Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Here I want to try to give you an answer to the question: What personal qualities are desirable in a
teacher? Probably no two people would draw up exactly similar lists, but I think the following would be
generally accepted.
First, the teacher's personality should be pleasantly live and attractive. This does not rule out people
who are physically plain, or even ugly, because many such have great personal charm. But it does rule
out such types as the over-excitable, melancholy, frigid, sarcastic, cynical, frustrated, and over-bearing: I
would say too, that it excludes all of dull or purely negative personality. I still stick to what I said in my
earlier book: that school children probably 'suffer more from bores than from brutes'.
Secondly, it is not merely desirable but essential for a teacher to have a genuine capacity for sympathy -
in the literal meaning of that word; a capacity to tune in to the minds and feelings of other people,
especially, since most teachers are school teachers, to the minds and feelings of children. Closely related
with this is the capacity to be tolerant - not, indeed, of what is wrong, but of the frailty and immaturity
of human nature which induce people, and again especially children, to make mistakes.
Thirdly, I hold it essential for a teacher to be both intellectually and morally honest. This does not mean
being a plaster saint. It means that he will be aware of his intellectual strengths, and limitations, and will
have thought about and decided upon the moral principles by which his life shall be guided. There is no
contradiction in my going on to say that a teacher should be a bit of an actor. That is part of the
technique of teaching, which demands that every now and then a teacher should be able to put on an
act - to enliven a lesson, correct a fault, or award praise. Children, especially young children, live in a
world that is rather larger than life.
A teacher must remain mentally alert. He will not get into the profession if of low intelligence, but it is
all too easy, even for people of above-average intelligence, to stagnate intellectually and that means to
deteriorate intellectually. A teacher must be quick to adapt himself to any situation, however
improbable (they happen!) and able to improvise, if necessary at less than a moment's notice. (Here I
should stress that I use 'he' and 'his' throughout the book simply as a matter of convention and
convenience.)
On the other hand, a teacher must be capable of infinite patience. This, I may say, is largely a matter of
self-discipline and self-training; we are none of us born like that. He must be pretty resilient; teaching
makes great demands on nervous energy. And he should be able to take in his stride the innumerable
petty irritations any adult dealing with children has to endure.
Finally, I think a teacher should have the kind of mind which always wants to go on learning. Teaching is
a job at which one will never be perfect; there is always something more to learn about it. There are
three principal objects of study: the subject, or subjects, which the teacher is teaching; the methods by
which they can best be taught to the particular pupils in the classes he is teaching; and - by far the most
important - the children, young people, or adults to whom they are to be taught. The two cardinal
principles of British education today are that education is education of the whole person, and that it is
best acquired through full and active co-operation between two persons, the teacher and the learner.
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A great teacher is one a student remembers and cherishes forever. Teachers have long-lasting impacts
on the lives of their students, and the greatest teachers inspire students toward greatness. To be
successful, a great teacher must have:
The case method combines two elements: the case itself and the discussion of that case. A teaching case
is a rich narrative in which individuals or groups must make a decision or solve a problem. A teaching
case is not a "case study" of the type used in academic research. Teaching cases provide information,
but neither analysis nor conclusions. The analytical work of explaining the relationships among events in
the case, identifying options, evaluating choices and predicting the effects of actions is the work done by
students during the classroom discussion.
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Active learning is any teaching method that gets students actively involved; cooperative learning is one
variety of active learning which structures students into groups with defined roles for each student and
a task for the group to accomplish. Lecture-based library instruction is often unsuccessful for many
reasons, including poor student attention, simplified examples, and too much material presented at one
time. Active and/or cooperative teaching techniques involve the students in the class and increase
retention of information following the class period. Active learning techniques are easier to apply and
take less class time, while cooperative learning techniques require more advance planning and may take
an entire class period. Choosing a teaching technique must be done carefully, with an understanding of
the goals of the class session. Several possible goals are detailed, along with suggested techniques for
meeting each one.
(4) What is lesson planning? Write down the five merits of lesson planning for the teachers.
Lesson planning is one of the most crucial parts of your work in the classroom: Get it right, and it’s a
great day of teaching. Get it wrong, and the lesson feels painfully long for both you and your students.
Building technology into your lesson can be even more cumbersome, particularly as teachers and
students transition to a more technology-centered learning environment. Setting classroom norms can
take time.
1.Sharing
The power to share lesson plans in the cloud lets teachers adapt and improve their efforts in a
classroom quicker than they could in the past. Before cloud sharing, exchanging lesso n plans
included a hassle-filled morning at the copy machine or extensive hand-written notes. Today,
student information systems allow teachers to collaborate on a larger repository of ideas that are
proven and tested in the real world.
Administrators can also access lessons and communicate with teachers directly. Teachers can also
share lessons with colleagues and save lesson plans to a template collection, for easy reuse in the
future.
2. Access
Speaking of home computers, lots of teachers have a computer at home that they might prefer to
use instead of bringing home their school-provided laptop. Of course, this is only possible if they
have access to school information at home.
Storing school information in the cloud allows teachers and staff the freedom to work on school-
related tasks from any device, not just school-provided laptops. In addition to the increased ability
to collaborate (see #1), teachers have access to all their information via the cloud and can work
from their preferred device regardless of location.
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3. Efficiency
As Teach Thought points out, if your current lesson plan system isn’t making teacher's lives easier, it
might be time for an upgrade. For example, if your school is considering moving from an on-
premises system to the cloud, the new tools should enable users to do a better job with less effort.
This includes reducing word processing time and duplicated work by keeping records and planning
enclosed within the same system.
Moving lessons and other digital resources to the cloud can also make schoolwork more efficient for
students. When worksheets are available as downloads from a central location, students don’t have
to worry about leaving important papers at school – they can just print out a new copy from their
home computer. And once students are comfortable with this system, teachers won’t have to print
as many assignments and waste as much paper at school.
4. Security
Lots of teachers rely on their home computers to prepare lesson plans and information for their
students, and use email or a USB drive to transfer that information to their devices at school. But
what if one of those devices is lost, stolen or damaged? The lack of a dedicated, device -independent
backup could cost hours of work and cause massive stress and frustration.
Cloud wards notes that you don’t have to worry about losing data to a faulty device in a cloud-
based system because everything is backed up offsite. Also, concerns about accessing sensitive
information are reduced since a username and password are required to get access to the cloud
backup service. You can also set additional passwords on individual folders or place restrictions on
what people can do with the contents for added security.
5. Flexibility
Teachers often find themselves spending more time on a lesson than they intended to. Sometimes
an unexpected event or delay can require "bumping" large portions of their lesson plans around on
the schedule.
Good systems make it easy to extend lessons, move plans around, and push the lessons that follow
down automatically with a few clicks. Flexibility can also refer to various calendar viewing and date
selection options, such as monthly, weekly, daily and list views.
(5)
Define the term inquiry approach; enlist the methods that come under the umbrella of this approach.
Inquiry is a dynamic process of being open to wonder and puzzlement and coming to know and
understand the world. As such, it is a stance that pervades all aspects of life and is essential to the way
in which knowledge is created. Inquiry is based on the belief that understanding is constructed in the
process of people working and conversing together as they pose and solve the problems; make
discoveries and rigorously testing the discoveries that arise in the course of shared activity.
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Inquiry is a study into a worthy question, issue, problem or idea. It is the authentic, real work that that
someone in the community might tackle. It is the type of work that those working in the disciplines
actually undertake to create or build knowledge. Therefore, inquiry involves serious engagement and
investigation and the active creation and testing of new knowledge.
• Authenticity
✓ The inquiry study emanates from a question, problem or exploration that has meaning to the
students.
✓ An adult at work or in the community might actually tackle the question, problem, issue or
exploration posed by the task/s.
✓ The inquiry study originates with an issue, problem, question, exploration or topic that provides
opportunities to create or produce something that contributes to the world’s knowledge.
✓ The task/s require/s a variety of roles or perspectives.
• Academic Rigor
✓ The inquiry study leads students to build knowledge that leads to deep understanding.
✓ Students are provided with multiple, flexible ways to approach the problem, issue or question
under study that use methods of inquiry central to the disciplines that underpin the problem,
issue or question.
✓ The inquiry study encourages students to develop habits of mind that encourage them to ask
questions of
▪ Evidence (how do we know what we know?)
▪ Viewpoint (who is speaking?)
▪ Pattern and connection (what causes what?)
▪ Supposition (how might things have been different?)
▪ why it matters (who cares)
• Assessment
✓ On-going assessment is woven into the design of the inquiry study providing timely descriptive
feedback and utilizes a range of methods, including peer and self evaluation. Assessment guides
student learning and teacher’s instructional planning.
✓ The study provides opportunities for students to reflect on their learning using clear criteria that
they helped to set. The students use these reflections to set learning goals, establish next steps
and develop effective learning strategies.
✓ Teachers, peers, adults from outside the classroom and the student are involved in the
assessment of the work.
• Beyond The School
✓ The study requires students to address a semi-structured question, issue or problem, relevant to
curriculum outcomes, but grounded in the life and work beyond the school.
✓ The study requires students to develop organizational and self management skills in order to
complete the study.
✓ The study leads students to acquire and use competencies expected in high performance work
organizations (eg. team work, problem solving, communications, decision making and project
management).
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Q.2
Define and explain the concept of effective teaching. Highlight the principles of effective
teaching.
Effective teaching is more than just the successful transference of knowledge and skill or
application around a particular topic. Effective teaching ensures that this surface approach to
learning is replaced by deeper, student driven approaches to learning that analyses, develop,
create and demonstrate understanding. Students need to initiate learning and maintain
engagement during learning in their development as independent lifelong learners.
Principle 1:
Care about helping your kids to do the best that they can
Effective teachers are passionate about helping their students to learn. They form warm and caring
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relationships with their students. However, they also set high expectations, and they demand that their
students meet them. This leads to a situation where the teacher and the students are working together
towards a common goal – helping every child to learn as much as they can.
Principle 2:
Understand but don’t excuse your students
Effective teachers seek to understand their students, but so do most teachers. The difference is that
effective teachers still expect each of their students to behave and to achieve well. Effective teachers
use their understanding to adjust their approach to teaching, but they did not use it to excuse
misbehavior, poor effort or a lack of real academic progress.
Principle 3:
Be clear about what you want your students to learn
Effective teachers are clear about what they want their students to learn and they share this with
their students. Everyone understands what success entails. Effective teachers also know where students
are currently at in this area. They then work towards developing the understanding and skills their
students need to demonstrate that they have mastered the material.
Principle 4:
Disseminate surface knowledge and promote deep learning
Effective teachers want their students to be able to think critically and to develop a deep
understanding of the material being taught in class. However, they recognize developing this deep
understanding requires sharing a foundational set of knowledge and skills. Armed with this foundation,
teachers can help students to develop a deep understanding of the topic at hand.
Principle 5:
Gradually release responsibility for learning
Effective teachers do not ask their students to perform tasks that they have not shown their students
how to do. Rather, they start by modeling what students need to do. They then ask their students to
have a go themselves, while being available to help as needed. Only when students are ready, do they
ask their students to perform the tasks on their own. Finally, they offer ongoing cumulative practice,
spaced out over time, to help students retain what they have learned.
Principle 6:
Give your students feedback
Effective teachers give students dollops of feedback. This feedback tells students how they are going
and gives them information about how they could improve. Without feedback, students are likely to
continue holding misconceptions and making errors. Feedback allows students to adjust their
understanding and efforts before it is too late.
Principle 7:
Involve students in learning from each other
Effective teachers’ supplement teacher-led, individual learning, with activities that involve students in
learning from each other. When done well, strategies such as cooperative learning, competition and
peer tutoring can be quite powerful. Yet, these activities must be carefully structured and used in
conjunction with more traditional teaching.
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Principle 8:
Manage your students’ behavior
Effective teachers know that students’ behavior can help or hinder how much students learn in the
classroom. They implement strategies that nurture positive behavior and minimize misbehavior. They
are consciously aware of what is going in the classroom, and they nip problems in the bud before quickly
returning the focus to the lesson at hand. Finally, they follow up on more serious misbehavior and help
students to change any entrenched bad habits.
Principle 9:
Evaluate the impact you are having on your students
Effective teachers regularly assess student progress, and they then use this insight to evaluate the
impact they are having on their students. If what they are doing is working, they continue to use or even
make more use of a particular approach. If what they are doing is not having the desired impact (even
for just one student), they reflect on and refine what they are doing until they are getting the results
they want.
Principle 10:
Continue learning ways that you can be of even more help to more students
Effective teachers love learning and are always seeking to improve their own practices. They seek out
evidence-based insights, and they are happy to challenge their existing beliefs about teaching. However,
they are also critical of mindless innovation, innovation for the sake of it, and innovation that adopts
practices that are not supported by research.
You can use these principles of effective teaching to reflect on your own practice, to discuss effective
teaching with colleagues or evaluate particular programs/approaches you are considering.
Q.3
What is Ganges’ framework for instructional development?
Gagne created a nine-step process that detailed each element required for effective learning. The
model is useful for all types of learning, but this article focuses on applying it to training your team in a
work environment.
Benefits of Gagne's Model
Gagne's Nine Levels of Learning model gives trainers and educators a checklist to use before they
engage in teaching or training activities. Each step highlights a form of communication that aids the
learning process. When each step is completed in turn, learners are much more likely to be engaged and
to retain the information or skills that they're being taught.
If you use this approach before any type of training session or presentation, you'll remember how to
structure your session so that your people get the best possible learning experience.
Using the Tool
We'll now look at each of the nine levels, and provide example of how you can apply each step in
your own situation.
