Aspects of Glass Handout PDF

Institute of Structural Engineers, SE Counties Branch, 2010
Aspects of Structural Glass
Tim Morgan CEng MIMechE

Technical Manager, Pilkington Architectural
2
Chemical Composition Soda Lime Silica Glass
Material Symbol mass, %
Silica sand SiO2 69-74

Lime (calcium oxide) CaO 5-14
Soda Na2O 10-16
Magnesia MgO 0-6
Alumina Al2O3 0-3
Others 0-5
Source: EN 572-1, 2004 3

Description of glass
- Glass is a liquid that has cooled to a rigid

state without crystallizing
- Glass is not a super-cooled liquid but an
inorganic solid with an amorphous non-
crystalline structure
Viscosity State Temp

(dPa s) (0C)
105 Working point 1040
108.6 Softening point 720
1014 Annealing point 540
1014.3 Transition temperature, Tg 530
1020 Room temperature 20
Source: Glass in Building, Button & Pye & Structural Use of Glass, Haldimann, Luible, Overend 4
Structure of glass
Silicon
Oxygen
Sodium
Potassium
Molecular modelling simulation by Dave Green, Pilkington
5
Physical Properties of Soda Lime Silica Glass
Property Symbol Unit Value
Density ρ kg/m3 2,500

Young’s modulus E MPa 70,000
Poisson’s ratio ν - 0.2
Coeff. of thermal expansion α 10-6K-1 9
Thermal conductivity cp Jkg-1K-1 1
Average refractive index n - 1.5
Emissivity ε - 0.837
Source: EN 572-1, 2004 6

Aspects of Structural Glass:
1) Strength
2) Flexibility
3) Fragility
4) Durability
5) Connectivity
601 Lexington Avenue, Entrance, USA 7

1) Strength - Theoretical Strength of Glass
The theoretical strength of glass can be determined, in a simple

way, by looking at the atomic bonding;
do
Eγ
σ th =
do
where, σth is the theoretical
cleavage strength, E is
Young’s modulus (70GPa), γ is the
surface energy (3.71Jm-2) and do is
inter-atomic spacing (1.6Å)
Based on this, the strength of glass would be approx. 40 GPa !

8
1) Strength - Practical Strength of Glass
BUT the practical strength of glass is only

∼0.4% of the theoretical strength,
and typically lies between 35 - 350* MPa
* based on 1ft diameter burst test data
Practical demonstration:
Results recorded for 742 “identical” annealed glass test pieces
manufactured on the same day, on the same equipment and being
visually indistinguishable from each other…
Product # results Mean Std Dev Highest Lowest

(Nmm-2) value value
Annealed 742 71.4 17.2 116 30
Expect a factor of 3 difference between the strongest and weakest!

9
1) Strength - Practical Strength of Glass
BUT the practical strength of glass is only

∼0.4% of the theoretical strength,
and typically lies between 35 - 350* MPa
* based on 1ft diameter burst test data
Reasons for the variability in strength – Micro & Macroscopic

- Surface defects - Size of panel
- Stress concentrations - Rate of loading
- Structure of glass - Surface condition
10
1) Strength - Work of Inglis
Inglis derived a generally applicable formulation for

determining these
stress concentrations, where the fracture stress is governed
by c and r,
σ
⎛ c⎞
σ tip = σ⎜⎜1 + 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ r⎠
σtip r
• For a plate with a circular hole, σtip= 3σ 2c
• For a thread root, σtip= 15σ
• If c = 10μm & r = 1.6Å, then σtip= 500σ
σ
11
1) Strength - Work of Griffith
Griffith (1920) was the first person to postulate that low

strengths were related to pre-existing defects, and that
these defects gave rise to stress concentrations. He
developed an equation to determine the stress required to
cause fracture without the need for details of the crack tip.
σ
Eγ
σf =
πc
where, E is Young’s modulus, γ is 2c
the surface energy and c is size of
the defect.
σ
12
1) Strength – The structure of glass
In many materials, crack propagation prevention occurs by…
Grain boundary interactions 2nd phase interactions Fibre interactions
In addition many materials exhibit crack tip shielding…
Phase transformation Micro-cracking Ductile 2nd phase
THESE MECHANISMS ARE NOT PRESENT IN GLASS!!! 13

