تكييف مركزي الجزء الأول

Fundamentals of HVAC Systems
Third edition
Dar Al –Tasmem (nosier and partners)

June 2015
Third edition
BY
Dar Al-Tasmem (nosier & partners)
For design and consultants
For contact:
Mobile:
+002 01117085208 (EGYPT).
Business mail:
smartmech_nosier@yahoo.com
dargroup.nosier@yahoo.com
Course Contents (part-one)
 Chapter 1- HVAC Systems Basic Information
 1 Introduction
 2 Air properties.
 3 Air Conditioning process.
 4 Basic Air-Conditioning Systems.
 5 How the human body interact with the environmental.
 6 Environments for Human Comfort.
 7 Scope of Modern HVAC
 Chapter 2 –load estimation
 Hourly Analysis Program (HAP).
 Chapter 3-system selection and air distribution
 1 System Choice.
 2 System Performance Requirements.
 3 Decision Factors for Choosing Units.
 4 DX Refrigeration Equipment.
 5 Air Distribution Systems.
 6 Supply and return air system layout.
 Chapter4-Ventilation Systems
 1 Introduction.
 2 Purposes of Ventilation.
 3 Ventilation Calculations.
 4 Ventilation Systems.
 5 Mechanical ventilation equipment.
 6 Ventilation design Methodology.
Chapter 1- HVAC Systems Basic Information
Contents
 1 Introduction
 2 Air properties.
 3 Air Conditioning process.
 4 Basic Air-Conditioning Systems.
 5 How the human body interact with the environmental.
 6 Environments for Human Comfort.
 7 Scope of Modern HVAC

Dar Al-Tasmem Fundamentals of HVAC Systems
Nosier And partners Basic Information
Chapter 1- HVAC Systems Basic Information

1 Introduction
 The term “air conditioning” has gradually changed, from meaning just cooling, to the
Total control of:
 Temperature
 Moisture in the air (humidity)
 Supply of outside air for ventilation
 Filtration of airborne particles
 Air movement in the occupied space.
2 Air properties.
 Air is made up of five main gases i.e. Nitrogen 78.03%, Oxygen 20.99%, Argon 0.94%,
Carbon Dioxide 0.03%, and Hydrogen 0.01% by volume. The Ideal Gas Laws are used to
determine psychometric data for air so that the engineer can carry out calculations. To
make life easier a chart has been compiled with all the relevant psychometric data
indicated. This is called the Psychometric Chart. A typical chart is shown below in figure
(1).
Chapter: 1
Fig (1) .Psychometric Chart
1
 Air at any state point can be plotted on the psychometric chart. The information that
can be obtained from a Psychometric Chart is as follows:
 Dry bulb temperature

 Wet bulb temperature
 Moisture content
 Percentage of saturation
 Specific enthalpy
 Specific volume.
 The following is a brief description of each of the properties of air.
 Dry bulb temperature: This is the air temperature measured by a mercury-in-glass

thermometer.
 Wet bulb temperature: This is the air temperature measured by a mercury-in-glass

thermometer which has the mercury bulb wetted by gauze that is kept moist by a
reservoir of water. When exposed to the environment the moisture evaporates
from the wetted gauze, which gives a lower reading on the thermometer. This gives
an indication of how ‘dry’ or how ‘moist’ the air is, since in ‘dry’ air the water will
evaporate quickly from the gauze, which depresses the thermometer reading.
 Moisture content or specific humidity: This is the amount of moisture in air given in
kg of moisture per kg of dry air .to understand the relationship between water
vapor, air and temperature, we will consider Two conditions:
 First Condition: The temperature is constant, but the quantity of water vapor is
increasing. If the temperature remains constant, then, as the quantity of water
vapor in the air increases, the humidity increases. However, at every temperature
point, there is a maximum amount of water vapor that can co-exist with the air.
The point at which this maximum is reached is called the saturation point. If more
water vapor is added after the saturation point is reached, then an equal amount
of water vapor condenses.
 Second Condition: The temperature is dropping, but the quantity of water vapor
is constant .If the air is cooled sufficiently, it reaches the saturation line. If it is
cooled even more, moisture will condense out and dew forms. This temperature,
at which the air starts to produce condensation, is called the dew point
temperature.
Chapter: 1
2
 Relative humidity: It is the ratio of the actual water vapour pressure of the air to the
saturated water vapour pressure of the air at the same temperature (PV, actual / PV,
saturated).
 Percentage of saturation: The Percentage saturation is another indication of the