Level 1: Gaining Attention (Reception)
Start the learning experience by gaining the attention of your audience. This change in stimulus
alerts the group that learning will soon take place.
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Q.4 Why is outlining of goals/objectives necessary before planning a lesson? How are objectives
stated in behavioral terms?
Goals and objectives are important to strategic planning because they turn the mission and vision into
specific measurable targets. Goals and objectives are concrete and help translate the mission and vision
into reality.
♦ Goals are the ends toward which a program or problem solution is directed. Goals are outcome
statements to guide implementation of the strategy (i.e., the tactics of what is planned to be done).
While goals tend to be general or broad and ambitious, they also must be clear and realistic in order to
clarify the team's direction and gain support of other stakeholders.
♦ Objectives are more detailed than goals and explain how goals will be accomplished. Objectives detail
the activities that must be completed to achieve the goal.
An example of a goal is-to successfully reintegrate released offenders back into society by severing ties
with gangs. The objectives might be: (1) develop anti-gang campaign and (2) 50 percent of offenders will
sever ties with gangs in the first year. The goal is a broad statement of a changeable condition, one
many community members could identify with. The objectives then provide specific direction and
approaches. The objectives are measurable and realistic.
When setting goals it is important to create ones that range from the comfortable to the challenging. A
challenging goal is often referred to as a “stretch goal” and is designed to inspire a reach beyond where
we normally would expect to achieve. The significance of setting a stretch goal is that it provides focus
and generates energy.
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Q.5 Define and describe the term motivation. What are different types of motivation? Discuss in
detail.
The term motivation is derived from the Latin verb mover (to move). The idea of movement is
reflected in such commonsense ideas about motivation as something that gets us going, keeps us
working, and helps us complete tasks. Yet there are many definitions of motivation and much
disagreement over its precise nature. These differences in the nature and operation of motivation are
apparent in the various theories we cover in this text. For now, we will say that motivation has been
conceptualized in varied ways including inner forces, enduring traits, behavioral responses to stimuli,
and sets of beliefs and affects.
The different types of motivation
1: INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
When the source of the motivation is from within the person himself/herself or the activity itself.
2: EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
When that which motivates a person is someone or something outside himself/herself.
3: TYPE OF MOTIVATION WHICH IS MORE BENEFICIAL
Intrinsic motivation is evident when people engage in an activity for its own sake, without some obvious
external incentive present. Intrinsic motivation is more beneficial than extrinsic motivation.
4: THE ROLE OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
External motivation in the form of rewards, incentives or punishment. Extrinsic motivation is necessary
to develop the love for learning among poorly motivated students.
5: THE ROLE OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Hopefully the students develop the genuine love for learning and become intrinsically motivated in
the process. It is expected, however, that these extrinsic motivational factors be gradually replaced
internal motivation.
6: THE ROLE OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
We may begin employing extrinsic motivation at the start but this should fade away as the students get
intrinsically motivated themselves.
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Q. No1 : Explain the nature and scope of measurement, assessment and evolution. Highlight the
important characteristics of classroom assessment.
Measurement, assessment, and evaluation mean very different things, and yet most of my students
were unable to adequately explain the differences. So, in keeping with the ADPRIMA approach to
explaining things in as straightforward and meaningful a way as possible, here are what I think are useful
descriptions of these three fundamental terms. These are personal opinions, but they have worked for
me for many years. They have operational utility, and therefore may also be useful for your purposes.
Measurement: refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some physical object are
determined. One exception seems to be in the use of the word measure in determining the IQ of a
person. The phrase, "this test measures IQ" is commonly used. Measuring such things as attitudes or
preferences also applies. However, when we measure, we generally use some standard instrument to
determine how big, tall, heavy, voluminous, hot, cold, fast, or straight something actually is. Standard
instruments refer to instruments such as rulers, scales, thermometers, pressure gauges, etc. We
measure to obtain information about what is. Such information may or may not be useful, depending on
the accuracy of the instruments we use, and our skill at using them. There are few such instruments in
the social sciences that approach the validity and reliability of say a 12" ruler. We measure how big a
classroom is in terms of square feet, we measure the temperature of the room by using a thermometer,
and we use Ohm meters to determine the voltage, amperage, and resistance in a circuit. In all of these
examples, we are not assessing anything; we are simply collecting information relative to some
established rule or standard. Assessment is therefore quite different from measurement, and has uses
that suggest very different purposes. When used in a learning objective, the definition provided on the
ADPRIMA for the behavioral verb measure is: To apply a standard scale or measuring device to an
object, series of objects, events, or conditions, according to practices accepted by those who are skilled
in the use of the device or scale.
Assessment is a process by which information is obtained relative to some known objective or goal.
Assessment is a broad term that includes testing. A test is a special form of assessment. Tests are
assessments made under contrived circumstances especially so that they may be administered. In other
words, all tests are assessments, but not all assessments are tests. We test at the end of a lesson or unit.
We assess progress at the end of a school year through testing, and we assess verbal and quantitative
skills through such instruments as the SAT and GRE. Whether implicit or explicit, assessment is most
usefully connected to some goal or objective for which the assessment is designed. A test or assessment
yields information relative to an objective or goal. In that sense, we test or assess to determine whether
or not an objective or goal has been obtained. Assessment of skill attainment is rather straightforward.
Either the skill exists at some acceptable level or it doesn’t. Skills are readily demonstrable. Assessment
of understanding is much more difficult and complex. Skills can be practiced; understandings cannot. We
can assess a person’s knowledge in a variety of ways, but there is always a leap, an inference that we
make about what a person does in relation to what it signifies about what he knows. In the section on
this site on behavioral verbs, to assess means To stipulate the conditions by which the behavior
specified in an objective may be ascertained. Such stipulations are usually in the form of written
descriptions.
Evaluation is perhaps the most complex and least understood of the terms. Inherent in the idea of
evaluation is "value." When we evaluate, what we are doing is engaging in some process that is
designed to provide information that will help us make a judgment about a given situation. Generally,
any evaluation process requires information about the situation in question. A situation is an umbrella
term that takes into account such ideas as objectives, goals, standards, procedures, and so on. When we
evaluate, we are saying that the process will yield information regarding the worthiness,
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appropriateness, goodness, validity, legality, etc., of something for which a reliable measurement or
assessment has been made. For example, I often ask my students if they wanted to determine the
temperature of the classroom they would need to get a thermometer and take several readings at
different spots, and perhaps average the readings. That is simple measuring. The average temperature
tells us nothing about whether or not it is appropriate for learning. In order to do that, students would
have to be polled in some reliable and valid way. That polling process is what evaluation is all about. A
classroom average temperature of 75 degrees is simply information. It is the context of the temperature
for a particular purpose that provides the criteria for evaluation. A temperature of 75 degrees may not
be very good for some students, while for others, it is ideal for learning. We evaluate every day.
Teachers, in particular, are constantly evaluating students, and such evaluations are usually done in the
context of comparisons between what was intended (learning, progress, behavior) and what was
obtained. When used in a learning objective, the definition provided on the ADPRIMA site for the
behavioral verb evaluate is: To classify objects, situations, people, conditions, etc., according to defined
criteria of quality. Indication of quality must be given in the defined criteria of each class category.
Evaluation differs from general classification only in this respect. To sum up, we measure distance, we
assess learning, and we evaluate results in terms of some set of criteria. These three terms are certainly
connected, but it is useful to think of them as separate but connected ideas and processes. Here is a
great link that offers different ideas about these three terms, with well-written explanations.
Unfortunately, most information on the Internet concerning this topic amounts to little more than
advertisements for services.
Important characteristics of classroom assessment .
Assessment for learning is a key element of teaching if you want your students to improve. As we said
before Assessment for learning is aimed at helping you with your planning after you have identified your
students’ strengths, weaknesses, their needs, their motivation and their learning styles.
1: Sharing learning objectives with students
At the beginning of every lesson you should share the teaching-learning objectives with your students so
that they know what they are supposed to be able to achieve by the end of the lesson. I like to have
general objectives displayed during the whole lesson at the top left corner of my board so that I can
refer to them any time during the lesson. However I also have a set of differentiated objectives on what
I called a SMART setting slide that is a Self-Target-Setting slide where students choose their targets
according to their levels and abilities. These objectives targets will then be reviewed at the end of the
lesson during the plenary. You will use these objectives for questioning and feedback. For example:
“What were the objectives today? Have you reached your target? Which activity has helped you most?
2: Developing students’ awareness about their aims and the standards
Not only is it important to define the objectives of the lesson with your students, it is also crucial to
explain to them how they will meet these objectives. Students need to be aware of the type of criteria
that will allow them to achieve their targets. If you are expecting your students to write a long piece of
extended writing you need to model and demonstrate what you are expecting by showing them an
example of this writing. Once they have produced their piece of work you may want to use these as
examples and why not as displays to show others the expectations.
3: Involve your students in their learning
They need to know that they are responsible for their learning and progress. Consequently they need to
be given opportunities to talk about their targets, the activities in the lesson and they should be able to
express themselves about any point they have found difficult. For this reason you should always allow
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five minutes at least at the end of your lesson to review the objectives and ask them which activity was
helpful for them and which activity they found difficult. We often rush at the end of our lessons but
these five minutes thinking time where students reflect on their work is important so that they can
decide of the next step for their learning.
4: Constructive feedback
Every type of feedback is valuable to motivate our learners to improve. Whether written or oral
feedback, these comments will help students acknowledge their strengths and weaknesses and will help
them to identify which steps they need to take to improve. These feedbacks however need to tell what
was done well by the students but it should also explain to them how it could have been even better.
Feedback have to point out on the positive side of learning to develop students’ self confidence and self-
esteem as consent negative feedback can be damaging for learning and they can even have a bigger
impact on the long-term on students’ personality.
5: Reflection for improvement
At the end of unit or term when we give our students some assessment tasks, students need to be clear
on what skills are going to be assessed and they need to know the criteria against which they are going
to get assessed. After the exam, reflection again is vital to decide on the future steps both for students
and teachers. Both need to understand what went well in the teaching-learning process and what could
be improved and how.
Q No.2 : Explain the bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational objectives and why objectives are important
for test development give examples ?
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning learning is a psychological process. Thus, the assessment of learning, of
necessity, requires the assessment of various psychological processes. In developing assessment tools
(tests) it is important that we first have an understanding of these psychological processes and how to
go about measuring them. Although there are many psychological models for the process of learning,
for this workbook we have chosen Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy as a useful tool. In Bloom’s taxonomy
there are three fundamental learning domains: Cognitive, Psychomotor, and Affective.
Psychomotor learning of physical movements such as ballet steps, how to pitch a curve ball, how to drill
out a cavity in a molar, etc.
Cognitive learning of information and the processes of dealing with that information. There are six
levels of Cognitive Learning as specified by Bloom:
1. Basic Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
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Generally it can be said that the first category, Knowledge, is information-oriented as it stresses the
ability to recall existing knowledge. The other five categories can be termed “Process oriented” because
they entail more sophisticated learner behaviors and competencies that require increasing degrees of
understanding. The following are brief definitions of these six levels with a suggestion as to how to
assess this level of learning.
Basic Knowledge: To recall and memorize - Assess by direct questions. The object is to test the students'
ability to recall facts, to identify and repeat the information provided.
Comprehension: To translate from one form to another - Assess by having students' 1) restate material
in their own words, 2) reorder or extrapolate ideas, predict or estimate. Assessments must provide
evidence that the students have some understanding or comprehension of what they are saying.
Application: To apply or use information in a new situation - Assess by presenting students with a
unique situation (i.e. one not identical to that used during instruction) and have them apply their
knowledge to solve the problem or execute the proper procedure.
Analysis: To examine a concept and break it down into its parts - Assess by presenting students with a
unique situation of the same type but not identical to that used during instruction, and have them
analyze the situation and describe the appropriate procedure or solution to the problem.
Synthesis: To put information together in a unique or novel way to solve a problem - Assess by
presenting students with a unique situation NOT of the same type used during instruction, and have
them solve a problem by selecting and using appropriate information.
Learning objectives are a critical component of instruction. They have two important functions:
1. instructional materials;
2. teaching methods, including learning activities and use of technology;
3. Assessment methods.
2. Help students focus on what they are expected to learn, and understand how they will be
assessed.
This is why we always emphasize that learning objectives should be specific and measurable.
The example below demonstrates good alignment of learning objectives, learning activities, and
assessments. It shows us how a clearly stated learning objective can help an instructor create
appropriate learning activities to help students acquire the desired skills and select good
assessment tools to evaluate students' achievement.
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1. Selection of content
2. Development of an instructional strategy.
3. Development and selection of instructional materials.
4. Construction of tests and other instruments for assessing and then evaluating student learning
outcomes.
How do you write a Learning Objective?
In writing a Learning Objective:
1. Focus on student Performance not teacher performance.
2. Focus on product - not process.
3. Focus on terminal behavior - not subject matter.
4. Include only one general learning outcome in each objective.
A learning objective is a statement describing a competency or performance capability to be acquired by
the learner. There are three characteristics essential to insuring clear statements of objectives.
Behavior - First, an objective must describe the competency to be learned in performance terms. The
choice of a verb is all-important here. Such frequently used terms as know, understand, grasp, and
appreciate do not meet this requirement. If the verb used in stating an objective identifies an
observable student behavior, then the basis for a clear statement is established. In addition, the type or
level of learning must be identified. See Section II for a description of the types of learning and their
levels.
Criterion - Second, an objective should make clear how well a learner must perform to be judged
adequate. This can be done with a statement indicating a degree of accuracy, a quantity or proportion of
correct responses or the like.
