqb0bfDtpa4/mobilebasic?pli=1>.
cccxliii
Ibid.
cccxliv
Ibid.
cccxlv
Sahil, Verma. "Internet Security." International Journal of Computer Applications in Engineering Sciences.
ProQuest, n.d.
cccxlvi
Bogart, Nicole. "How Refugees Are Using Google Maps, Social Media to Cross Borders." Globalnews.ca. Global
News, 14 Sept. 2015. Web. <http://sear http://globalnews.ca/news/2219299/how-refugees-are-using-google-maps-
social-media-to-help-cross-borders/ ch.proquest.com.proxy.lib.duke.edu/docview/1237634015?pq-
origsite=summon&accountid=10598>.
cccxlvii
Gentile, Camillo. Geolocation Techniques: Principles and Applications. New York: Springer, 2013. Print.
cccxlviii
Ibid.
cccxlix
Participant 12. Personal interview. 14 January 2016.
cccl
Osborne, Louise. "Smartphone App Launched to Help Asylum Seekers in Dresden." The Guardian. Guardian News
and Media, 17 Aug. 2015. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/17/smartphone-app-
launched-help-asylum-seekers-dresden-germany>.
cccli
Participant 12. Personal interview. 14 January 2016.
ccclii
Ibid.
cccliii
Sassen, Saskia. Towards a Sociology of Information Technology. N.p.: n.p., 2002. Print.

 
118  

               
  

cccliv
Sassen, Saskia. Towards a Sociology of Information Technology. N.p.: n.p., 2002. Print.
ccclv
"Refugees Welcome | This Is the International Website of the Berlin-based Project „Flüchtlinge Willkommen“."
Refugees Welcome International Front Page Comments. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://www.refugees-
welcome.net/>.
ccclvi
Dearden, Lizzie. "Refugees Welcome: 'Airbnb for Asylum Seekers' Started by German Couple Spreads around the
World - and the UK Could Be next." The Independent. Independent Digital News and Media, 2 Nov. 2015. Web. 13
Apr. 2016. <http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/refugees-welcome-airbnb-for-asylum-seekers-started-
by-german-couple-spreads-around-the-world-and-the-a6718321.html#gallery>.
ccclvii
Dearden, Lizzie. "Refugees Welcome: 'Airbnb for Asylum Seekers' Started by German Couple Spreads around the
World - and the UK Could Be next." The Independent. Independent Digital News and Media, 2 Nov. 2015. Web. 13
Apr. 2016. <http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/refugees-welcome-airbnb-for-asylum-seekers-started-
by-german-couple-spreads-around-the-world-and-the-a6718321.html#gallery>.
ccclviii
Ewing, Katherine Pratt. Stolen Honor: Stigmatizing Muslim Men in Berlin. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 2008. Print.
13.
ccclix
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon, 1978. Print.
ccclx
Ewing, Katherine Pratt. Stolen Honor: Stigmatizing Muslim Men in Berlin. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 2008. Print.
22.
ccclxi
"NaTakallam: Pairing Lebanon's Syrian Refugees with Arabic Learners."Alaraby. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2016.
<https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/features/2015/9/29/natakallam-pairing-lebanons-syrian-refugees-with-arabic-
learners>.
ccclxii
Ibid.
ccclxiii
Ibid.
ccclxiv
Participant 13. Personal interview. 27 February 2016.
ccclxv
Ibid.
ccclxvi
Ibid.
ccclxvii
Ibid.
ccclxviii
Ibid.
ccclxix
Ibid.
ccclxx
"Syrian Engineers in Germany." Facebook. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2016.
<https://www.facebook.com/groups/SyrischeIngenieurenInDeutschland/>.
ccclxxi
Cuellar, Steven. "Next Generation Access Networks and Market Structure." (2002): n. pag. Sonoma.edu.
Department of Economics Sonoma State University, 2 Mar. 2002. Web.
<https://www.sonoma.edu/users/c/cuellar/research/networkeffects.pdf>.
ccclxxii
Ibid.
ccclxxiii
Préteceille, Edmond. "Has Ethno-Racial Segregation Increased in the Greater Paris Metropolitan Area? [*]."
Revue Francais Sociologie, n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2016. <http://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-sociologie-2011-5-
page-31.htm>.
ccclxxiv
Ibid.
ccclxxv
Ibid.
ccclxxvi
Ibid.
ccclxxvii
Ibid.
ccclxxviii
Ibid.
ccclxxix
"#TechfugeesLive." YouTube. N.p., 3 Feb. 2016. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<https://youtu.be/bhJwiT3Cxqo?t=5h58m27s>.
ccclxxx
Ibid.
ccclxxxi
Ibid.
ccclxxxii
Ibid.
ccclxxxiii
Ibid.
ccclxxxiv
Levin, Dave. "The World's First Fab Lab in a Refugee Camp - Updated Answers to Questions from Amplify &
Experts 6/30/2015." OpenIDEO. N.p., 2 July 2015. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<https://challenges.openideo.com/challenge/refugee-education/ideas/the-world-s-first-fab-lab-in-a-refugee-camp>.
ccclxxxv
Ibid.