amount of moisture in air. This is the ratio of the moisture content of moist air to
the moisture content of saturated air at the same temperature. When air is
saturated it is at 100% saturation and cannot hold any more moisture.
 Specific enthalpy) Btu/lb.(
 There is a specific amount of energy in the air water-vapor mixture at a specific

temperature. The energy of this mixture is dependent on Two measures:
o The temperature of the air.

o The proportion of water vapor in the air.
 There is more energy in air at higher temperatures. The addition of heat to raise
the temperature is called adding “sensible heat.” There is also more energy when
there is more water vapor in the air. The energy that the water vapor contains is
referred to as its “latent heat.” The measure of the total energy of both the
sensible heat in the air and the latent heat in the water vapor is commonly called
“enthalpy.” Enthalpy can be raised by adding energy to the mixture of dry air and
water vapor.
 Specific volume: This is the volume of moist air (dry air + water vapour) per unit mass. The
units of measurement are m3 per kg. Also specific volume = 1 / density.
 Foot note:
 Moist air: It is a mixture of air and water vapour. The amount of water vapour
present in the air depends upon the absolute pressure and temperature of the
mixture.
 Standard air: It is moist air when the air has diffused with the maximum amount
of water vapour.
2.1 Using the Psychometric Chart example.
 Find the specific volume, wet-bulb temperature, moisture content and specific enthalpy
of air at 35oC dry-bulb temperature and 30% saturation. Referring to the chart below, a
vertical line is drawn upwards from 35oC dry-bulb temperature until it intersects with
the 30% saturation curve. This intersection is the state point. The specific volume is
found to be 0.883 m3/kg, the wet-bulb temperature is 22oC, the moisture content
Chapter: 1
0.011kg/kg d. a. and the specific enthalpy 65 kJ/kg.
3
3 Air Conditioning process
 There are seven main processes required to achieve full air conditioning and these
processes are:
 Sensible Cooling and Heating.
 Heating—the process of adding thermal energy the space for the purposes of raising
or Maintaining the temperature of the space.
 Cooling—the process of removing thermal energy from the space for the purposes of
Lowering or maintaining the temperature of the space.
 Humidifying—the process of adding moisture to the air in the space for the purposes
of raising or maintaining the moisture content of the air.
 Dehumidifying—the process of removing moisture from the air in the space for the
purposes of lowering or maintaining the moisture content of the air.
 Cleaning—the process of removing particulates and biological contaminants from the air
delivered to the space for the purposes of improving or maintaining the air quality.
 Ventilating—the process of exchanging air between the outdoors and the conditioned
space for the purposes of diluting the gaseous contaminants in the space. Ventilation
can be achieved either through:
Chapter: 1
 Natural ventilation: it is driven by natural draft, like when you open a window.
 Mechanical ventilation. Can be achieved by using fans to draw air in from outside or by
fans that exhaust air from the space to outside.
4
 Air Movement—the process of circulating and mixing air through conditioned spaces in
the building for the purposes of achieving the proper ventilation and facilitating the
thermal energy transfer.
4 Basic Air-Conditioning Systems
 Figure (2) shows the schematic diagram of an air-conditioning plant. The majority of the
air is drawn from the space, mixed with outside ventilation air and then conditioned
before being blown back into the space. The ratio of outside ventilation air to return air
typically varies from 15 to 25% of outside air. There are, however, systems which provide
100% outside air with zero recirculation.
Fig (2). Air conditioning plant
 The components from left to right are:
 Outside Air Damper: This closes off the outside air intake when the system is
switched off.
 Mixing chamber: where return air from the space is mixed with the outside
ventilation air.
 Filter: This cleans the air by removing solid airborne contaminants (dirt).
 Heating coil: This raises the air temperature to the required supply temperature.
 Cooling coil: which provides cooling and dehumidification. Cooling is most often
achieved in an air-conditioning system by passing the moist air over a cooling coil. As
illustrated in following Figure. A coil is constructed of a long serpentine pipe through
which a cold liquid or gas flows. This cold fluid is either chilled water, typically
Chapter: 1
between 40°F and 45°F, or a refrigerant. The pipe is lined with fins to increase the
heat transfer from the air to the cold fluid in the pipe. Figure (3) shows the face of
the coil, in the direction of airflow.
5
Fig (3). Cooling Coil
 There are two results. First, the cooling coil cools the air as the air passes over the coils.
Second, because the cooling fluid in the coil is usually well below the saturation
temperature of the air, moisture condenses on the coil, and drips off, to drain away. This
process reduces the enthalpy, or heat, of the air mixture and increases the enthalpy of
the chilled water or refrigerant. In another part of the system, this added heat must be
removed from the chilled water or refrigerant to re cool it for Reuse in the cooling coil.
Figure (4) show cooling and dehumidification process on psychometric chart.
Fig (4). Cooling and dehumidification process