Conditions - Third, an objective should describe the conditions under which the learner will be
expected to perform in the evaluation situation. What tools, references, or other aids will be provided or
denied should be made clear. Sometimes, one or even two of these elements will be easily implied by a
simple statement. Other times, however, it may be necessary to clearly specify in detail each element of
the objective. The following is an example of a completed learning objective:
Checklist for Writing a Specific Instructional Objective
1. Begin each statement of a specific learning outcome with a verb that specifies definite,
observable behavior. (See the Table of Process Oriented Learner Behaviors below.)
2. Make sure that each statement meets all three of the criteria for a good learning objective:
observable behavior, the conditions under which the student will be expected to perform, and
the criteria to be used for evaluation of the student's performance.
3. Be sure to include complex objectives (appreciation, problem-solving, etc.) when they are
appropriate.
Guides or aids to writing learning objectives:
Educators and psychologists concerned with learning theory have given considerable thought to the
various types of learning that take place in schools. Probably the most comprehensive and widely known
analysis of objectives is the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives by Benjamin Bloom and others. Bloom’s
Taxonomy provides a consistent means of developing the single most powerful tool in instruction and
the assessment of student learning outcomes - the learning or performance objective. The Taxonomy
distinguishes between three major categories of objectives termed the COGNITIVE DOMAIN, the
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN, and the AFFECTIVE DOMAIN.
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It is generally the Cognitive Learning Domain that is of primary concern in higher education. If we
assume that faculty is more concerned with process and problem solving activities, then the categories
of the Taxonomy are most valuable in suggesting various kinds of behavior to use as objectives. The
following list of process-oriented behaviors, which are related to the six categories of the Taxonomy,
should serve as a useful guide to faculty preparing objectives. For a more complete table of words for
describing learner behaviors see “Instrumentation of Bloom’s and Krathwohl’s Taxonomies for the
Writing of Educational Objectives.
Q No.3 Compare and contrast the characteristics of criterion and Norm referenced Tests. Also
highlight its utilization in teaching learning process.
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differentiate your assessments with the sole purpose of helping the students achieve to their fullest
potential.
Norm-referenced tests are developed by creating the test items and then administering the test to a
group of students that will be used as the basis of comparison. Statistical methods are used to
determine how raw scores will be interpreted and what performance levels are assigned to each score.
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Tests based on the student’s needs are known as criterion-referenced assessment. These tests are the
formed based on the goals and objectives for the students. The students will not have to take the same
tests as everyone else in their class. It is almost as if they are taking a test just for them. If they do not do
well, then the teaching would begin again. If students do well on their test, then it is time to work on
new goals and objectives.
As you can see from all the advantages that are listed, students only progress once they have
mastered a concept. They are not just pushed through to get through the content. If they master a
concept quickly, they move on, if not, they spend more time on that concept. Although this can be tricky
for the teacher in planning a variety of lesson and changing lesson plans based on the student’s needs,
the students will get more out of their education since it based solely on what they need.
The whole concept of criterion-referenced instruction means that teaching the students comes away
from grade-level content to content based on what the students need.
Q No.4 Elaborate the different techniques for the measurement of attitude of the learners by
providing examples. Why attitude measurement is important for the teachers in teaching learning
process?
Classroom behavior is one of the trickiest issues teachers face today. Disruptive behavior results in lost
curriculum time and creates a classroom environment that is not always conducive to learning. One key
to nipping behavioral problems in the bud is to promote positive behavior before problems arise. This
takes some planning, but the following article will provide you with practical tips to help you lay a
foundation for positive classroom behavior.
It probably won't surprise you that classroom control/discipline is rated among the top four challenges
teachers face in public schools today.
In fact, almost half the teachers polled said that discipline was a serious problem in their schools. Not
surprisingly, when the public was polled on the same issues, they ranked classroom control/discipline as
the number one challenge.
Unfortunately, teachers face not only the challenge of managing their students' behavior while teaching
the curriculum. They also face many conflicting theories about how to manage it: logical consequences,
behavior management and assertive discipline, to name just a few.
Of course, there is no one "correct" way to encourage positive classroom behavior. But if you begin with
a good foundation, it is possible. Here are a few time-tested suggestions that can help you build that
foundation.
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In most cases, using punishment or rewards is not needed, as the majority of problems or misbehaviors
can be dealt with using positive discipline.
Difference between Punishment and Positive Discipline
The meaning of punishment is simple - it's an action or penalty that is imposed on a student for
misbehaving or breaking a rule. However, the impact on students can be very detrimental, from
inducing physical or emotional pain to not being effective in reducing future misbehaviors. Punishment
is used to control the behavior of students, in two different ways:
• Negative discipline involves verbal disapproval and reprimands
• Corporal punishment involves severe emotional or physical pain
Alternatively, positive discipline is the practice of training or teaching a student to obey the code of
behavior or rules in both the short and long term. Instead of controlling the behavior of students,
teachers can use positive discipline to develop a child's behaviors through self-control and making
positive choices.
According to Teachers Unite, which is a movement of public school teachers fighting for social justice,
punitive punishment toward students — suspensions, aggressive policing and reactive strategies — go
against human rights and fail to address the real problem. However, preventative and constructive
approaches that use positive discipline create a positive school atmosphere and also teaches students
conflict resolution and behavior skills. In the end, positive discipline can help shape a child, by using
encouragement rather than meaningless and even painful consequences, like punishment.
Positive Discipline Techniques
There are tons of techniques that teachers can use to reinforce good behavior with positive discipline,
including:
1. Set the classroom rules at the start of the year
2. Have consistent expectations
3. Set goals at the beginning of class
4. Appropriate behavior should be reinforced
5. Remain neutral during conflicts
6. Search for the root cause of the misbehavior
7. Student dignity matters
8. Create individual plans for students
9. Use Praise
10. Model appropriate behaviors
11. Provide students with different choices
12. Remove objects in the environment that cause distractions
13. Listen to students
Using these positive discipline techniques will help teachers maintain a positive atmosphere and
support an inclusive learning environment. In fact, when addressing a specific child, it is important for
teachers to work closely with the caregivers and the student to develop a positive discipline plan that
works. One of the most critical parts of positive discipline is to help students learn the new behaviors
that meet expectations in the classroom, home and elsewhere.
Using Rewards and Privileges
Another alternative to punishment and positive discipline is the use of rewards and privileges for
good behavior in the classroom. A reward system can be put in place to encourage good behavior in
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students that are misbehaving, from helping out other students to raising their hand instead of blurting
out the answer. On the other hand, a system that uses privileges, such as being able to go to class
without an adult, focuses on good behavior over a period of time and accumulating points toward a
certain privilege. However, using rewards and privileges in the long term can lead to negative outcomes,
like rewarding students just for participating. To avoid a reliance on a rewards system, positive discipline
uses positive and negative consequences to help students learn.
Using positive discipline techniques can help teachers overcome the many challenges in the classroom
and help students learn and make better choices in the future. In fact, using positive discipline in the
classroom not only increases academic success in the classroom but provides many other benefits,
including:
• Students show respect for the teacher
• Students are on task and engaged
• Less disciplinary measures are needed
• Fewer suspension and expulsions
• Students see rules as fair
• Attendance improves
These are just a few of the benefits that can be seen from using positive discipline techniques in the
classroom. On top of this, the benefits also extend beyond the classroom, into the home life, sports and
social environment of the student, from being more respectful to everyone to understanding the social
norms in different situations.
Q No.5 Compare and contrast the easy and objective type tests in the light of its construction, use
and marking.
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Because the correct answers to objective test questions are pre-determined, they are well suited to the
many forms of CAA that involve automated marking. The electronic marking of the responses is
completely non-subjective as no judgment has to be made on the correctness or otherwise of an answer
at the time of marking. However, it is worth noting that in terms of in-built bias, an objective test is only
as objective as the test's designer makes it. The tutorial below offers an introduction to a selection of
question types in popular use with advice on construction and best practice. As the question type most
commonly associated with CAA is multiple choice, particular emphasis has been given to this and should
be viewed first. The principles detailed within that section should however, be of use when considering
other types.
1. Preparation
Preparing for a multiple-choice test is an easy task that requires the writer to identify important
information when he/she see it.
An essay exam requires that the writer gather enough knowledge on the subject matter; such the writer
can be able to answer to answer any prompt questions with a detailed explanation of ideas.
2. Speed
It is very easy for you to complete a multiple-choice essay in a short time be it you know the answers or
not.
However, you should not ignore the intensity of your essay exam. The writer should make sure that he
organizes his thoughts in order. In addition, you should be aware of your handwriting if you want your
teacher to read and understand your essay. It is useless for the writer to write an essay that is not
readable.
Smudging
If your multiple-choice exam is in the form of a fill-in-the-bubble sheet, it is not advisable to use pencils
because they increase the chances of smudging. Smudging is disadvantageous because it complicates
the functioning of the electronic-grading-robot.
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A lucky instance includes that when your teacher will allow you to use a pen in the essay exam. Pens
ensure you produce a clean paper that is appealing to the eye. However it the teacher does not permit
the use of a pen, be careful not mess your essay paper through smudging.
Creativity
An essay exam gives you the chance of presenting your ideas creatively using language, constructive
sentences that express the meaning of your thesis.
With a multiple-choice test, you have the limitation of expressing your ideas creatively by sacrificing
your scores in order to decorate patterns on your sheet.
Hard questions
For a multiple-choice test, you can guess answers if you not have an idea of what the right answer might
be.
On the other hand, for an essay exam, you can construct a sensible and convincing answer even if you
do not have an idea of the main topic.
Giving Up
It is practically hard to give up in a multiple-choice test, since you can decide to assign randomly a choice
to every question and chances are minimal that you will get below average marks.
Giving up in essay exams a hard alternative for any student . The student will be in a tough dilemma as
to writing either repetitive phrases or handing in a blank paper
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Q No.1 Analyze various definitions of curriculum and discuss the main principals of curriculum
development in the light of definitions.
Definition of curriculum:
The word curriculum has been originated from Latin meaning course. It has been derived from
curro’ or‘ curree’ which means to run or move quickly. Simply curriculum can be defined as:
The set of courses, coursework, and their content, offered at a school or university.
As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course
of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is
prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be
understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard.
Kerr defines curriculum as, ‘All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is
carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school”.
Regan’s definition of curriculum is, ” The curriculum is all the experiences of a child under direction
of the school.
Curriculum refers to the means and materials with which students will interact for the purpose of
achieving identified educational outcomes.
Other definitions of curriculum by famous authors are:
Curriculum is that series of things which children and youth must do and experience by way of
developing abilities to do the things well that make up the affairs of adult life; and to be in all respects
what adults should be. (Bobbit (1918)
Tanner (1980) defined curriculum as “the planned and guided learning experiences and intended
outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the
auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and wilful growth in personal social competence” .
Schubert (1987) defines curriculum as the contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired,
planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to
reform society.
Pratt (1980) defines curriculum as a written document that systematically describes goals planned,
objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth.
Goodlad and Su (1992) define curriculum as a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific
time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned
activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school.
Cronbleth (1992) defines curriculum as answering three questions: what knowledge, skills and values
are most worthwhile? Why are they most worthwhile? How should the young acquire them?
Grundy (1987) defines curriculum as a program of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that
pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives.
Hass (1987) provides a broader definition, stating that a curriculum includes “all of the experiences that
individual learners have in a program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related
specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present
professional practice”.
There are some other Experts define the curriculum with the different ways :
1: According to Nichols, Shidaker, Johnson, & Singer (2006) that Curriculum is an area of education
that is characterized by a lack of agreement about its definition and nature.
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2: According to Wortham (2006) that Curriculum is a planned set of course that is presented to
teachers to arrange teaching and learning in certain level of ages.
3: According to Nation & Macalister (2010) define Curriculum as a guidance in designing courses that
consists of outer cyrcle namely Principles, Environment, and needs that involve practical and theoretical
considerations that will have a major effect in guiding the actual process of course production. Inner
cyrcle that consists of goals and its center, contents and sequences, format and presentation,
monitoring and assessment.
4: According to Cattington (2010), curriculum (or curriculum standards) to refer to the standards,
benchmarks, and outcomes that delineate the content to be taught and learned in science classrooms.
5: According to Slattery (2006) Curriculum should be developed time by times to the postmodern
curriculum that is radically eclectic, determined in the context of relatedness, recursive in its complexity,
autobiographically intuitive, aesthetically inter subjective, embodied, phenomenological, experiential,
simultaneously quantum and cosmic, hopeful in its constructive dimension, radical in its deconstructive
movement, liberating in its post structural intents, empowering in its spirituality, ironic in its
kaleidoscopic sensibilities, and ultimately, a hermeneutic search for greater understanding that
motivates and satisfies us on the journey.
6: According to Lake and Winter bottom (2010) in Kattington (2010), Curriculum is a set of rule that
benefits students by providing them with practice in both content and social curriculum through the use
of active learning, exploration of interests, civic responsibility, character building, and recognizing and
helping the community.
7: According to Dat (no year) in Tomlinson (2008 Ed) impled that curriculum requires too much to be
accomplished within a unit and that their students want a more manageable and realistic learning goal.
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Therefore, his needs and desires must be in conformity with the needs and desires of the society in
which he is to live. The values, attitudes and skills that are prevailing in the community must be reflected
in the curriculum. However, the society is not static. It is dynamic. Its needs and requirements are
changing with the rapid developments taking place in all fields. While working for the development, this
factor cannot be ignored.