1) Strength – The size effect
The strength of glass is dependent on its size…
I’m stronger
than you ..
You wanna
bet ...
The larger the sample, the more chance of finding a critical flaw.
14
1) Strength – The effect of load rating
The strength of glass is dependent on the rate at which it is

loaded…
Arrgggh !!
No problems
1 MPa / Sec 1 MPa / Hour 1 MPa / Day
The underlying cause of this is moisture levels…
15
1) Strength – The effect of moisture
Glass is prone to stress corrosion - a stress induced/accelerated

reaction with water forming alkali solutions which attack the
silica network…
Na+ + H2O = H+ + NaOH
(glass) (atmosphere) (glass) (alkali)
Water vapour Leads to more Increases

Sharpens the
causes corrosion severe stress chances
crack tip
at crack tips concentrations of failure
The longer the glass is under tensile stress during testing, the
more time available for stress corrosion to take place.
16
The severity of the effect is governed by the stress corrosion

constant, n. A low value of n means more susceptibility to
stress corrosion… 1
⎛ t1 ⎞ n
σ 2 = σ 1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ t2 ⎠
Suggested values for n are…

In water In air (50%RH) In a vacuum
12-17 16-22 ∞
17
16
15
14
Resultant surface stress (MPa)
13
12
11 1
⎛ t1 ⎞ n
10
σ 2 = σ 1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
9 ⎝ t2 ⎠
8
6
1 10 100 1000 10000
Time to failure (mins)
Graph showing the effect of stress corrosion (blue dots represent unbroken samples)
18
1) Strength – Surface effects
The effect of ceramic frit:
The strength of glass is reduced by the presence of ceramic
inks. Glass printed with ceramic inks is weaker than unprinted
glass. This is often made worse if there is more than one ink on
top of another…
Silver ceramic Rule of thumb:
ink 1 ink - strength À 30%
2 inks - strength À 60%
Black ceramic
ink
Glass
Source: Jon Williams, Pilkington
19
1) Strength – The toughening process
- Glass is heated to about 650oC,

and then rapidly quenched with
air jets.
- The surface cools quickly and the
core more slowly. At ambient
temperature, the core continues
to cool and compressive stress
develops in the surface,
balanced by tension in the
centre. Toughening furnace, Pilkington
Annealed glass Tempered glass
Heating Quenching 20
The tempering cycle gives rise to a parabolic stress profile within the glass,
Compression Tension
The compressive stress layer (20% of ‘t’) acts as a buffer to crack growth.
Its magnitude at the surface is ≈2x that of the centre tensile region.
Notes – Toughened Glass:

BS EN 12150 quantifies stress by destructive particle count, however
comparative tests have shown that the required compressive stress is
80 to 90 MPa* (* source, Stress measurement & fragmentation, Schiavonato, GPD 2005)
GANA recommendation for North America = 77.2MPa 21
The tempering cycle gives rise to a parabolic stress profile within the glass,
Compression Tension
The compressive stress layer (20% of ‘t’) acts as a buffer to crack growth.
Its magnitude at the surface is ≈2x that of the centre tensile region.
Notes – Heat Strengthened Glass:

BS EN 1863 quantifies stress by destructive particle count, however
comparative tests have shown that the required compressive stress is
35 to 60 MPa* (* source, Stress measurement & fragmentation, Schiavonato, GPD 2005)
GANA recommendation for North America = 38.6MPa 22
1) Strength – Existing design codes
Country USA - USA - UK PRC Australia