On psychometric chart.
 The amount of moisture that is removed depends on several factors including:

 The temperature of the cooling fluid
Chapter: 1
 The depth of the coil

 Whether the fins are flat or embossed
 The air velocity across the coil.
6
 Humidifier: which adds moisture, and which is usually controlled by a humidistat.

Humidification can be carried out by spraying a fine mist of water droplets into the air
but this is not recommended in rooms occupied by people due to the risk of bacteria
carry over. Dry steam may be injected from a steam supply pipe or generated in a local
packaged unit as shown in the photograph below. A disadvantage of using an existing
steam supply is smells may be carried over into the air. The steam package unit is
situated close to the air duct and is sized to meet the maximum requirements; this is
usually in winter in the U.K. A steam pipe (sometimes hoses are used) passes from the
packaged unit to the air duct and steam at 100oC is injected into the air stream via spare
pipe. The un-used steam is drained from the system and drain. It is important to layout
the steam pipe work so that any condensate will drain back to the unit. The
psychometric process is shown below in figure (5).
Fig (5). Package steam humidifier unit, heating and humidification

Process on psychometric chart
 Fan: to draw the air through the resistance of the system and blow it into the space.
Chapter: 1
7
4.1 Typical summer plant air conditioning
 The schematic diagram below shows a typical plant system for summer air conditioning,
andthe psychrometric diagram below shows a typical summer cycle figure (6).
Fig (6). a typical summer cycle

Chapter: 1
8
4.2 Typical summer plant air conditioning example.
An office is to be maintained at 22oC dry-bulb temperature, 50% saturation in summer.

The sensible heat gain is 8.0 kW. The latent heat gain is 2.0 kW.
Determine the cooling coil and reheater outputs required by using a psychrometric chart if
the plant schematic is as shown below.
DATA:
Outdoor condition is 28oC, 80% saturation. The outdoor air and recirculated air ratio is; 20%
to 80%. The Apparatus Dew Point ADP is 8oC .The cooling coil contact factor is 0.8.
Procedure (Summer Cycle)

 Draw schematic diagram of air-conditioning plant (see above)
 Plot room condition R on psychrometric chart.
 Plot outside condition O on psychrometric chart.
 Join points O
Chapter: 1
9
 Find the mx point M by measuring the length of the line O-R and multiply this
by the mixing ratio.
On a full size CIBSE psychrometric chart this measures 85mm.
The ratio of recirculated air is 0.8. ……..
therefore; 85mm x 0.8 = 68mm
Measure down the O-R line from point O by 68mm.
This determines point M .
 Find the room ratio.