3. Principle of Activity Centeredness.
The curriculum should centre round the multifarious activities of pupils. It should provide well selected
activities according to the general interests and developmental stages of children. It should provide
constructive, creative and project activities. For small children, play activities should also be provided.!
The purposeful activities both in the class-room and outside the class-room should be provided. It is
through a net work of activities that the desired experiences can be provided and consequently
desirable behavioral changes can be brought about in children.
4. Principle of Variety.
The curriculum should be broad-based so as to accommodate the needs of varied categories of pupils,
so that they are able to take up subjects and participate in activities according their capacities and
interests.
The needs of pupils also change from place to place. For example, the pupils in rural areas, urban areas,
and hilly areas will have different needs. The needs of boys and girls are also different. So these
considerations should be reflected in the curriculum.
5. Principle of Co-ordination and Integration.
Of course, the pupils are to be provided with selected experiences through various subjects and
activities but these must be well integrated. Various subjects and activities have to serve the same
ultimate purpose, the achievement of the aims of education. The activities and subjects should not be
put in after-tight compartments but these should be inter-related and well integrated so as to develop
the whole child.
6. Principles of Conservation.
One of the main functions of education is to preserve and transmit our cultural heritage. This is essential
for human progress. Culture consists of traditions, customs, attitudes, skills, conduct, values and
knowledge. However, the curriculum framers must make a suitable selection of the elements of culture,
keeping n view their educational value and the developmental stage of pupils.
7. Principle of Creativity.
The conservation of culture helps to sustain the society. The culture should not be simply transmitted
but also enriched. There should be provision in the curriculum to develop he creative powers of the
child so that he becomes a contributory member society. Reymont says, "In curriculum that is suited to
the needs of today and of the future, there must be definitely creative subjects."
8. Principle of Forward Looking.
Education is to enable the child to lead a successful social life. So the curriculum should not cater to the
present needs of the child alone. The needs of his future life should also be considered. The curriculum
should also include knowledge, skills, experiences, influences etc. which will develop in the child abilities
and power to make effective adjustments in the later life.
9. Principle of Flexibility.
In our age, rapid developments are taking place in various fields. Consequently the needs of society are
hanging. The content of curriculum cannot be same for all times to come. It should not be static. It must
be dynamic and change with the changing times. It should reflect the latest trends in the field of
education and psychology.
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Q No.2 Analyze the causes which led the colonial British Government to frame a curriculum in the sub
continent. Discuss their consequences on education system of Pakistan.
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In order to objectively evaluate the education system of Pakistan, it is imperative to understand the
pros and cons of the existing system and view the progress/ changes which were made in the last six
decades. Despite the colossal problems which Pakistan faced on the eve of independence, the
educational aspect was given the foremost priority and an all Pakistan Educational Conference was
convened in November 1947, to consider the re-organization of the educational system. Later, in 1952, a
six year National Plan of Educational Development for Pakistan was prepared.
From 1958-1970, student unrest and politicization of educational institutions were the major
problems which Pakistan faced. Special commissions were set up to improve the standard of education.
However, system of education did not emphasize moral, religious and ideological aspects. One of the
major causes of dismal performance in the education sector was that meager resources were allocated
for the development of education.
The period from 1970-1978 saw nationalization of all educational institutions. Adult literacy drive was
initiated as well13. An effort was made to bring uniformity in the curriculum and method of teaching in
Madrassas, government schools and private educational institutions. The establishment of Universities
Grant Commission and National Book Foundation were the major achievements of this period. However,
education system suffered due to political instability and economic crisis which Pakistan faced.
From 1979-1989, the Afghan war and subsequent drive of Islamization affected the system of
education as well. During this era, major changes in syllabi were made. Maddrasa education was
encouraged and learning of Arabic was made compulsory upto class VIII. Efforts were made to orientate
the system of education towards ideological moorings and subjects of Pakistan Studies and Islamiat
were made compulsory upto intermediate level. However, parallel system of education such as curricula
of English medicum schools continued. On the whole, preferred goals of education were not fully
realized.
From 1990-9/11, economic stagnation and political instability were major banes in the development
of education in Pakistan. Education further deteriorated with the increasing disparity among social
classes. The number of educational institutions could not commensurate the population exodus and lack
of will to introduce reforms at the government level compounded the problems. Self-finance scheme
was introduced which further commercialized the education.
From 9/11 to present, major reforms were introduced in the system of education. Efforts were made
to de-nationalize the institutions and the private sector was encouraged to establish schools, colleges
and even universities and professional colleges. Syllabi have been revised and certain radical changes
made in subjects of history, Islamiat, geography, English and Urdu. Some of the changes are highly
controversial and have off set the ideological course of our system of education.
Our system of education instead of emphasizing on inculcation of values, discipline, social/ civic
responsibility and socio-economic productivity stimulates partisan and class difference and churns out
educated illiterates. The educatin system, as a whole, faces a set of complex specific problems.
First it is an imposed system which has not been evolved through a gradual process. Second, the
educational system in Pakistan ignores grooming aspect of students as productive and useful members
of a modern society. Third, this system neither segregated students as per psycho – social and socio-
economic requirements of our nation nor it identifies the talent of students for specialization. Fourth,
our curriculum still remains confused. We are undecided whether we should encourage scientific and
technical education or promote studies of humanities. We are also unclear whether to emphasise on
ideology and values or promulgate liberality. Language remains another problem and we have no clear
idea whether to continue with English media or not. Fifth, linkages between primary, secondary and
higher education are not existent. Number of subjects has not been rationalized at various levels over
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burdening the memories of students. Sixth, our system of education does not promote/ encourage
original thinking. Seventh, System of examination, though has been changed, stifle initiative and
experimentation. Students and teachers focus on achieving higher pass percentage rather than
emphasis on learning and bringing out hidden qualities and talent14. Eighth, our educational system
lacks in quality as well as quantity. Involvement of private sector has generated commercialization in
education and has added to class difference. Ninth lack of trained teachers adds to the inadequacies of
our educational system15. Tenth, there is a painful lack of educational environment in our country.
Teachers as well as students are content as much of superficial knowledge from textbooks as possible
that they can pour it out on the examination paper. Moreover, social knowledge is necessary for
intelligent and efficient social service and education should infuse this knowledge and endeavor to make
the students efficient members of the society. Sociology and other social sciences are not very popular
subjects in education of all the classes. Eleventh, vocational and technical training are other areas which
are ignored in our educational system. It has no strategy what so ever, to utilize the vast human capital
by imparting education which make pupils self sustaining. Twelfth, shortage of instructional facilities like
proper school buildings, laboratories, libraries and equipment is major impediment in promoting
conducive environment for learning. Thirteenth, misplaced priorities at policy planning level is another
grey area affecting progress in the field of education16. Fourteenth, system being followed at primary
level does not cater for inculcating objective thinking and power of reasoning in the young pupil.
Moreover, rampant poverty results into large number of dropouts at this level. Fifteenth, our secondary
education is purposeless and cumbersome. It neither prepares students to take on higher education nor
gives him opportune economic self sufficiency17. Finally, wide gap in the classes of society is applicable
to our education system. We have sophisticated English medium private schools for rich and influential,
the ordinary government schools for middle and lower middle class and Maddrassas for poor as well as
religious minded people.
Q No.3 compare and contract different foundations of curriculum development. How does culture and
society influence? Discuss.
Philosophical foundation
Curriculum decisions involve a wide range of considerations that anchor on several issues in
education. These issues include the purpose of learning, sources of the subject matter, the nature of
teaching/learning process, characteristics of the leaner, among others (Ekanem, & Ekefre, 2014).
These decisions are based or anchored on certain fundamental beliefs that spring from one’s
philosophy of education. This is what made it possible for philosophy to be viewed or taken as one of
the foundations of curriculum. The various philosophical thoughts that influence curriculum are
Idealism, Realism, Existentialism, Pragmatism, Essentialism, perennialism and Deconstructionism.
Alistair (2000) argues that there is no curriculum that does not draw inspiration from these philosophical
schools of thoughts. Philosophy helps us to handle our own personal system of beliefs and values, that
is, the way and manner that we perceive the world around us and how we actually define what is
important to us. Since philosophical issues have always influenced society and our institutions of
learning, the study and understanding of philosophy of education in relation to curriculum development
becomes vital and imperative. Basically, philosophy of education does influence, and to a greater extent
determines our educational decisions and alternatives. This is because; those that are responsible for
curricular decisions need be clear about what the belief or their belief system is. This is based on the fact
that unclear or confused beliefs will definitely lead to unclear and confusing curricular (Ekanem, 2013).
One vital step in developing a personal philosophy of education is to understand the several
alternatives that others have developed over the years. The function of philosophy can be seen or taken
as the tap root or the starting point in curriculum development. Apart from philosophy being the source
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of curriculum, it plays other functions in curriculum development. This can be seen in the view of Dewey
(1916), when he contends that “philosophy may… be defined as the general theory of education”. He
further stated that “the business of philosophy is to provide the framework for the aims and method of
schools. From the Deweyian perspective, philosophy provides a form of generalized meaning and
understanding of our lives (as cited in Ekanem, &Ekefre, 2014). In a similar argument Tyler (1949)asserts
that “The educational and social philosophy to which the school is committed can serve as the first
screen for developing the social program… philosophy attempts to define the nature of the good life and
a good society… educational philosophies in democratic society are likely to emphasize strongly
democratic values in schools.” Despite the fact that philosophy is not the beginning or starting point of
Tyler’s curriculum, there exists a strong interaction on an equal basis with other criteria, but he seems to
have given prominence to philosophy in the development of educational purposes. Thus, according to
such views, philosophy throws a light and shows a way on what destiny our education should inspire to
achieve.
Historical foundation
History is the creation resulting from human activities through participating in different events. In
order to be certain with what will happen in the future, one has to trace back of what transpired in the
past. Hence, historical foundation of curriculum addresses different phases of human development.
Students recognize that events in culture and personal issues take place continually. The number of
events and issues we face is so overwhelming at times that we often don’t know how to make sense out
of what is taking place. The study of history can help students gain perspective on events and issues they
face. The ability to break down and analyze events is an important step in critical thinking. From
historical foundation of curriculum therefore, a study on politics, economics, geography, agriculture,
religion and socio cultural practices are expounded to be certain with the past and predetermine the
future for the well- being of the society. Curriculum developers always ensure the historical perspective
is well reflected when designing curriculum in order to capture not only the local flavor but also global
historical views.
Psychological foundation
Learning theories have much to offer on the psychological aspect as a crucial discipline of curriculum
formation. It is the work of psychology to determine what age a child is ready to learn and under what
conditions. The study by Syomwene, Kitainge, and Mwaka, (2013) concluded psychology as the study of
human development physically and intellectually right from conception to adulthood. Educational
Psychology as a discipline is concerned with the question of how people learn (Ornstein and Hunkins,
1998). Psychologists are concerned with establishing patterns in human life so as to be able to
understand and predict behavior (Shiundu and Omulando, 1992). Educational Psychology as a discipline
advances principles of teaching and learning that influence teacher-student behavior within the context
of the curriculum. This is because psychology is the unifying element in the learning process. For
example John Dewey, a renowned educationist acknowledges that psychology is the understanding of
how the individual learner interacts with objects and persons in the environment. The quality of this
interaction determines the amount and type of learning.
Sociological foundation
Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. Society influences society through its
curriculum. Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape and mould society and society
in turn can impact the curriculum. There is rarely a curriculum that is developed without reflecting
society. People today are vocal in expressing their views and are eager in seeing their opinions influence
what is going on in school. With advancements in information and communication technology, people
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are talking and sharing views across the globe. They are seeing things happening in other school systems
and would like to see some of these practices in their own schools.
Culture and society influence on curriculum development
The relationship between education and society is dynamic and interactive. Education not only
reflects a society but is an influence in shaping its development. It helps to equip children to share in the
benefits of the society in which they live and to contribute effectively to that society’s sustenance and
evolution. The curriculum reflects the educational, cultural, social and economic aspirations and
concerns of the society. It also takes cognizance of the changing nature of knowledge and society and
caters for the needs of individual children in adjusting to such change. The social influences and
importance of these influences are factors in the curriculum development process ( Akhtar, 2004). The
curriculum development process can be improved by following ways with consideration the factors
influencing on the process: Need based analysis of curriculum, what are societal needs of students ?
What is the requirement of institutions? Which types of skills are incorporated in the student? How can
be bridge the gaps between the theory and real life situation? Taking feedback of stakeholders is one of
curriculum development strategy, Use of technology for fulfillment of demands of stakeholders;
Revision of curriculum is done for each five years, etc. The seminars, panel discussions, orientation
programs and workshops must be arranged for involvement of teacher as curriculum developer
Curriculum developers must follow some of the principles of curriculum development such as
conservative principle, forward looking principle, creation principle, activity principle, child centered
principle, flexibility principle, leisure principle, character building principle, and dignity of labour
principle. Also the principles of maturity, preparation for real life, linking with life, individual difference,
loyalties, core or common subjects, all round development of body, mind and spirit, democracy, Islamic,
socialism etc.
Q No.4 Discuss the criteria of content selection. Write the necessity of evaluation for the
improvement of curriculum.
The term curriculum is viewed in two different ways: the micro and the macro. The micro curriculum
refers to subjects, while the macro curriculum refers to curricular programs. For example, the subject
biology is a micro curriculum while BS in Civil Engineering is a macro curriculum.
What do the micro and the macro curriculum contain? The following criteria discuss the content of
these two levels of the curriculum.