 
119  

               
  

ccclxxxvi
Boeri, N. "Technology and Society as Embedded: An Alternative Framework for Information and
Communication Technology and Development." Media, Culture & Society 38.1 (2015): 107-18. Web.
ccclxxxvii
Jalil, Mohammad M. "Did Globalisation Stimulate Increased Inequality? A Heterodox Perspective." Real World
Economics Review (n.d.): n. pag. Swiss Foundation for Technical Cooperation. Web.
ccclxxxviii
Brophy, Peter, and Jenny Craven. Web Accessibility. N.p.: Johns Hopkins UP, 2007. Print.
ccclxxxix
Wajcman, Judy. "Addressing Technological Change: The Challenge to Social Theory." Sage. Current Sociology,
2002. Web. <http://csi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/50/3/347>.
cccxc
Brophy, Peter, and Jenny Craven. Web Accessibility. N.p.: Johns Hopkins UP, 2007. Print.
cccxci
Ibid.
cccxcii
Ibid.
cccxciii
Ibid.
cccxciv
Little, Emily. "Bitcoin." Aspen Publishers, Inc., n.d. Web. 2014.
cccxcv
"Everything You Need to Know about Bitcoin Mining." Everything You Need to Know about Bitcoin Mining. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://www.bitcoinmining.com/>.
cccxcvi
"Coinbase - Buy and Sell Bitcoin." Bitcoin Wallet. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
<https://www.coinbase.com/?locale=en>.
cccxcvii
Participant 14. Personal interview. 20 March 2014.
cccxcviii
Krier, James, and Clayton Gilette. "The Un-Easy Case for Technological Optimism." N.p., n.d. 1985.
cccxcix
Belk, Russell. "You Are What You Can Access: Sharing and Collaborative Consumption Online." Journal of
Business Research 67.8 (2014): 1595-600. Web. 1596.
cd
"Infographic: The Rise of the Sharing Economy." Statista Infographics. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
<http://www.statista.com/chart/2323/the-rise-of-the-sharing-economy/>.
cdi
Ibid.
cdii
Chase, Robin. "Who Benefits from the Peer-to-Peer Economy?" Harvard Business Review. N.p., 28 July 2015. Web.
13 Apr. 2016. <https://hbr.org/2015/07/who-benefits-from-the-peer-to-peer-economy>.
cdiii
"Digital Economy & Society." EUROPA. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://europa.eu/pol/infso/index_en.htm>.
cdiv
Ibid.
cdv
Ogunlesi, Tolu, and Stephanie Busari. "Seven Ways Mobile Phones Have Changed Lives in Africa." CNN. Cable
News Network, 14 Sept. 2012. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/13/world/africa/mobile-phones-
change-africa/>.
cdvi
Laitin, David D., and Marc Jahr. "Let Syrians Settle Detroit." The New York Times. The New York Times, 15 May
2015. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. <http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/15/opinion/let-syrians-settle-detroit.html?_r=0>.
cdvii
Ibid.
cdviii
Fleming, Melissa. "Ayudemos a Los Refugiados a Prosperar, No Solo a Sobrevivir." Ted,com. N.p., n.d. Web. 13
Apr. 2016. <https://www.ted.com/talks/melissa_fleming_let_s_help_refugees_thrive_not_just_survive?language=es#t-
372524>.
cdix
Ibid.

 
120