This is the sensible to total heat gain ratio.
Total heat = 8 kW sensible + 2 kW latent = 10 kW total.
Heat ratio = 8 / 10 = 0.8
Plot this ratio on the protractor, bottom segment, on the
psychrometric chart and transfer this line onto the chart so that it
passes through point R.
 Plot the Apparatus Dew Point ADP of the cooling coil.
This is on the 100% saturation curve.
The ADP is 80oC.
Chapter: 1
10
 Join points M and ADP.

 Find the off-coil condition W by measuring the length of the line M-ADP and multiply
this by the cooling coil contact factor..
On a full size CIBSE psychrometric chart this measures 75mm.
The cooling coil contact factor is 0.8. ………..
therefore; 75mm x 0.8 = 60mm.
Measure down along the line M-ADP by 60mm.
This determines point W.
 Plot the supply air condition S.
The reheater process will be a horizontal line from point W to point
S.
Point S is on the room ratio line.
The supply air temperature is 17oC.
Chapter: 1
11
Mass Flow Rate

When the supply air temperature has been found from the psychrometric chart then
the mass flow rate of air can be calculated from the following formula:
Ma = Hs / (Cp ( tr- ts ))
Where: HS = Sensible heat gain to room (kW)

ma = Mass flow rate of air ( Kg/s)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of humid air
(Approx. 1.01 KJ/Kg oC)
tr = Room temperature (oC)
ts = supply air temperature (oC)
The supply air temperature is 17oC.
ma = 8 / ( 1.01( 22– 17) )
ma = 8/5.05 Kg/s
ma = 1.584 Kg/s
Cooling Coil Output

The cooling coil output is as follows:
Hcooloing Coil = ma * ( hM - hADP )
Hcooloing Coil = Cooling coil output (kW)
hM = Specific enthalpy at condition M
(kJ/kg)
determined from psychometric chart.
hADP = Specific enthalpy at condition M (kJ/kg)
Chapter: 1
12
The specific enthalpies at points M and ADP are shown on the psychrometric Chart below.
Hcooloing Coil = 1.584 / ( 50.5– 25)

Hcooloing Coil = 40.4 kW
Heater Battery Output

The heater battery or reheater output is as follows:
H heater battery = ma * ( hs - hw )
Where: H heater battery = Heater battery output (kW)

hs = Specific enthalpy at condition S (kJ/kg)
Hw = Specific enthalpy at condition W(kJ/kg)
The specific enthalpies at points S and W are shown on the psychrometric Chart below.
H heater battery = 1.584 / ( 36.5– 30.5)

H heater battery = 9.5 kW
Chapter: 1
13
5 How the human body interact with the environmental.
 The human body from engineering view is thermal engine .when the foods burned
inside the human body ,the chemical energy produced from burning process convert
into work an heat .due to circulation the blood work to transfer the heat to the skin
,and then to the surrounding air. The amount of heat dissipated to the surrounding can
be classified into
 sensible heat, this type heat transfer by convection according to the following equation
QC = hc Ac (tB – t0)
Where
= surrounding temp
= skin temp.
= area of the human skin subject to the convection waves and it equal =1.5 m2
= coefficient of heat transfer between the human skin and the surrounding air, it is
Value depend on air speed thus for
 The sensible heat transferred by radiation according the following equation.
QR = hr Ar es (Ts – To)
Where
Ts = surrounding air temperature
hr = coff of heat transfer by radiation = 8.15 (w/m2.c)
es = radiation coff of human body = (0.082 to 0.65).
Ar = area of human body surface subject to the surrounding air (1.2 m2)
 The amount of heat transferred by radiation and convection can be calculated from one
equation Called Givoni equation.
QCR = h .V 0.3. (To – 35) (W)