Seven Criteria for the Selection of Subject-matter or Content of the Curriculum
The 7 criteria below can be utilized in the selection of subject matter for micro curriculum, and for
the content, subjects needed for the curricular program or course, of the macro curriculum.
1. Self-sufficiency
To help learners attain maximum self-sufficiency at the most economical manner is the main guiding
principle for subject matter or content selection (Scheffler, 1970) as cited by Bilbao et al., (2008).
Economy of learning refers to less teaching effort and less use of educational resources; but students
gain more results. They are able to cope up with the learning outcomes effectively.
This means that students should be given chance to experiment, observe, and do field study. This allows
them to learn independently.
With this principle in mind, I suggest that for a high school curriculum or preparatory year, there should
be a one day independent learning activity each week. However, this should be carefully planned by the
teacher. When the students return, they should present outputs from the activity.
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2. Significance
The subject matter or content is significant if it is selected and organized for the development of
learning activities, skills, processes, and attitude. It also develops the three domains of learning namely
the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills, and considers the cultural aspects of the learners.
Particularly, if your students come from different cultural backgrounds and races, the subject matter
must be culture-sensitive.
In short, select a content or subject matter that can achieve the overall aim of the curriculum.
3. Validity
Validity refers to the authenticity of the subject matter or content you selected. Make sure that the
topics are not obsolete.
For example, do not include typewriting as a skill to be learned by college students. It should be about
the computer or Information Technology (IT).
Thus, there is a need to check regularly the subject matter or contents of the curriculum, and replace it
if necessary. Do not wait for another 5 years in order to change it.
Modern curriculum experts are after current trends, relevance and authenticity of the curriculum;
otherwise, your school or country will be left behind.
4. Interest
This criterion is true to learner-centered curriculum. Students learn best if the subject matter is
meaningful to them. It becomes meaningful if they are interested in it. But if the curriculum is subject-
centered, teachers have no choice but to finish the pacing schedule religiously and teach only what is in
the book. This may somehow explain why many fail in the subject.
5. Utility
Another criterion is the usefulness of the content or subject matter. Students think that a subject matter
or some subjects are not important to them. They view it useless. As a result, they don’t study.
Here are the questions that students often ask: Will I need the subject in my job? Will it give meaning to
my life? Will it develop my potentials? Will it solve my problem? Will it be part of the test? Will I have a
passing mark if I learn it?
Students only value the subject matter or content if it is useful to them.
6. Learn ability
The subject matter or content must be within the schema of the learners. It should be within their
experiences. Teachers should apply theories on psychology of learning in order to know how subjects
are presented, sequenced, and organized to maximize the learning capacity of the students.
7. Feasibility
It means that the subject matter can be fully implemented. It should consider the real situation of the
school, the government, and the society, in general. Students must learn within the allowable time and
the use of resources available. Do not give them a topic that is impossible to finish.
For example, you have only one week to finish the unit but then, the activities may take a month for the
students to complete it. This is not feasible.
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Do not offer a computer subject if there is no even electricity in the area or there are no computers at
all.
Further, feasibility means that there should be teachers who are experts in that area. For example, do
not offer English for Business Communication if there is no teacher to handle it.
Also, there is a need to consider the nature of the learners. The organization and design of the subject
matter or content must be appropriate to the nature of students.
So, it would be better if students in a subject-centered curriculum (with pacing schedule that must be
religiously implemented every week) be grouped homogenously; otherwise, many will flunk in that
subject.
In conclusion, teachers in elementary and high school are not directly involved in the selection of
subject-matter because there are already lesson plans made by the Department of Education. All they
have to do is to follow it. However, they can also customize the lessons if their department heads or
principals will allow them.
As regards macro curriculum, the Commission on Higher Education sets guidelines and policies on what
subjects should be offered as minimum requirements for the course. Then, the Curriculum Development
Committee will take charge of the selection, organization and implementation of the curriculum with
the approval of the Academic Council.
The Curriculum Development Committee headed by the Director of Curriculum Development sees to it
that the selection of the subject-matter and the subjects for a curricular program be examined and
scrutinized using the 7 criteria mentioned above.
But, this is not the end of the process yet! Selection of the subject matter or content of the micro and
macro curriculum is only one of the considerations in designing the curriculum.
Necessity of evaluation for the improvement of curriculum.
Meaning of Curriculum Evaluation
Evaluation essentially is the provision of information for the sake of facilitating decision making at
various stages of curriculum development. This information may pertain to the program as a complete
entity or only to some of its components. Evaluation also implies the selection of criteria, collection and
analysis of data. It includes obtaining information for use in judging the worth of a programme and
procedure. It is a comprehensive term and transcends standardized tests covering all means of
ascertaining the results of construction.
Evaluation of curriculum is an integral and essential part of the whole process of curriculum
development. It is a continuous activity and not a "tail-end-process". Evaluation and planning are
complementary processes which occur almost simultaneously and continuously. Planning is made on the
basis of evaluation and vice versa. However, as a separate state evaluation has its own entity.
The importance of curriculum evaluation is to determine the value of the curriculum itself is the
curriculum appropriate for the particular group of students with whom it is being used? Are the
instructional methods selected, the best choices in the light of the objectives sought? Is the content the
best that could be selected? Are the materials recommended for instructional purpose appropriate and
the best available for the purpose envisaged?
Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation
1. To determine the outcomes of a program.
2. To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a program.
3. To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content.
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Q No.5 What are the various approaches to content organization which one is the suited for content
organization in Pakistan and why?
Approaches to curriculum
1. Subject-centered approach
2. Learner-centered approach
3. Teacher-centered approach
4. Problem- centered approach
Subject centered
The Subject-Centered Curriculum is the traditional model that was laid out by Ralph Tyler in 1949 in his
seminal book, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Also called the Knowledge-Centered
Curriculum, it is the most widely-used method of instruction. The knowledge-centered curriculum is an
academic curriculum where students are expected to acquire knowledge of their world as a foundation
for their adult life. This type of curriculum lays greater emphasis on the subjects themselves rather than
on the children. Students are expected to gain mastery of subject matters from academic disciplines that
have been predetermined by a panel of experts. These are prescribed for the students without much
regard to their actual interest or point of view. The curriculum is organized around content units and the
sequence of what is taught follows the logic of the subject matter. Knowledge and skills are taught
sequentially over time and students have to remember these for the purpose of examination or an
interview for a white-collar job. The teacher in a subject-based curriculum is seen as a scholar who will
be using a variety of teaching strategies to share their knowledge. A report by the Partnership for 21st
Century Skills emphasizes on the necessity of teacher-led instruction to help students gain knowledge
and be able to build upon it in an organized manner. As regards the environment in which the subject-
based curriculum takes place, it is the traditional school classroom where discipline is maintained and
students are often expected to remain seated at their desks. There is a clear academic focus and stress is
laid only on intellectual development. This type of curriculum ignores altogether the personal and social
development of the child Assessment within a subject-centred curriculum takes the form of formal
examinations and standards-based assessment. With these, teachers and students are able to evaluate
the progress made. In addition, program administrators can use the results of traditional tests to justify
their programs' achievements. In a 2004 study on core knowledge curriculum and school performance,
Wedman & Waigandt found a strong correlation between students enrolled in the Core Knowledge
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program and high test scores in all subjects regardless of ethnic or economic profiles. The longer the
students were enrolled in the program the more they outperformed their peers enrolled in non- Core
Knowledge schools.
What Is A Learner Centered Approach?
In a nutshell, a learner centered approach is one where the complete eLearning experience is focused
on the learners. For example, the courses need to be very user-friendly, so that learners can navigate
the course without any difficulty. They should be able to easily access the content of their choice, and
skip the sections they are not interested in. Likewise, learners should find the courses relevant to their
challenges and learning needs. The courses should include real life examples that learners can relate to.
7 Advantages of A Learner Centered Approach In eLearning
1: Improves participation.
The first step towards the success of any eLearning program is participation. A learner centered
approach addresses all the essential needs of learners, ensuring learners get a personalized and
convenient eLearning experience. For example, if a certain learner group prefers games and exercises,
the courses should be made more interactive. Similarly, if learners are more likely to access the course
content on tablets or mobiles, the courses should be designed to support this need. Due to the minute
attention paid to learner’s needs, learner centered courses ensure greater participation in eLearning.
2: Improves retention of knowledge.
Given that a learner centered approach places high emphasis on relevance and engagement, it greatly
influences learners’ interest levels. The learner centered approach shifts the focus from traditional
eLearning, which emphasized only on graphs and PowerPoint slides, to eLearning with more engaging
and simulating content. For example, if you are developing a course for engineers, the course should
have real life scenarios that are relevant to their day-to-day problems. Also, the course will have certain
elements, which will make them use the knowledge they may have acquired previously. This way,
learners will retain the knowledge better as opposed to a plain eLearning course with a lot of theoretical
knowledge.
3: Boosts performance at work.
A typical learner centered eLearning course will have a lot of scenarios, case studies, role plays, etc. For
example, if an organization is training its employees on quality guidelines or industry best practices, a
learner centered course with a lot of engaging and interactive content will help learners grasp the
content more effectively. This way, learners are more likely to apply their learning at work, leading to
improved on-the-job performance.
4: Develops problem-solving skills.
A learner centered eLearning course has a lot of real life examples, including games, quizzes, and
challenges. For example, the course may have challenges and games involving real life problems, which
will force learners to think of solutions. This kind of training develops problem-solving skills, which is
useful when learners encounter similar problems at work.
5: Fosters collaborative learning.
Learner centered courses provide the opportunity to foster collaborative learning. You should design
eLearning courses in such a way that learners have to involve their peers/superiors in completing the
course. Alternatively, the courses should have certain group exercises, which makes learners come
together to solve problems, and thereby share learning. This approach not only encourages
collaboration but also fosters teamwork.
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1. Expert Knowledge
2. Planning and Execution
3. Discipline
4. Evaluation and Assessment
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Problem-centered or society-centered
A third type of curriculum design is society-centered. As the name suggests, the curriculum content is
heavily loaded with societal concerns, problems, and issues. One such design is aimed at making the
students adapt to the changes in society and to solve societal problems within their level of capabilities.
Another contemporary view of the society-centered design is based on the reconstructivist philosophy
of education. This curriculum design is aimed at making the school, the teachers, and the students the
agents of social change. Hence, curriculum content is heavy with present and future problems of the
society and with contemporary building processes to enable learners to plan and realize societal
improvement at the local and global
levels. Among the traditional curriculum designs, the traditional design, particularly thebroad field, is the
most popular not only in the Philippines but in most parts of the world. The popularity of the said
curriculum design will continue although curriculum content is bound to undergo changes. A practical
guide for curriculum developers in the context of community concerns should be formulated to help
them become socially responsible, proactive individuals (Reyes, 2000).
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Q No.1 what are sources of knowledge? Define scientific method and describe its different steps.
Human beings are always inquisitive to understand causes and consequences of happening or not
happening of something or event or phenomenon and to predict their occurrence and extent in failure.
The answer to interrogative queries like what, when, how, who, whom, and how much are some of the
understanding that generated knowledge among human beings. Some of the understanding comes in a
natural way while other comes through the complex procedure of investigation. There are four methods
of knowing or understandings.
1. Tenacity
2. Authority
3. Scientific method.
4. Institution, Prior method/ Rational Approach.
1. Tenacity
In this method, people know something to be true simply because a lot of people believe it to be true.
The more it is so, the more valid the truth becomes.
2. Authority
In this method, if a well-respected person or an authoritative source says that something is so, then it
must be so.
3. Institution, Prior method/ Rational Approach.
This method is based on the notion that people will reach the truth because their nature inclination will
be to do so. It is based on the notion that intuitive proposition should agree with reason and not
necessarily with experiences. It might thus be termed as Rational Approach.
Believing a fact in the background of socio-economical and cultural aspect is the main
4. Scientific method.
This is the most important and latest method understanding or knowing. In this method, truths are not
ascertained by beliefs but by something upon which thinking have no effects. The method deals with
real things whose characterized are entirely independently of our opinions about them. The ultimate
conclusion of every man shall be same.
This is the most important and latest method understanding or knowing. In this method, truths are not
ascertained by beliefs but by something upon which thinking have no effects. The method deals with
real things whose characterized are entirely independently of our opinions about them. The ultimate
conclusion of every man shall be same. Self-correction and objectivity are two main characteristics of
this method that distinguished it from other methods. Personal beliefs, perceptions, biases, values,
attitudes, and emotional have no place in this methods.
1. Verifiability.
The conclusion drawn through a scientific method is subjected to verification at any time. The
proposition is that the phenomenon under investigation must be capable of being observed and
measured. For instance, a man’s order of preference of various jobs although incapable of being
observed can still be verified by means of an interview.
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2. Generality:
Laws derived through scientific method are universal in their application. They are not limited to
individual objects or individual groups of objects. The relationship discovered through these individual
groups should be applicable to the whole group called a universe. But, because of heterogeneous nature
of the social phenomenon, complete, universality is rarely achieved in social sciences and the fact
observed or laws formulated in social sciences are valid only under given a condition.
The results through scientific method can be predicted with sufficient accuracy. For example, one can
say with certainty that if water is heated to 100oC, it will vaporize and if it is cooled to 0oC, it will turn to
ice. Predictability is fixed on two factors fixing of relationships between the causes and the effect and
the stability of causative factors.
Predictability depends on one hand upon the nature of the phenomenon and the other hand upon the
knowledge of various causative factors. However, people do not acknowledge productivity in the social
phenomenon as a part of scientific method.