Code Industry
Code ASTM GANA BS6262-2 JGJ 102- AS1288
E1300-09 2004 2005 2003
Permissible/ P P L L L
Limit State
Wind Load 3 sec 60 sec 60 min 10 min 3 sec
Duration
Annealed 23.3 MPa - - 19.5 MPa 33.0 MPa
Stress Limit
HS Stress 46.6 MPa - - - 58.0 MPa
Limit
FT Stress 93.1 MPa - - 58.8 MPa 82.0 MPa
Limit
Source : Wymond & Arumugam, Meinhart Façade Technology PTY, GPD India 2008 (updated) 23
1) Strength – Corresponding loading codes
Country USA UK/EU PRC India Australia
Code ASCE7 EN 1991-4 GB5009- IS875.3 AS1170.2-

1995 2005 2001 2004 2002
Permissible/ L L L P L
Limit State
Return 50 yrs 50 yrs 50 yrs 50 yrs 50 to 1000
Period yrs
Gust 3 sec 10 min 10 min 3 sec 3 sec
Duration
Source : Wymond & Arumugam, Meinhart Façade Technology PTY, GPD India 2008 (updated) 24
1) Strength – Manufacturer’s data
Permissible stress for short load duration:
Glass type Body stress (MPa) Edge Stress (MPa)
Annealed (≤6mm) 41 28
Annealed (10≥mm) 28 17.8
Patterned Glass 27 27
Wired Glass 21 21
Toughened Glass 59 59
Permissible stress for long load duration:

Load type Annealed (Nmm-2) Toughened (Nmm-2)
Snow Short dur/2.6 Short dur/2.6
Water & Shelves 7 35
Floor 8.4 35
Self Weight As per load type As per load type
25
Source : Pilkington Glass Consultants, for UK loads and glass product standards
1) Strength – Comparison of codes
Comparison of product standards and allowable stress:

Body/ USA USA EU EU Planar Planar
Code (prod) (design) (product) (design) (prod) (design)
type Approx. draft
Code GANA ASTM en12150 prEN - -
2004 E1300-09 en1863 13474
Annealed 19.3 23.3 MPa - - - -
MPa
Heat 38.6 46.6 MPa - - 45-55 45 MPa
strengthn MPa MPa
Toughen 77.2 93.1 MPa - - 113 90 MPa
MPa MPa
Notes : Comparison for interest only
Allowable stress values are for short term loading
prEN13474 are personal calculations – code not yet complete to publish 26
1) Strength – Code Work
Expectation for new structural design codes :
EuroNorm, prEN13474-3, CEN/TC129/WG8

Title: Glass in Building, Determination of the strength of glass panes
Scope: Fenestrations, facades & infil panels
Status: To be issued for public comment in 1st quarter 2010
EuroNorm, Eurocode for Structural Glass, CEN/TC250/WG3

Title : Eurocode for Structural Glass
Scope: Limit State approach for structural glazed elements
Status: Resolution 258 has agreed the formation of working group 3
First meeting expected within the next few months
27
2) Flexibility – Current design limits
Document Deflection limit Notes
BS 6262 L/125 (single) Allowable deflections of edges
L/175 (insulated) for 4 edge full supported glass
BS 5516 Single, (S2x1000)/180 or 2 edge supported glass, where
50mm (whichever less) S=span [m] between supports
BS 5516 IGU, (S2x1000)/540 or 2 edge supported glass, where
20mm (whichever less) S=span [m] between supports
ASTM E- 19mm Deflection of supported edges
1300-04 less than L/175, L=length
AS1288- L/60 Deflection of unframed
94 toughened glass, L=length
Pilkington b/50 Deflection of unframed Planar
Planar system, b=width of panel
Source : Extract of table 6.4, IStructE Structural use of glass in buildings, 1999 28
2) Flexibility – Glass is flexible!
There is often a design to attach
glass to an “ultra-flexible” host
Structure, but what is acceptable?
Normal deflection
limit for Planar,
b/50 = 46mm
Max. deflection of
cable at centre
span = 150mm
Cable deflection
at first hor. glass
joint = 100mm
Single tension cable detail
Centre Square Vestibule, USA 29

City Creek Centre test panel, Pilkington, UK (Video clip)
1.6x2.3m puck support panel : make up, 10/16/6