Where
h =is the heat transfer coefficient (18.4 for nude body, 15 for wearing light clothing, 13.5
for Wearing medium clothing).
Chapter: 1
 Latent heat, the human body dissipate this type of heat to surrounding by evaporation.
The evaporation takes place inside the human lung and on his skin .the amount of
evaporation depends on the human condition as the following table (ml/day).
14
condition
Temp degree
Heavy Source
exercise High Norma
l
350 350 350 Spread
5000 1400 200 Perspiration
650 250 350 Lung
 Givoni suggested the following equation for calculation the amount of evaporation.
m E,max = KV 0.3 (42 – V Pa) (g/s)
 The following equation calculates the efficiency of cooling by perspiration.
 = e 0.6 ( mE/mE , max -0.12 )
 The amount of heat dissipated by evaporation can calculated from the following
equation.
QE = hD AW ( HW - Ho) L (W)
 Also the rate of perspiration calculates from the following equation.
mW = ke AW (PW – Pa) (g/s)
Where.
pa =partial pressure of water vapor ) mm Hg).
V = air velocity (m/s)
K = factor 31.6 for semi nude body, 20.5 for wearing light clothing.
hD = amount of mass transfer between human body and surrounding air
AW = area of body surface subject to evaporation.
Hw & Ho = values of relative humidity related to surface body and surrounding temp.
L = latent heat of evaporation of water at the surrounding temp.

Ke = coff of heat transferred by evaporation for air velocity between 0.15 to3
(M/s). (Ke = 10.17 V 0.37 ) (g/s. m2 . mmHg).
 From equations find the latent heat depend on air humidity, and sensible depend on
value of dry air .the physiology performance for human body require the thermal
balance between human body and surrounding air according the following equation .
Chapter: 1
M  QR  QC – QE = W + QS + QV
15
 Where w = human mechanical work

QR = the amount of heat gain and dissipated by radiation.
QC = amount of heat gain and dissipated by convection
QS = the change in the storage energy inside the human body
QE = the amount of heat dissipated by evaporation.
QV = the amount of heat produced by ventilation.
M = the heat produced from food change generated inside the human body.
 When the temperature of the surrounding air is more than temperature of blood (37c)
the body gain the heat by radiation and convection from the surrounding, and the
balancing equation is
M + QC + QR = W + QE + QS
6 Environments for Human Comfort.
 The variety of factors that influence the comfort of an individual must be highly
considered. Figure (7) is a simplified diagram of the three main groups of factors that
affect comfort.
Chapter: 1
Fig (7). Personal environmental model
16
 Thermal conditions: include the air temperature. Air Speed, air movement, and other
conditions.
 The air quality: in a space is affected by pollution from the occupants and other contents
of the Space. The amount of outside air brought into the space to dilute the Pollutants.
 The acoustical environment: may be affected by outside traffic noise, other occupants,
equipment, and the HVAC system. A designer may have to be very careful to limit the
noise according to building’s nature and importance.
 The lighting: influences the HVAC design, since all lights give off heat.
 The physical aspects of the space that have an influence on the occupants include both
the Architectural design aspects of the space, and the interior design.
 The psychosocial situation: the interaction between people in the space is not a design
issue.
 Characteristics of the Individual that Influence Comfort: All people bring with them
health, vulnerabilities and expectations
6.8 Clothing and Activity as a function of Individual Comfort
 The third group of factors influencing comfort is the amount of clothing and the activity
level of the individual. In the summer, in many business offices, managers wear suits with
shirts and jackets while staff members may have bare arms, and light clothing. The same
space may be thermally comfortable to one group and uncomfortable to the other.
7 Scope of Modern HVAC
7.1 Indoor air quality: is one that directly affects us. In many countries the indoor-air-quality
in Buildings are too poor and unsatisfactory. The causes and effects of this poor quality
are extremely complex.
7.2 Greenhouse gas emissions and the destruction of the earth’s protective ozone layer are
concerns that are stimulating research. New guidelines are evolving that encourage:
 Recycling; less energy usage; and low polluting materials, particularly refrigerants. All
these issues have a significant impact on building design, including HVAC systems.
7.3 Energy conservation: is an ongoing challenge to find new ways to reduce consumption
in new. And existing buildings without compromising comfort. There is various ways to
Chapter: 1
reduce energy consumption by controlling increasing in the internal temperature or by