3. Objectivity.
The results obtained through a scientific method should be free from investigator’s own views. The main
criterion of objectivity is that all people should arrive at the same conclusion about something of the
phenomenon. For example, When we say that coal is black, it is the objective statement because coal
will appear black to all people but when we say coal is useful mineral, the statement may not be
objective for everyone may not agree with the statement.
Objectivity is essential for verification. It permits repetition of observations under practically identical
observation by many observers.
The expected answer to research series are the objectives of the study.If the problem has been stated in
negative sentences, then their counter statements I,e positive sentences are the objectives of the study.
For example, if the problem is stated as: is A deteriorating? Then the research objectivity may be stated
as Whether A will be improved.
The convergent point of the objective statement is the goal of the study. In scientific studies, the
objectivity is stated as-
1. Broad objective.
2. Specific objective
1. Broad objective.
The broad objective is the broad perspective of the study.
2. Specific objective
Specific objectives are stated to specific the specific observation to be made in the study. They are
stated in number preferably in sequential order.
4: System
In every scientific study, there is an accepted mode of investigation. The results arrived by means of a
haphazard method, even true, cannot be called scientific because it accuracy is purely accidental.
Scientific studies.
Scientific studies have passed the different stage of evolution and the methods of scientific analysis have
been made more and more refined with the growth of scientific studies.
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1. Technical Aspects.
This aspect deals with the collection of information (data and manipulates of a phenomenon to allow an
objectivity observation.
2. Logical aspects.
This method comes at the time of generalization of drawing of inference on the basis of collection
information.
Technical methods are different in different sciences and there are hardly a few persons who have
mastered the technical methods of more than one science or a group or connected science.
In general, a method of investigation applied to a particular branch of knowledge consists of following
two basic aspects.
The general part or the basis rules of investigation which is common to all types of scientific
investigations.
The applied to part or technical part that permits to the particular science alone.
In the second part of the investigation, that needed specialized knowledge. The accepted mode of
investigation is called system or formally and rigorous of the investigation.
Q No.2 Discuss the concept of educational research. Also examine the need and importance of
research in education.
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1. It is a systematic analysis:
In education, research is essential as it gives the systematic analysis of the topic. Also the objectives are
clearly defined through the research process. One needs to study in a systematic and controlled manner,
and this is exactly what the research work provides an individual.
4. Improving practices:
The educational research is important for the students to improve practices and at the same time, it
helps in improving those individuals who really wish to bring improvement in those practices. So, this
way educational research helps in overall improvement of the individual. Be it a student or any teacher
who is researching on some topic, it is of great help to them. It acts as a lighthouse and empowers the
individual.
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When the work is done with full in depth analysis, it tends to be right and accurate. The process of
research help brings consistency in the work, which lessens the flaws and mistakes in the final outcome
of the process. The consistency is needed in all sorts of work or you might have to end up getting wrong
and inaccurate result. The research takes lots of time and effort, so it is the duty of the researcher to be
specific and sure with the facts so that the end result is clean and without any silly mistakes.
9. Motivates others:
The educational research builds patience because it is a lengthy process. In order to get fruitful results,
you need to build patience and only then you will be able to motivate others. Also, if your research is full
of right facts and figures, it will ultimately motivate others. Not just this, an accurate research assists in
enhancing the reader’s knowledge which might not be possible for any other person.
So, above are some of the benefits which research provides in the field of education. Every kind of
research, every kind of method has been always useful and gives a positive result. In case, you find
something fishy during the research work, it is advisable to consult someone superior to you, or some
expert. Research is useful in all the fields and is used by all the departments, whether public or private.
The research work is done by all age groups, whether the students or the teachers and even the
humankind in order to understand the society, its rules and other policies.
Q No.3 Explain different types of researches on the basis of method and explain them with suitable
examples.
Research can be divided on the basis of different approaches & Methods. On the basis of method
research has the following types.
Historical Research
Historical research is that type in which the facts are collected from past events. In this type of
research historical approaches are used for preparing data in order to solve a problematic situation.
Descriptive Research
In descriptive research a researcher observe a problem and write an article about its causes and effects.
It is the personal ideas of a researcher. He writes a story which gives knowledge about the root causes of
problems. It’s also show causal and effect relationship.
Ex-post-Facto Research
In this type of research a researcher study the varying influence of two identical factors. It studies the
influence of cause-effect & effect-cause upon each other. Two variables are used in this research. One is
called independent while other is called dependent variable. If we want to see the impact of Arabic &
English education in the future, a careful study of past events is required because it depends on past
knowledge. In simple words in this research the investigator bring over the past study, identifies the
present and make planning for future.
Experimental Research
Experimental research is based on experiments. It this type of research the two variables, i.e.
independent & dependent are taken and their critical examination is carried out. These are observed,
tested and verified in case of validity. Experimental research may be conduct in laboratory or field.
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Field Study
Field study is the practical work in a given area. A research gees to the field and observes the
problematic situation and then makes a design of its collected data. This type of data would be more
accurate due to the self-observation of the researcher and its participation in community.
Pure research
a. Also called as the fundamental or the theoretical research.
b. Is basic and original.
c. Can lead to the discovery of a new theory.
d. Can result in the development or refinement of a theory that already exists.
e. Helps in getting knowledge without thinking formally of implementing it in practice based on the
honesty, love and integrity of the researcher for discovering the truth.
Applied research
a. Based on the concept of the pure research.
b. Is problem oriented.
c. Helps in finding results or solutions for real life problems.
d. Provides evidence of usefulness to society.
e. Helps in testing empirical content of a theory.
f. Utilizes and helps in developing the techniques that can be used for basic research.
g. Helps in testing the validity of a theory but under some conditions.
h. Provides data that can lead to the acceleration of the process of generalization.
Exploratory research
a. Involves exploring a general aspect.
b. Includes studying of a problem, about which nothing or a very little is known.
c. Follows a very formal approach of research.
d. Helps in exploring new ideas.
e. Helps in gathering information to study a specific problem very minutely.
f. Helps in knowing the feasibility in attempting a study.
Descriptive research
a. simplest form of research.
b. More specific in nature and working than exploratory research.
c. It involves a mutual effort.
d. Helps in identifying various features of a problem.
e. Restricted to the problems that are describable and not arguable and the problems in which valid
standards can be developed for standards.
f. Existing theories can be easily put under test by empirical observations.
g. Underlines factors that may lead to experimental research.
h. It consumes a lot of time.
i. It is not directed by hypothesis.
Diagnostic study
a. Quite similar to the descriptive research.
b. Identifies the causes of the problems and then solutions for these problems.
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Evaluation study
a. Form of applied research.
b. Studies the development project.
c. Gives access to social or economical programmes.
d. Studies the quality and also the quantity of an activity.
Action research
a. Type of evaluation study.
b. Is a concurrent evaluation study.
Historical research
Research is the formal, systematic application of scientific method to the study of problems’ (Gay, Mills
& Airasian; 2009).
Types of research
1. Historical research
2. Qualitative research
3. Descriptive research
4. Co-relational research
5. Causal-comparative research
6. Experimental research
Historical Research
Wiersma(1986) defines historical research in this way, it is a process of critical inquiry into past events,
in order to produce an accurate description and interpretation of those events.
Definition of a problem
Historical research problems are identified in the same way as problems of other types of research. It is
much better to study in-depth a well-defined problem with one or more specific well stated questions or
hypotheses, then to investigate either too broadly stated problems or a problem for which insufficient
data are available(Gay,1997).
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External Criticism
External Criticism in historical research evaluates the validity of the document-this is, where, when and
by whom it was produced’ (Wiersma, 1986, p.223).
Internal criticism
Internal Criticism evaluates the meaning, accuracy and trustworthiness of the content of the document’
(Wiersoma, 1886, p.224).
Synthesis of information
Wiersma (1986), states that central ideas or concepts must be pulled together and continuity between
them is developed. As substantial period of time-say, several years-is covered by the research study, the
ideas can often be organized chronologically.
Conclusion
1. Historical research is necessary to define the situations of the past and its meaning in the light of
the present problem.
2. It can provide a perspective for decision making about educational problems, and it assists in
understanding why things are as they are.
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3. Educational reform and even social reform are functions often served by historical research.
4. Issues are often better understood and probably better dealt with-if the historical perspective is
known.
Q. No.5 Define descriptive research, what are its major forms? Strengthen your answer with the
example of survey studies, and interrelationship studies.
Observational Method
With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation) animal and human behavior
is closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method — naturalistic
observation and laboratory observation.
The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers view participants in
their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological validity than laboratory observation,
proponents say.
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life situations.
Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the
results found when using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with
naturalistic observation.
Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than naturalistic observations. Of
course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation are important in regard to the advancement of
scientific knowledge.
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Survey Method
In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or
questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. In
order for the survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed
properly. Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend.
Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closed-ended,
partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions (for a detailed discussion refers to Jackson,
2009). Advantages and disadvantages can be found with each type:
Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from participants but are difficult to
analyze statistically because the data must be coded or reduced in some manner. Closed-ended
questions are easy to analyze statistically, but they seriously limit the responses that participants can
give. Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because it’s very easy to analyze statistically.
(Jackson, 2009, p. 89)
In addition to the methods listed above some individuals also include qualitative (as a distinct
method) and archival methods when discussing descriptive research methods.
It is important to emphasize that descriptive research methods can only describe a set of observations or
the data collected. It cannot draw conclusions from that data about which way the relationship goes —
Does A cause B, or does B cause A?
Unfortunately, in many studies published today, researchers forget this fundamental limitation of their
research and suggest their data can actually demonstrate or “suggest” causal relationships. Nothing
could be further from the truth.
Survey research
Survey research is sometimes regarded as an easy research approach. However, as with any other
research approach and method, it is easy to conduct a survey of poor quality rather than one of high
quality and real value. This paper provides a checklist of good practice in the conduct and reporting of
survey research. Its purpose is to assist the novice researcher to produce survey work to a high
standard, meaning a standard at which the results will be regarded as credible. The paper first provides
an overview of the approach and then guides the reader step-by-step through the processes of data
collection, data analysis, and reporting. It is not intended to provide a manual of how to conduct a
survey, but rather to identify common pitfalls and oversights to be avoided by researchers if their work
is to be valid and credible.
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Data are collected in a standardized form. This is usually, but not necessarily, done by means of a
questionnaire or interview. Surveys are designed to provide a ‘snapshot of how things are at a specific
time. There is no attempt to control conditions or manipulate variables; surveys do not allocate
participants into groups or vary the treatment they receive. Surveys are well suited to descriptive
studies, but can also be used to explore aspects of a situation, or to seek explanation and provide data
for testing hypotheses. It is important to recognize that ‘the survey approach is a research strategy, not
a research method. As with any research approach, a choice of methods is available and the one most
appropriate to the individual project should be used. This paper will discuss the most popular methods
employed in survey research, with an emphasis upon difficulties commonly encountered when using
these methods.
Descriptive research
Descriptive research is a most basic type of enquiry that aims to observe (gather information on) certain
phenomena, typically at a single point in time: the ‘cross-sectional’ survey. The aim is to examine a
situation by describing important factors associated with that situation, such as demographic, socio-
economic, and health characteristics, events, behaviors, attitudes, experiences, and knowledge.
Descriptive studies are used to estimate specific parameters in a population (e.g. the prevalence of
infant breast feeding) and to describe associations (e.g. the association between infant breast feeding
and maternal age).
Analytical studies
Analytical studies go beyond simple description; their intention is to illuminate a specific problem
through focused data analysis, typically by looking at the effect of one set of variables upon another set.
These are longitudinal studies, in which data are collected at more than one point in time with the aim
of illuminating the direction of observed associations. Data may be collected from the same sample on
each occasion (cohort or panel studies) or from a different sample at each point in time (trend studies).
Evaluation research
This form of research collects data to ascertain the effects of a planned change.
Advantages and disadvantages of survey research
Advantages:
1. The research produces data based on real-world observations (empirical data).
2. The breadth of coverage of many people or events means that it is more likely than some other
approaches to obtain data based on a representative sample, and can therefore be
generalizablel to a population.
3. Surveys can produce a large amount of data in a short time for a fairly low cost. Researchers can
therefore set a finite time-span for a project, which can assist in planning and delivering end
results.
Disadvantages:
1. The significance of the data can become neglected if the researcher focuses too much on the
range of coverage to the exclusion of an adequate account of the implications of those data for
relevant issues, problems, or theories.
2. The data that are produced are likely to lack details or depth on the topic being investigated.
3. Securing a high response rate to a survey can be hard to control, particularly when it is carried
out by post, but is also difficult when the survey is carried out face-to-face or over the
telephone.
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Research methods
The survey approach can employ a range of methods to answer the research question. Common survey
methods include postal questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, and telephone interviews.
Postal questionnaires
This method involves sending questionnaires to a large sample of people covering a wide geographical
area. Postal questionnaires are usually received ‘cold’, without any previous contact between researcher
and respondent. The response rate for this type of method is usually low, ∼20%, depending on the
content and length of the questionnaire. As response rates are low, a large sample is required when
using postal questionnaires, for two main reasons: first, to ensure that the demographic profile of
survey respondents reflects that of the survey population; and secondly, to provide a sufficiently large
data set for analysis.
Face-to-face interviews
Face-to-face interviews involve the researcher approaching respondents personally, either in the street
or by calling at people’s homes. The researcher then asks the respondent a series of questions and notes
their responses. The response rate is often higher than that of postal questionnaires as the researcher
has the opportunity to sell the research to a potential respondent. Face-to-face interviewing is a more
costly and time-consuming method than the postal survey, however the researcher can select the
sample of respondents in order to balance the demographic profile of the sample.