Test Load, 1054Pa : Cable deflection, 118mm 30
Displacement investigation test panel, Pilkington, UK (Video clip)
1.8x1.8m Intrafix concept panel : make up, 6/16/12

Test Load, 5kPa : Deflection, 120mm 31
2) Flexibility – Horizontal applications
Issues:
- standing water leaches soda from
the glass surface quickly
- the resulting staining is permanent
- Pilkington specify a minimum 3
degree pitch for “horizontal” glass
- Ready access for cleaning or self-
cleaning glass (e.g. ActivTM) are
advisable for near hor. pitches
Project details:
- insulated laminated panels
- make-up, 10/16/6-1.52pvb-6
- tension support system
- horizontal
Skylight, Rolex HQ, Geneva
32
2) Flexibility – Key points, Glass panels
- Toughened and heat strengthened glass are capable of
coping with extreme deflection! The average member of
the public cannot cope with the idea the glass is flexible!
- Where deflection is not limited by code (e.g. BS 6180)

Pilkington have successfully adopted an aesthetic limit of
b/50 for PlanarTM, where b is the shorter dim. of the panel
- The implications of large centre span deflections need to

be designed for at the support locations!
- Standing water will damage glass permanently! For

horizontal panels Pilkington insist on a slope of 3 degrees
33
2) Flexibility – Glass fins (in-plane)
Friction connection
- Cantilevered toughened
glass fin (friction connected)
- 530mm x 3500mm x 19mm
- Typical max. design moment,
40kNm
Cantilevered fin performance tests, Pilkington, UK
- Design often limited by
lateral torsional buckling
34
2) Flexibility – Glass fins (out-of-plane)
Cantilevered fin buckling validation tests, Pilkington, UK (Video clip)
4.8m long, 19mm thk toughened cantilevered fin

65kNm bending moment 35
2) Flexibility – Key points, Glass fins
- Toughened fins are extremely rigid in-plane. The structure
to which they are attached is sometimes not so rigid!
- Historically, Pilkington have used the following moment
limits to guard against lateral torsional buckling:
Thickness Full height fins Cantilevered fins
19mm 69kNm 40kNm
15mm 33kNm 19kNm
12mm 17kNm 13kNm
- When providing additional lateral restraint to glass fins,
Appendix H4, AS1288:1989 accurately predicts buckling
loads (but with no safety factors!)
- Toughening bow can significant reduce the lateral stability
of fins unless the façade design accommodates this.
36
3) Fragility – Is toughened glass fragile?
“A surface or material which would be liable to fail if any
reasonable foreseeable loading were to be applied to it.”
Work at height regulations
Typical requirements:
BS EN 12600
- 50kg twin tyre
impactor
- 450, 900, & 1200mm
drop
BS EN 356
- 4.11 kg steel ball
- 1.5m to 9m drop
height
10*/16/6 bolted unit, impactor height 1200mm 37

3) Fragility – Is toughened glass fragile?
BBC sponsored trials, 2006

“What the 20th Century did for us.”
5ft mini drop
38
3) Fragility – Toughened glass
Nickel Sulphide (NiS)
Sudden fracture may result from
the transformation of:
α-NiS
Hexagonal (high temp) form
Nickel Sulphide inclusion
β-NiS
Rhombohedral (low temp) form
39
(NiS) Key issues:
- NiS only affects toughened glass
by transforming in the tensile
zone
- Stones can be between 50μm
and 800μm and not all stones
cause spontaneous fracture Nickel Sulphide inclusion
- EN14179 quotes a 1 in 400 ton frequency in heat soaked

glass but this is an average!
- Not all stones that cause spontaneous fracture are NiS
(silicone formed by redox reaction with Al can also occur)
- “Spontaneous” fracture is more often caused by impact, in-
service damage and installation issues 40
3) Fragility – Managing edge damage
Edge ‘Bright’ Edge ‘Fire’ Pre-toughening work
Edge ‘Splinter’ Edge ‘Chip’ Surface ‘Shell’ 41