making air precooking as.
17
7.3.1 Night-time Cooling.
 Cool air is passed through the building at night-time. In some buildings this may be
achieved by opening windows and using a purely natural system. Most buildings
however, require to be mechanically ventilated to obtain the high level of air change to
cool down the building fabric. This is particularly suited to areas where the summer
temperature drops off at night-time. Figure (8). Shows typical night time cooling
process.
Fig (8). Typical night time cooling process.
 The system is improved by having building fabric exposed to the cooling effect of the
night-time air as shown below. Night cooling of exposed heavyweight constructions
can offset from 20 to 30 Watts/m2 of heat gains during the day, reducing peak internal
temperatures by 2-3oC.
7.3.2 Evaporative Cooling
 As water is sprayed into an air stream the water evaporates. The heat that allows the
water to evaporate (the latent heat of vaporisation) is taken from the air thus causing a
drop in the dry bulb temperature as shown in Figure (9).
Chapter: 1
18
Fig (9). Evaporative cooling on a psychrometric chart
 We usually avoid spaying water into air streams to reduce the risk of bacterial growth
(such as logion ally).A way around this may be to cool the exhaust air with evaporative
cooling and use this to cool the supply air by using a heat exchanger. Figure (10). Shows
evaporative cooling using exhaust air.
Figure (10). Shows evaporative cooling using exhaust air.
 The exhaust louver for this system must be well away from the fresh air intake louver to
ensure no cross contamination of air streams. The efficiency of the system relies on the
efficiency of the heat exchanger. The best heat exchangers at present are thermal
wheels. Many systems already incorporate a heat exchanger in the exhaust to recover
heat in winter. A plentiful supply of water is required to add at the humidifier.
Chapter: 1
19
7.3.3 Chilled Beams and Ceilings
 Chilled water is circulated through narrow cooling units called beams or through pipes
incorporated into a ceiling. Chilled beams have no fan built in. Chilled beams can be
passive or actives as shown in figure (11).
 Passive chilled beams have a long chilled water pipe which cools room air. Warm air
rises to the ceiling and enters the top of the beam, where it is cooled by contact with
the cold coil. The cool air descends into the room through outlet slots on the underside
of the beam.
 Active chilled beams have primary cool air supplied through ducting in the beam itself.
Warm room air is induced into the beam and through the cooling coil reducing its
temperature.
`
Fig (11). Chilled beams
7.3.4 Hollow Floor Slabs with Air
 Precast hollow concrete floor slabs can be used as a conduit for conditioned air. The
slab is cooled by chilled air or night time cool air so that the concrete mass has a
lowered temperature as shown in figure (12). Chapter: 1
Fig (12). Hollow concrete
20
 The system has several advantages

 Dampens swings in internal temperature due to high thermal mass of concrete.
 Uses existing space in slabs for transporting air.
 Uses the cooler slab as a means of keeping the building air conditioned without the
need for ductwork.
 Hollow Floor Slab systems can offset heat gains up to 30 W/m2 where the underside of
the slab is not exposed and 50 W/m2 where it is exposed.
7.3.5 Cooling Air by Subsoil or Water.
 The year round ground temperature at 2m to 5m depth in the U.K. is 10 oC to 14 oC .This

sub-soil layer can be used to cool air. A series of air pipes are laid in the ground at a
suitable depth as air is forced through the pipes it is cooled as shown in figure (13).
Fig (13). Ground air cooling system
 The cooled air from the above system can be used either; directly to cool a building or
as pre-conditioned air to be further cooled by a refrigeration system. The system also
can be used to pre-heat air in winter when the ground temperature is above the outside
air temperature. The efficiency of the system depends on; air temperatures, air flow
rates and the effectiveness of the soil/pipe/air heat transfer system.
 Another method of cooling air uses water sources such as the sea, a lake or a river.
Where available this is preferred over subsoil cooling, since water has about four times
the heat capacity compared to air. Water is pumped from the source and passed
through a heat exchanger where water is chilled and passed to cooling coils as shown in
figure (14).
Chapter: 1
Fig (14).water cooling system.
21
Chapter 2 –load estimation
Contents
 Hourly Analysis Program (HAP).