Telephone interviews
Telephone surveys, like face-to-face interviews, allow a two-way interaction between researcher and
respondent. Telephone surveys are quicker and cheaper than face-to-face interviewing. Whilst resulting
in a higher response rate than postal surveys, telephone surveys often attract a higher level of refusals
than face-to-face interviews as people feel less inhibited about refusing to take part when approached
over the telephone.
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Q.1 Describe the scope of administration in the educational context. How the principles of
administration can be applied in educational institutions to improve the system of education in
Pakistan.
Education administrators are employed in universities and colleges, schools, preschools, and daycare
centers. They manage routine activities and provide instructional leadership at these institutions. They
may also be employed at businesses, museums, correctional facilities, and community service
organizations to direct their educational programs.
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Day-to-day activities of education administrators generally include meetings with teachers, parents, and
school staff. Work is completed in an office environment, with paperwork often being necessary. While
the job has a typical work day and work week, after-hours meetings and attendance at school events is
often necessary.
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One way of collecting reliable information about the state of education is to conduct standardized
testing that measures student performance against national curriculum goals. These can be used to
compare learning achievement across schools, districts and regions over time.
There is also a need for better research. Pakistan currently has one institution that conducts research on
educational issues, the Academy of Educational Planning and Management, which conducts research on
basic education. However, its abilities are hampered by inadequate funds, no institutionalized basis for
collecting, processing and analyzing data, no technical support staff and little influence in policy making.
Q.2 what are the major differences between administration and management in the context of a
school? Compare the concept of Islamic administration and the general concept of administration.
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interpretation of policy, execution of instructional programs and the selection, induction and retention
of personnel, and in Cranston (2002), the duties of the school administrators include: the demonstration
of a variety of management and leadership abilities and, making complex decisions in collaboration with
other staff in the school.
The function of the school administrators could be summarized as follows:
1. production and management of resources (human and materials) needed to support
organizations and its program
2. supervision of instructional activities in the school system
3. obtaining and training personnel
4. providing leadership for curriculum
5. maintaining peaceful co-existence between the school, the community and the external
agencies
6. influencing staff behavior
7. discerning and influencing the development of goals and policies
8. evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency or otherwise of the school
9. initiating work activities
10. grouping the tasks into activities
11. defining the task to be done
12. taking remedial action if the objectives are not being met
13. Supplying incentives to stimulate productivity.
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The programs focused on glorifying the ruling authorities and discarding differences between sects,
stripping Sunnis of their identity.
And among the most important of their goals were:
1. Focusing on glorifying and eternalising the leaders and taking refuge in God and inserting them
into hidden shirk [idolatry] through immortalising ephemeral, temporary personalities.
2. Spreading the aims of their parties and their ideas whilst distancing the nurtured from Islamic
thought, because the ruling party considers itself the pulse of society and the symbol of its
endurance, while Islamic principles are for the mosque only and between man and his Lord with
severe proceedings against all those who tried to do away with party thinking or modify it.
3. Discarding the difference with the disbelieving sects, and considering co-existence with them as
the true societal bond that the Ummah [Islamic nation] must operate in accordance with in
order to preserve its goals, while in reality protection is implemented for the rights of all the
communities of disbelief while oppressing the Sunnis and their principles.
4. Spreading the culture of moral dissolution by promoting it through expressions of civilization
and exchanges of cultures with the West.
And thus it was that the Ummah entered into labyrinths of confusion that made it forget its glory, its
strength and its past, while the prior Islamic Caliphates were portrayed as being a foreign occupation
that arose on the basis of ignorance and the decline of the Ummah and nationalism.
And among the aims of the Islamic program in the Islamic State:
1. Implanting Islamic values in society as well as sound, Shari'i societal manners and customs.
2. Correcting the erroneous narrations that the prior programs had implanted about the prior
Caliphs and Imams.
3. Developing Islamic society on the basis of manners and on a Shari'i and thought basis.
4. Raising a knowledgeable Islamic generation capable of bearing the Ummah and its future
without needing the expertise of the West.
So it is also that the Islamic school is one of the houses of worship, whose aims are confined to acquiring
knowledge also, but also it is an educational nurturing ground that raises the individual with
comprehensive development of mind and body.
And in it there should be training facilities for mind, body and vocation, as successful programs cannot
rely on what is written between the lines, without practical training on all given subjects.
Also it is the case that the interest in the Arabic language and its use in daily life for the individual is an
important matter in the Islamic State as is distancing from vulgar expressions that were put forward in
society in a well-considered plan to guarantee the forgetting of the Islamic identity for society.
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operation from other teachers, parents and students. She/he motivates them and co- ordinates the
efforts of teachers as well as directs and exercises control over them. He/She evaluates their
performance and progress in achieving the purposes of the programme.
He provides feedback to them and brings modification, if required in the plans and programmes of the
school or college or university. So the totality of these processes which are directed towards realizing or
achieving the purposes or goals of the school/college/university is called educational administration.
Q.3 Discuss the application of fundamental principles of management in the context of Pakistani
elementary school level. Identify the problems of management in public sector schools of Pakistan.
1. The policies of the school have been developed according to educational principles, government
policies and the goals of elementary school education.
2. Reinforce administrative organization, maintain job responsibilities and boost work efficiency.
3. Follow a democratic approach, make personnel, funds, opinions, rewards and punishment public in
an attempt to lead the school toward united and harmonious direction.
4. Strengthen personnel management, increase employees’ motivation. Look, listen and understand
more. Promote a focus on mobile management.
5. Emphasize delicate campus planning, improve working environment, and inspire employees’
professional spirit.
6. Encourage in-service teacher education to improve teaching methods and counseling skills in order
to more effectively implement educational functions.
7. To respect and serve rather than manage
8. Focus on teachers’ sense of honor and responsibility
9. Focus on research, experimentation, innovation and the teaching profession. Invigorate teachers’
spirit and stimulate educational renovation.
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10. Enhance teaching equipment and make good use of social resources in order to create modern well-
developed citizens.
11. Incorporate the five main themes of education, and teach students in accordance with their
aptitudes to maximize their talents.
12. Focus on the planning and delivery of special education services.
13. Strengthen life education, moral education, and traffic safety education in order to develop a
harmonious atmosphere.
14. Develop good relationships with communities, make use of social resources, and continue school
development in order to make the school a center of community development.
Principles of Management
What is principle? It is a generation that is widely accepted as true system. Principles always are to be
considered helpful for several reasons.
First: They help to make more accurate decision, applying in any situation and eliminating guesswork.
Second: it saves time. Principles provide guidelines for actions.
Third: principles enable the people to pass information from one generation to another.
There are few Principles which are to be adapted in management.
1. Planning Principles
1. Principle of the Primary Objectives
2. Principle of adequate alternative
3. Principle of contingencies
2. Organizing Principles
1. Unity of Command principle
2. Adequacy of authority principle
3. Scalar (chain-of-command) principle
3. Staffing Principles
1. Principle of developing a successor
2. Principle of manager evaluation
3. Principle of management development
4. Directing Principles
1. Principle of harmony of objective
2. Principle of manager’s example
3. Principle of motivation
5. Controlling Principles
1. Principle of standards
2. Principle of measurement of performance against standards
3. Principle of corrective action
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these things these schools manages their resources and they do not take grant from the state. The state
itself or the provinces do not developed or designed any type of thing to regulate fee structure and it is
imperative to find ways and means that could attract private investors at one side and at other there
should be a mechanism to provide relief to the poorer families. Danish schools system is an appreciable
effort by the provincial government for inducting poor but talented student in a world class institution.
These private schools have more attraction as they claim to have English as a medium of instruction but
actually they run it with mixture of first and foreign language. In the policy 1979 Urdu was adopted as
medium of instruction in schools which later on changed and English has been made a medium of
instruction. This switching over must be stopped and state should decide once and for all about it. Some
of the schools are still following Cambridge education system and their students appear in O, and A level
examination which also creates a class distinction in the society. The concept of universalisation of
education cannot be realized until and unless private sectors schools are allowed to set up and expand
their networks in other areas. Another allegation is that these schools are mostly set up in urban area
while they are needed in rural areas but we can see that this trend has changed and now there many
schools which are opening their campuses in urban areas too. The allegation about serving elite class
purpose is again baseless as many schools are set up in less developed areas and current studies of
World Bank show that there is huge difference in students’ academic quality among private and public
schools as the private sector performance is three times higher than the public sector. The selection is
another objection but I believe that courses are selected on the basis of quality only. The text books
published by the board are in poor quality in material and contents whereas foreign author and
publisher books are far better than them. A regulatory body just as NACTE should be established to
monitor the teaching learning process with course contents and curriculum development comparing it
with advanced countries for improvement and enhancement.
Q.4 Discuss the concept of education planning. Critically compare the utility of different
approaches to educational planning.
Educational Planning
• Educational planning can be defined as ‘the process of setting out in advance, strategies, policies,
procedures, programmes and standards through which an educational objective (or set of objectives)
can be achieved’.
• Educational planning is a detailed and systematic process: it just does not happen by chance.
• It is goal-oriented: it is directed at achieving a set educational objectives.
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USESOF EDUCATIONALPLANNING
• Identification of Objectives and strategies:
By this we mean that educational planning helps in identifying and defining the objectives and the
strategies, programmes, procedures, policies and standards which education needs to be more effective
and efficient.
• Proper Distribution of Scarce Resources:
By scarce resources, we mean the limited resources which are available to satisfy our wants (needs).
• Educational Planning aids decision making:
Educational Planning helps decision makers at all levels to reach a better and well informed decision
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None the less this method, used with good informed judgment, is a useful exercise to be set alongside
the other approaches.
4. AGGREGATE METHOD
The fourth is the aggregate method. This method tries to relate educational needs to the whole demand
of society for education rather than to the level of output or to manpower, and is based on norms and
patterns which emerge from an empirical study of the educational situation in countries at different
stages of development. Among them are
(a) The proportion of GNP devoted to education globally and (if possible) by sector;
(b) The proportion of public expenditure devoted to education and its different sectors;
(c) The proportion of over-all investment devoted to education;
(d) The proportion of the population enrolled at the different educational levels;
(e) The above information corrected by estimates of wastage;
(f) The proportions of the school-age and student population enrolled at different levels.
5. COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH
Fifth, there is what we may call the human resources assessment approach which is a comprehensive
one. It was developed by Professor Harbison. It starts from the position that education is one of the
main sources of human resource formation, other sources being measures in the fields of manpower,
employment, training and health. The strategy of human resource development consists of integrating
these factors with general economic and social development planning. It takes into consideration such
factors as the scale of development feasible considering the availability of specialized manpower, the
scale of development needed to absorb the backlog of unemployed and the new entrants to the labor
force, the extent of in-service training in industry, the pattern of investment priorities envisaged in the
plan and the broad economic, social and educational goals of development planning.
Q.5 Explain the nature and characteristics of supervision in detail. Compare the basic objectives of
supervision with administration.
Meaning of Supervision:
In the modern educational system expansion of education relies on increasing number of educational
institutions, teachers and students as well as providing all sort of facilities which are essential for proper
progress of education. It will never be sufficient if we will not yield or achieve our returns or results to
an adequate extent in qualitative perspective. From this description it is quite evident that quality
assurance of education at any level is the prime concern of the modem educational practices. For this
there is the need of quantitative expansion as well as qualitative improvement of education at all levels.
This will be determined by the very concept, supervision.
Now-a-days the concept of supervision has been changed. It is not concerned merely with improvement
of teachers as it was conceived in the previous days, when the supervisory activities were directive and
prescriptive. But now according to some experts, supervision requires a super plus vision a superior
perspective attended by special preparation and position. To them the primary function of supervisors
of all types is leadership, encouragement and recognition of leadership in any other person either in the
professional staff or among the community participants.
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to assess continuously their adequacy and to bring about necessary improvement of course, within
reasonable and realistic limits.
3. Educational activities: the scope of educational supervision extends to all the areas of educational activity
with the larger purpose of improving the product of education through the upgrading to the quality of
instruction and other school practices.
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Social interaction is the basis of the whole social order. Social group is the product of social interaction. There
is interaction among animals and birds also. It is the real foundation of all social processes, structure, social
groups and functions. In sociology interaction is the gate of its knowledge.
7. Utilize collaborative learning environments. Incorporate collaborative learning activities within the
curriculum to encourage social interaction. Utilizing collaborative groups will allow students to
practice and observe appropriate social interactions with peer.
8. Get parents involved! Obtain parental input regarding the student’s social interactions. Converse and
collaborate with parents to develop a plan that can be used at home and in school.
9. Be Creative!! Utilize various forms of media when teaching social skills. Allow students to read books
about various conflict situations and verbally discuss solutions. Employ €œI Love Lucy€• or other
media clips and instruct students to view and critique the social interactions among the characters.
Verbally discuss the characters’ interactions and discuss better behavior choices.
Through diversity, entrepreneurs have been able to reach new markets. Today we have multinationals
setting up offices in different parts of the world of which it would not be possible without embracing
diversity. This further creates employment opportunities for people in those parts of the world.
Literature:
Pakistani literature originates from when Pakistan gained its nationhood as a sovereign state in 1947. The
common and shared tradition of Urdu literature and English literature of South Asia was inherited by the new
state. Over a period of time, a body of literature unique to Pakistan has emerged in nearly all major Pakistani
languages, including Urdu, English, Punjabi, Pushto, Seraiki, Balochi, and Sindhi.