3) Fragility – Managing edge damage
Description Cause Effect Acceptability

Edge “bright” Arris not removed all Aesthetic only if <5mm (2off)
edge break out
Edge “fire” Low coolant level at Aesthetic only Can be removed
finisher post with light dressing
Pre-toughening Edge damage Aesthetic only -
corrected before
dressing
toughening
Edge “splinter” Handling, transport, Aesthetic with if <1mm deep
installation
low structural risk & <25mm long
Edge “chip” Handling, transport, Aesthetic only If <3mm deep&
installation
<3mm long
Surface “shell” Surface breakout Aesthetic with Not acceptable
damage not
medium
removed by arris
structural risk
Pilkington recommendations for edge damage acceptability with Planar Glazing 42
Key issues:
- Toughened glass is durable and resistant to impact when
the impact is understood and has been anticipated in design!
- The risk of breakage due of toughened glass due to Nickel
Sulphide can be reduced (EN14179) but not eradicated.
- Toughened glass is vulnerable to edge damage and
scratches and the effect of damage is difficult to quantify
- Designing with monolithic toughened glass requires the
engineer to ask, “What happens when this glass breaks?”
43
3) Fragility – the unanticipated event
CPNI trials, 2010

Blast resistance of toughened
PlanarTM façade – tension rods
44
3) Fragility – Laminated glass
Types of interlayer:
(1) Polyvinyl butyral (PVB)
- most commonly available in industry
- manufactured in autoclave at elevated Temp and pressure
- available in coloured and printed form
- Glass transition temperature, 230C
(2) Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA)
- cured at elevated Temp but no requirement for autoclave
- good durability and edge stability
- increased stiffness for load sharing & security
(3) Cast-in-Place (CIP)
- 2 part liquid pour interlayer
- suited to small volume and specialist artwork type applications
- better able to cope with toughened and curved glass
(4) Structural Ionomer interlayers – e.g. Sentry Glas
45
The great “strength of laminated glass” debate:
Can the interlayer material transfer shear and increase the
equivalent thickness of the complete laminate over and
above the sum of the strength of the individual panels?
σc
σt
Relevant factors:
σc
- interlayer material type
σt
- temperature
σc = compressive stress σt = tensile stress
- load duration
- load rate
σLc
σLt 46
Structural benefits SentryGlas® interlayer:
10 3 40
PVB Laminate
Ionoplast (SentryGlas(R) Plus) Laminate
Storage Young's Modulus (MPa)
Engineering Stress, σa (MPa)

30
10 2
1 Hz 20
10 1
10
SentryGlas(R) Plus Strain Rate ~ 0.1/s

Butacite(R)
10 0 0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 1 2 3 4 5
o
Temperature C Engineering Strain, e
- stiffer than PVB over wide range of temperatures

- higher tear energy (5 x PVB)
- improved edge durability and transparency 47
ÍIntegral
ÍPlanar SGP
ÍPlanar PVB
Post-fracture performance of various configurations & interlayers

Break 3 – post-fracture loading
48
Considerations for “intact” performance:
- load duration & application rate
- interlayer Temp. per load case
- durability and compatibility
- need for sacrificial components
3 ply laminate 12mm toughened heat soaked glass Willis Tower, Chicago, 1353ft
49
Rated for 125psf with redundancy Designed by Yolles Halcrow
Post-fracture performance:
- glass fracture patterns
- glass & interlayer interaction
- ease of access
- time to replacement
- need for total redundancy?
- load case moderation?
Project details:
- glass treads comprise of annealed
laminated glass
- glass stringer is curved, chemically
toughened laminated glass
- designed for seismic loading
Apple Store, Japan, Osaka
Designed by Eckersley O’Callaghan 50
- ease of access
Project details:
- first twin storey glass staircase
- central glass core supporting cantilevered
glass treads supporting stringers
- outer stringer comprises 3ply chemically
toughened laminate
Apple Store, 14th Street, New York
- ease of access
Project details:
- glass fins laminated from 5ply 19mm low
iron glass
- fins spliced together with interlayer to
create 35ft tool single span beams
Apple Store, Upper West Side, NY