Al-Tasmem Fundamentals of HVAC Systems
Nosier And partners load estimation
Chapter 2 –load estimation
 The cooling load for a space can be made up of many components, including:
 Conduction heat gain from outdoors through the roof, exterior walls, skylights, and
windows. (This includes the effects of the sun shining on these exterior surfaces.)

 Solar radiation heat gain through skylights and windows.
 Conduction heat gain from adjoining spaces through the ceiling, interior partition walls,
and floor.
 Heat gain due to hot, humid air infiltrating into the space from outdoors through doors,
windows, and small cracks in the building envelope.
 In addition, the cooling coil in the building HVAC system has to handle other components
of the total building cooling load, including:
 Heat gain due to outdoor air deliberately brought into the building for ventilation
purposes.
 Heat generated by the fans in the system and possibly other heat gains in the system.
 Figure (1) indicates various components of heat gain sources.
Fig (1). Heat gain sources.

Chapter:2
22
Hourly Analysis Program (HAP)
1. Design parameters tab /weather form.
1.1 design parameters.
Chapter:2
23
1.2 design temperature.
1.3 design solar.
Chapter:2
24
1.4 simulation.
1.4.1 printing and viewing weather properties.
Chapter:2
25
2 Entering spaces
2.1 general
2.2 internalS.
Chapter:2
26
 schedule type.
Chapter:2
27
2.2.1 lighting
 The input power convert into light and heat .heat dissiaptted radiation into
surrounding ,and by conduction into adjacent matrial and then by connvection into
surrounding air .
 With incandescent lights convert approximately 10% of input power into light ,80%
dissipated by raidiation ,and 10% of input power dissiapated by conduction .and
convection.so the incandescent snsible heat gain formula is.

Q = Power (watt) * 3.4 BTU/HR
 Fluorescent lights convert 25% of input power into light ,with about 25% being
dissipated radiation.the other 50% dissipated by conduction ,and convection
.approximately 25% more heat is generated as aheat in the ballast of Fluorescent
lamp. so the Fluorescent snsible heat gain formula is.
Q = Power (watt) * 1.25* 3.4 BTU/HR
2.2.2 equipment.
 There are many types of appliances and equipment in restaurants, schools, office
buildings, hospitals, and other types of buildings. This equipment may generate a
significant amount of sensible heat only or sensible and latent heat and should be
Chapter:2
accounted for when estimating the space cooling load. The data on this slide is an
excerpt from the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook— Fundamentals, and carrier hand book.
The handbook contains tables of sensible and latent heat gains from various types of
office and restaurant equipment.
28
 Therefore, the internal heat gain from electrical equipment formula is:
Q = Power (watt) * 3.4 BTU/HR
 the internal heat gain from electrical motors formula is:
Q= Power (HP) * 2545 BTU/HR

2.2.3 People.
 Heat gnerated inside human body transfered into surface body by blod stream and is
dissipated by .
 Radiation from body surface to surrounding surfaces.

 Convection from body surafec and respiratory tract into surrounding air.
 Evaporation of mositure from body surafec and in the respiratory tract into
surrounding air.
 The mout of heat dissipated by radiation and convection is dermined by temperature