Poetry:
Poetry is a highly respected art and profession in Pakistan. The pre-eminent form of poetry in Pakistan almost
always originates in Persian, due in part to the long standing affiliation the region had with the Persian
Empire. The enthusiasm for poetry exists at a regional level as well, with nearly all of Pakistan's provincial
languages continuing the legacy. Since the independence of the country in 1947 and establishment of Urdu
as the national language, poetry is written in that language as well. The Urdu language has a rich tradition of
poetry and includes the famous poets Dr Allama Iqbal national poet, Mirza Ghalib, Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Ahmad
Faraz, Jazib Qureshi and Ahmad Nadeem Qasimi. Apart from Urdu poetry, Pakistani poetry also has blends of
other regional languages. Balochi, Sindhi, Punjabi, Seraiki, and Pashto poetry have all incorporated and
influenced Pakistani poetry. Poetry in the form of marsia Salam and naath is also very popular among many
Pakistanis.
Performing arts:
Music:
Pakistani music is represented by a wide variety of forms. It ranges from traditional styles such as Qawwali
and Ghazal to more modern forms that fuse traditional Pakistani music with Western music. Nusrat Fateh Ali
Khan was internationally renowned for creating a form of music which synchronized Qawwali with western
music. Popular forms of music also prevail, the most notable being film music and Urdu and Punjabi pop
music. There are also the diverse traditions of folk music, as well as modern styles, with rock bands such as
Call being recognized internationally. Music Stars of Pakistan are Noor Jaha, Rahat Fateh Ali Khan.
people hit the town for some partying, going to restaurants or relaxing in city parks.
On Eid ul-Fitr, money is given for charity and as gifts to young children.
On Eid ul-Adha, people may also distribute meat to relatives and neighbors and donate food for charity.
There are other applications for the study of groups as well. Advertising industries and housing developers
benefit from the understanding of how social groups act, as do governments trying to predict emigration
from a war zone.
The study of Group Dynamics is relevant in every society and wherever groups of people gather.
Academic Potential
Ideally, the school's role is to bring each student to her individual, maximum academic potential. While its
effectiveness may vary from school to school, it's not enough to teach the ABCs and 123s and call it a day. A
significant amount of schoolwork throughout the grades is dedicated to helping children become expert
problem solvers and solution-seekers, skills that will come in handy in just about every personal and
professional aspect of a child's adult life. Therefore, in addition to an academic skill, problem solving is an
essential life skill. It's "the ability to analyze a situation, propose a solution and, should that solution not
work, be able to re-strategize to try again," according to Shere. The problem-solving mentality encourages
kids to keep trying, even after flunking the latest math test. They will push and persist because that mentality
also dictates that there is a solution; it just hasn't been found yet. and that sounds like a challenge.
Social Skills
He's got straight A's across the board. But without some healthy social skills, your youngster won't make it
through his first job interview, and he'll probably be going stag when prom night rolls around. The school
plays an important role in helping children learn to interact positively with their peers and teachers. They
learn about healthy relationship skills and develop them further through interactions, both in the classroom
and on the playground. According to Shere, "The emotional and social maturity of a child provides the
important underpinnings for child development in all other areas.When educators ignore children's
emotional and social development, this can often lead to adults who are very academically gifted but who
struggle in their daily lives due to lack of self-esteem and/or social skills." Children spend a large portion of
their day at school, and it's vital that a school's curriculum is designed to help its students form solid social
relationships or to "connect with other children and adults in a caring and empathetic manner."
In general, it may be said that the total society is the agency for socialization and that each person with
whom one comes into contact and interact is in some way an agent of socialization. Socialization is found in
all interactions but the most influential interaction occurs in particular groups which are referred to as
agencies of socialization.
The oblivious beginning of the process for the new-born child is-his immediate family group, but this is soon
extended to many other groups. Other than the family, the most important are the schools, the peer groups
(friends circle) and the mass media.
The family:
The child’s first world is that of his family. It is a world in itself, in which the child learns to live, to move and
to have his being. Within it, not only the biological tasks of birth, protection and feeding take place, but also
develop those first and intimate associations with persons of different ages and sexes which form the basis of
the child’s personality development.
The family is the primary agency of socialization. It is here that the child develops an initial sense of self and
habit-training—eating, sleeping etc. To a very large extent, the indoctrination of the child, whether in
primitive or modem complex society, occurs within the circle of the primary family group. The child’s first
human relationships are with the immediate members of his family—mother or nurse, siblings, father and
other close relatives.
Here, he experiences love, cooperation, authority, direction and protection. Language (a particular dialect) is
also learnt from family in childhood. People’s perceptions of behavior appropriate of their sex are the result
of socialization and major part of this is learnt in the family.
As the primary agents of childhood socialization, parents play a critical role in guiding children into their
gender roles deemed appropriate in a society. They continue to teach gender role behavior either consciously
or unconsciously, throughout childhood. Families also teach children values they will hold throughout life.
They frequently adopt their parents’ attitudes not only about work but also about the importance of
education, patriotism and religion.
School:
After family the educational institutions take over the charge of socialization. In some societies (simple non-
literate societies), socialization takes place almost entirely within the family but in highly complex societies
children are also socialized by the educational system. Schools not only teach reading, writing and other basic
skills, they also teach students to develop themselves, to discipline themselves, to cooperate with others, to
obey rules and to test their achievements through competition.
Schools teach sets of expectations about the work, profession or occupations they will follow when they
mature. Schools have the formal responsibility of imparting knowledge in those disciplines which are most
central to adult functioning in our society. It has been said that learning at home is on a personal, emotional
level, whereas learning at school is basically intellectual.
Peer group:
Besides the world of family and school fellows, the peer group (the people of their own age and similar social
status) and playmates highly influence the process of socialization. In the peer group, the young child learns
to confirm to the accepted ways of a group and to appreciate the fact that social life is based on rules. Peer
group becomes significant others in the terminology of G.H. Mead for the young child. Peer group
socialization has been increasing day by day these days.
Young people today spend considerable time with one another outside home and family. Young people living
in cities or suburbs and who have access to automobiles spend a great deal of time together away from their
families. Studies show that they create their own unique sub-cultures—the college campus culture, the drug
culture, motorcycle cults, athletic group culture etc. Peer groups serve a valuable function by assisting the
transition to adult responsibilities.
Teenagers imitate their friends in part because the peer group maintains a meaningful system of rewards and
punishments. The group may encourage a young person to follow pursuits that society considers admirable.
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On the other hand, the group may encourage someone to violate the culture’s norms and values by driving
recklessly, shoplifting, stealing automobiles, engaging in acts of vandalism and the like. Some studies of
deviant behavior show that the peer group influence to cultivate behavior patterns is more than the family.
Mass media:
From early forms of print technology to electronic communication (radio, TV, etc.), the media is playing a
central role in shaping the personality of the individuals. Since the last century, technological innovations
such as radio, motion pictures, recorded music and television have become important agents of socialization.
Television, in particular, is a critical force in the socialization of children almost all over the new world.
According to a study conducted in America, the average young person (between the ages of 6 and 18) spends
more time watching the ‘tube’ (15,000 to 16,000 hours) than studying in school. Apart from sleeping,
watching television is the most time-consuming activity of young people.
Relative to other agents of socialization discussed above, such as family, peer group and school, TV has
certain distinctive characteristics. It permits imitation and role playing but does not encourage more complex
forms of learning. Watching TV is a passive experience. Psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (1970) has
expressed concern about the ‘insidious influence’ of TV in encouraging children to forsake human interaction
for passive viewing.
Workplace:
A fundamental aspect of human socialization involves learning to behave appropriately within an occupation.
Occupational socialization cannot be separated from the socialization experience that occurs during
childhood and adolescence. We are mostly exposed to occupational roles through observing the work of our
parents, of people whom we meet while they are performing their duties, and of people portrayed in the
media.
The state:
Social scientists have increasingly recognized the importance of the state as an agent of socialization because
of its growing impact on the life cycle. The protective functions, which were previously performed by family
members, have steadily been taken over by outside agencies such as hospitals, health clinics and insurance
companies. Thus, the state has become a provider of child care, which gives it a new and direct role in the
socialization of infants and young children.
Not only this, as a citizen, the life of a person is greatly influenced by national interests. For example, labor
unions and political parties serve as intermediaries between the individual and the state. By regulating the
life cycle to some degree, the state shapes the station process by influencing our views of appropriate
behavior at particular ages.
In order to develop social development students should be exposed to outdoor social events. Like cultural
and social exhibitions, study tours to some famous cities in order to know the cultural pattern and life style of
the different people
Historical stories should be taught to the students in order to develop some basic social qualities like
sacrifice, loyalty, courage etc.
There should be close cooperation between teachers and parents about the social activities of a child. In this
regard parents- teacher meetings can play effective role.
From time t time important and famous personalities should be incited to school assembly in order to
motivate the students for social service and role.
Teachers should educate the students and inform the students about various social festivals and celebrations
in order to highlight the importance of social events.
Teachers should also be informed about the social events, evils, crimes which are creating social disturbance.
And how to eradicate the social evils.
It is also the responsibility of the teachers to inform the students about all the social developments, with
critical evaluation in order to evaluate the negative and positive impacts of these developments.
It is vital to keep the children busy and excited in what they are involved in. It is just as important for a
teacher to be extremely organized. Children rely on the consistency of schedules. Children will be happier
and feel safe and secure in their school surroundings when their daily schedule is better organized. Being
organized creates a comfortable and social environment. It is the teacher’s responsibility to nourish a child’s
cognitive and physical needs. Children need to run and play as well as learn the ability to sit and work. They
need to know and understand boundaries and respect for others. Children also need time during their
schedule where they have freedom to do whatever they choose to do without being told by a teacher. This is
time allowed where children get to explore and play either by themselves, side by side with other children, or
play by interacting with each other. Teachers must allow children to have this non-direction play time. All of
these tools aid as in building structures for a healthy social life
decision. Sometimes prayer can be used to gain personal fortitude to resist fear, which can be beneficial on
occasions. However, the use of prayer can also take the form of wishing ill to others, effectively acting as a
curse. It is thought that the divinity will vent anger on those who are judged to be oppressors or
sinners. This is a short step from believing that the cause justifies evil in the name of the divinity. It also
reinforces the attitude that there is no need to understand or be awed by things that are beyond our
comprehension. So, instead of seeing beauty in creation without a deity, only impossible chaos can be
seen. Such an attitude reinforces the belief in a deity. Thus religion has become a self-reinforcing mental
prison.
Religion can also be used as a tool of suppression. It is easy to maintain order and nullify dissent by citing
religious grounds. It is often used to pour scorn on those who do not believe, so that when individuals
question the right to govern, the right to interpret religion or the existence of the deity, indignant
repugnance is generated in those who are in a position to impose censorship. Often this can be achieved by
simple peer group pressure. Religious "ethics" are cited in support of many spurious theories and
taboos. The basis of many of these is that the life force is somehow holy, that life is the sole preserve of the
deity. Such is the arbitrary nature of the arguments that, even within a single sect of a single religion, there
will be theological disagreements about what is ethical and what is unethical. Because secular laws are
believed to be made with religious principles underpinning them, it is easy for the judiciary to fall into the
trap of condemning individuals to cruelty and inhumanity in the belief that it is ethical to do so.
Extended Definition
The political system consists of both politics and government and involves the law, economy, culture and
additional social concepts.
The most popular political systems that we know of around the world can be reduced to a few simple core
concepts. Many additional types of political systems are similar in idea or root, but most tend to surround
concepts of:
Democracy: A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically
through elected representatives.
Republic: A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which
has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch.
Monarchy: A form of government in which one person reigns, typically a king or a queen. The authority, also
known as a crown, is typically inherited.
Communism: A system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy. Often, an
authoritarian party holds power and state controls are imposed.
Dictatorship: A form of government where one person makes the main rules and decisions with absolute
power, disregarding input from others.
The Function of a Political System
1. To maintain integration of society by determining norms.
2. To adapt and change elements of social, economic, religious systems necessary for achieving
collective (political) goals.
3. To protect the integrity of the political system from outside threats.
In modern day society in the United States, for example, the main function of the two core political parties
are seen as a way to represent interest groups, represent constituents and to create policies while minimizing
choices.
Overall, the idea is to make legislative processes easier for people to understand and engage with.
The importance of educational institutions in the society
An educational institution is a place where people of different ages gain an education, including preschools,
childcare, primary-elementary schools, secondary-high schools, and universities. They provide a large variety
of learning environments and learning spaces.
Education plays a great role in the life of everyone all through the life. Getting proper education is very
necessary to get success and happy life just like food is necessary for healthy body. It is very important to live
luxurious and better life. It develops personality of the people, provides physical and mental standard and
transforms people’s living status. It promotes the feeling of physical, mental and social well being by
providing better life. Good education is constructive in nature which constructs our future forever. It helps a
person to improve his/her status of mind, body and spirit. It provides us lots of confidence by giving us bulk
of knowledge in many field. It is a single and vital way to the success as well as personal growth.
The more knowledge we get, we grow and develop more in the life. Being well educated never only means to
earn certificates and good salary from the recognized and reputed organisation companies or institutions
however it also means to be a good and social person in the life. It helps us to determine whether something
Malik Kashif Masood
is good or bad for us and other persons related to us. The first purpose of getting good education is being
good citizen and then being successful in personal and professional life. We are incomplete without a good
education because education makes us right thinker and correct decision maker. In such a competitive world,
education has become a necessity for human beings after food, clothe and shelter. It is able to provide
solutions to all problems; it promotes good habits and awareness about corruption, terrorism, and other
social issues among us.
Education is the most important tool offers inner and outer strength to a person. Education is the
fundamental rights of everyone and capable of bringing any desired change and upliftment in the human
mind and society.