Typical requirements:
BS EN 12600
- 50kg twin tyre
impactor
- 450, 900, & 1200mm
drop
BS EN 356
- 4.11 kg steel ball
- 1.5m to 9m drop
height
10/2.28sgp/6, EN356 test, 4.11kg ball at 9m (2nd impact) 53

Cycling requirements:
+20 to +50psf 3500x
+0 to +60psf 300x
+50 to +80psf 600x
+30 to +100psf 100x
-30 to -100psf 50x
-50 to -80psf 1050x
-0 to -60psf 50x
-20 to -50psf 3350x
Various broken laminates on hurricane cycling 54

Product 1 (Sentry Glass)
Product 2 (PVB)
Comblast trials, 2004
Blast resistance of Planar using
pvb and Sentry Glass interlayer
55
Key issues:
- Laminated glass is generally more expensive & can add
significant weight
- The use of laminates will considerably improve post-fracture
behaviour in most cases but is not the “automatic” answer it
has become in some quarters
- The performance of laminated glass is temperature and load
duration dependent
- Laminated glass will be significantly less durable
- Laminated glass has a limit too!
56
Project Performance Test, 2005

Laminated panels to cable support
Project overload, 2.39kPa
57
3) Fragility – Toughened or laminated?
BS 5516-2:2004, Code of practice for sloped glazing:
Section 8.3.2 – Roof or canopy glazing
Glazing at a height up to 5m
- toughened, toughened & heatsoaked, laminated or wired
Glazing at a height over 5m and up to 13m
- laminated or wired, or toughened and toughened &
heatsoaked not more than 6mm thick and 3m2 in area
Glazing above 13m
- laminated glass or wired glass
Note : Advice related to single glazing and the lower

component of insulated glazing
Note : Advice does not relate to vertical facades where
toughened glass will often remain in place 58
4) Durability – the easily forgotten issue
Glass:
- extremely durable with a track
record of 100s of years
1320s Crown Glass invented in

France (nr Rouen)
1678 Crown Glass made in
London
1851 Crystal Palace made by
‘Cylinder’ method
1920s Rolled Glass commonly
used
1960 Float Process introduced
by Pilkington
Crown Glass 59
4) Durability – the issue
Glass:
- extremely durable with a track
record spanning hundreds of yrs
Associated components:
- Poly Vinyl Butyral (PVB) sheet
invented in 1930s
- Poly Iso Butylene (PIB)
invented in 1950s & 60s
- Silicone weather seals invented
1950s
- Polyamides (Nylon) invented in
1930s [but most plastics used
today are <10yrs old and
acceleration factor <10!
US Steelworkers Union Building, Pittsburgh, 1958 60
4) Durability – Insulated units
Issues:
- water ingress (typical units have a 5 or 10 year
warranty)
- compatibility issues between adjacent sealants
- transportation and installation at height
- UV stability of unit components (e.g. polysulphide)
- Gas leakage & unit “pillowing”
- Sputter coatings are often vulnerable to processing
damage and corrosion
61
Edge seal construction:
Key:
A) Secondary seal depth
A
Secondary Seal
B) Primary seal depth
C
C) Unit site line
B
Hollow Spacer
D) Cavity with
E) Overall unit width
D
E
Edge seal components

62
Edge seal construction:
Durability testing:
BS EN 1279
Glass in buildings
A
Secondary Seal
Insulated Glass Units
Part 2 – Long term test
C
method for moisture penetr.
B
Hollow Spacer
Part 3 – Long term test

D method for gas leakage
E Part 6 – Factory production

control test (3 week)
Edge seal components
63
BS EN 1279 : Glass in buildings - Insulated Glass Units:
Part 2 – Long term test method for moisture penetration.
4 weeks cycling between -180C & +530C (every 12 hours)
7 weeks at constant +580C
relative humidity ≥ 95 %
Part 6 – Factory production control & short climate test
3 weeks at +580C
relative humidity ≥ 95 %
multiple component quality tests
PILKINGTON : ln-house “long life” unit testing:

2000 hours UV (84 days) (as EN 1093-3:2001)
35/750C, 4 cycles per day, 500 cycles, (125 days)
Relative humidity 100% 64
36.75mm
33.16mm
Competitor unit performance comparison, Pilkington, UK
Insulated units : make up, 10/16/6

Both units subject to EN 1279-6 : starting width, 32.5mm 65
4) Durability – Insulated units - faults
Voids in PIB seal Condensation formation
Total rupture of PIB seal 66

4) Durability – Laminated glass
Issues:
- manufacturing issues
- water damage
- compatibility issues
- loss of plasticizers at edges
- UV stability
- Discoloration at high temp.
- Haze growth at high temp.
- Typical laminates have a 1 or 5
year warranty
Finger delamination indicating interlayer

depletion bdue to over compression 67
Issues:
- water damage
- UV stability
year warranty
Damaged interlayer due to failure of

weather seal 68
Issues:
- water damage
- UV stability
year warranty
Setting block vs silicone & pvb interlayer

69
Issues:
- water damage
- UV stability
year warranty
Edge delamination - Orlando

70
5) Connectivity - facades
Cable clamp to laminate

Project, (Julliard)
Spring plate to IGU
Project, (Kangnam)
Tension rod to toughened
Project, (Centre Sq)
71
Point fixed systems: Fixed or articulated?
Planar Fixing
(inventor : Pilkington, 1982)
Rotule Fixing
Dutton & Martin (RFR), 1986)
72
18
Displacement investigation test panel, Pilkington, UK (Pilkington video)
1.8x1.8m Intrafix concept panel : make up, 6/16/12

Test Load, 5kPa : Deflection, 120mm 73
Point fixed systems:
Fixed: Articulated:
- smaller - larger
- ‘articulated’ at support - articulated at glass
- rotation stiffness is difficult - more straightforward to
to model by FEA model
- reduced size can mean - articulation needed by design
less site tolerance often misused to provide
added site tolerance
- smaller sizes requires better - larger pullout strengths
understanding of stresses
74
18
Façade connections in general:
- glass dead load
- as high as 600kg per panel
- wind load reaction
- often as high as 10kN per fixing
- provide movement capacity
- thermal, seismic, support structure
- no glass to metal contact
- no tight clamping of IGUs or laminates
- corrosion resistant
- vibration resistant
- UV & moisture resistance plastics Corner patch to laminated glass
Pilkington 2009, Julliard College
75
18
5) Connectivity – glass mullions
Friction connection:
- historically the connection of choice
- HSFG bolts can apply shank tension of
90kN without breakage
- A friction connection avoids the issue of
glass strength variability
- Gasket material is absolutely critical
(natural aluminium is an issue)
- Torque to shank tension relationship is
critical
- Has proved unsuitable for connections
in roof beams under constant load
Kensington Marriot, Pilkington, 2005

24m long, 19mm toughened & spliced mullions 76
“Holes in bearing” connection:
- reliant upon glass strength and induced
stresses at holes
- beams will generally be deeper or
thicker when compared to friction type
- holes must be isolated by suitable
plastic or aluminium bushes
- hole connections often injected with
epoxy resin or fitted with tight bushes
and then drilled on site
- edge & hole strengths from different
processors will be different
- Pilkington have observed that an edge
chip will reduce strength by av. 26% Bishop’s Avenue London, Pilkington, 2008
Vertical & horizontal spliced fins 77
Summary:
- # samples, 14
- 95/95 characteristic
strength (3s gust) =
12.1kN
- 95/95 characteristic
strength (60s gust) =
8.1kN
- results based upon

Weibull statistics
Load tests – 15mm csk hole - negative
78
Interlayer connections:
- highly specialised and often protected
by patents
- possible to splice annealed glass and
laminate to create multi-ply single
span beams 10m long
- possible to adhere metallic inserts into
the interlayer for strength/robustness
Stair tread connection utilising titanium inserts as Apple Store, 5th Avenue, NY, May 2006
patent US D478,999 S Designed by Eckersley O’Callaghan 79
Adhesive connections to glass:
- not to be confused with the use of
water based adhesives to increase μ
- experience with SSGS is widespread,
but the strength of silicone is limiting
(σshort = 0.14MPa, σlong = 0.014MPa)
- limited tests have been conducted with
acrylics & epoxies – and research
continues at Cambridge & Delft
- short tack times and installation on a
construction site are a major issue
- simulating long term durability will be a
challenge
55 Water Street, USA, 2006
Cantilevered 2 part epoxy adhered fins 80
Institute of Structural Engineers, SE Counties Branch, 2010
Aspects of Structural Glass
Thank you & Any questions?
Tim Morgan CEng MIMechE

Technical Manager, Pilkington Architectural
81

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Institute of Structural Engineers, SE Counties Branch, 2010

Aspects of Structural Glass

Tim Morgan CEng MIMechE

Material Symbol mass, %

Silica sand SiO2 69-74

Source: EN 572-1, 2004 3

- Glass is a liquid that has cooled to a rigid

Viscosity State Temp

Molecular modelling simulation by Dave Green, Pilkington

Property Symbol Unit Value

Density ρ kg/m3 2,500

Source: EN 572-1, 2004 6

601 Lexington Avenue, Entrance, USA 7

The theoretical strength of glass can be determined, in a simple

Based on this, the strength of glass would be approx. 40 GPa !

BUT the practical strength of glass is only

Product # results Mean Std Dev Highest Lowest

Expect a factor of 3 difference between the strongest and weakest!

BUT the practical strength of glass is only

Reasons for the variability in strength – Micro & Macroscopic

Inglis derived a generally applicable formulation for

Griffith (1920) was the first person to postulate that low

Grain boundary interactions 2nd phase interactions Fibre interactions

In addition many materials exhibit crack tip shielding…

Phase transformation Micro-cracking Ductile 2nd phase

THESE MECHANISMS ARE NOT PRESENT IN GLASS!!! 13

The strength of glass is dependent on its size…

The strength of glass is dependent on the rate at which it is

1 MPa / Sec 1 MPa / Hour 1 MPa / Day

The underlying cause of this is moisture levels…

Glass is prone to stress corrosion - a stress induced/accelerated

Water vapour Leads to more Increases

The severity of the effect is governed by the stress corrosion

Suggested values for n are…

Time to failure (mins)

Source: Jon Williams, Pilkington

- Glass is heated to about 650oC,

Annealed glass Tempered glass

Notes – Toughened Glass:

Notes – Heat Strengthened Glass:

Country USA - USA - UK PRC Australia

Country USA UK/EU PRC India Australia

Code ASCE7 EN 1991-4 GB5009- IS875.3 AS1170.2-

Permissible stress for long load duration:

Comparison of product standards and allowable stress:

Expectation for new structural design codes :

EuroNorm, prEN13474-3, CEN/TC129/WG8

EuroNorm, Eurocode for Structural Glass, CEN/TC250/WG3

Centre Square Vestibule, USA 29

City Creek Centre test panel, Pilkington, UK (Video clip)

1.6x2.3m puck support panel : make up, 10/16/6

Displacement investigation test panel, Pilkington, UK (Video clip)

1.8x1.8m Intrafix concept panel : make up, 6/16/12

- Where deflection is not limited by code (e.g. BS 6180)

- The implications of large centre span deflections need to

- Standing water will damage glass permanently! For

Cantilevered fin buckling validation tests, Pilkington, UK (Video clip)

4.8m long, 19mm thk toughened cantilevered fin

10*/16/6 bolted unit, impactor height 1200mm 37

BBC sponsored trials, 2006

- EN14179 quotes a 1 in 400 ton frequency in heat soaked

Edge ‘Bright’ Edge ‘Fire’ Pre-toughening work

Edge ‘Splinter’ Edge ‘Chip’ Surface ‘Shell’ 41