diffierence between surface body and surrounding air.
 The mout of heat dissipated by evpaoration and is dermined by the diffierence in
vapor pressure between the body and air.
 The amount of heat released by the body varies with age which metabolic rate of
children is 75 of that adult male, physical size, gender which metabolic rate of
women is 85% of that adult male, type of clothing, and level of physical activity. Table
(48) carrier hand book indicate heat gain from people
 The equations used to predict the sensible and latent heat gains from people in the
space are.
Qs = number of persons * sensible heat gain for each person.
QL= number of persons * Latent heat gain for each person.
2.2.4 Miscellaneous loads.
 There are many types of appliances and equipment in restaurants, schools, office
buildings, hospitals, and other types of buildings. This equipment may generate a
significant amount of heat and should be accounted for when estimating the space
cooling load.
Chapter:2
29
2.3 External heat gain.
2.3.1 wall ,windows,doors,roof ,and sky lights.
Chapter:2
30
Chapter:2
31
Chapter:2
32
 wall ,windows,doors,roof ,and sky lights.
 Solar radiation trough glass can be predicted by following equation
Q=A*sc*q
Where
Q = Aamount of heat produced due to solar radiation BTU/HR
A = Area of window (FT2)
SC = Overall factor for solar heat gain through glass (carrier H.B ;table 16)
q q = Solar heat gain through ordinary glass (carrier H.B ; table 15)
 Table 15 indicate solar heat gain through ordinary glass based on the following features.
 Glass area equal 85% of sash area.
 No haze in air
 Sea level elevtion
 At sea level dew point temperaure of 66.8 F (95 F DB,75 F WB).
 Heat gain through glass due to temperature differeience between out door and indoor
temperature cn be predicted from the following formula
Q = A * U * ΔT
Where
Q= Amount of heat produced due to heat transmission through glass (BTU/HR)
U = Transmission coefficient of glass (carrier H.B;table33)
A = glass Area
ΔT =temperature diffiereince between otdoor and inside door.
 Heat gain through exterior surafec (wall ,and roof ) is caused by solar heat being
absorbed at the exterior surafe and the teperature diffecrance between out door
and indoor .
 Flow through exterior surface is unsteady due to 2 both sources are highly variable
throuout any one day.so amount of heat with varible solar radiation and outdoor
temperature can be easily handled with quivelat temperature difference.
 The equation can be ued to predict amount of heat through exterior structure.
Q = A * U * ΔTequivalent
Where
Q = Amount of heat produced due to heat transmission through wall
Chapter:2
U = Transmission coefficient of Wall (carrier H.B;tables 21,22,23,24,27,28)

ΔTequivalenT = Equivalent temp difference (carrier H.B; table19,20)+Correction factor (carrier
H.B; table 20A)
33
2.3.1 Heat gain through Floor
Chapter:2
34
Chapter:2
35
 Heat gain through Floor, Paptions, Ceiling can be predicted from following formula
based on actual temperature differeince.
Q = A * U * ΔT
Where
Q = Amount of heat produced due to heat transmission through floor, partion,

and ceiling (BTU/HR)
A = Area of through floor, part ion, and ceiling.
U = Transmission coefficient (carrier H.B;table25,25,)
ΔT = 0 or 5 when your neighbour hood space was conditioned .
(To-10) Ti when your neighbour hood space was not conditioned
(To- – Ti) when your neighbour hood space was not conditioned , and very hot .
 Heat gain through basememt walls and floors below the groung level.
Ground is very good sink that can absorb or lose large amount of heat without any
appreicaple chage in temperature at about 8 ft level.above 8 ft level th groung
temperature varies with the outdoor temperature, with greatest variation at groung
surfce and decreased down to 8 ft depth.it is diffiult to calculate heat loss through
basement walls and floors due totemperature varies with depth.Table 35through 37
carrier H.B have been empirically calculated to simplify the evaluation of heat throuhg
Chapter:2
basement wall and floors
36
2.4 Thermal load due to ventilation.
 Outdoor air is often used to dilute or remove

contaminants from the indoor air. is called
ventilation. This outdoor air must often be
cooled and dehumidified before it can be
delivered to the space, creating an additional
load on the air-conditioning equipment.
 It is common to introduce outdoor air through

the HVAC system, not only to meet the
ventilation needs, but also to maintain a
positive pressure (relative to the outdoors)
within the building. This positive pressure
reduces, or may even eliminate, the infiltration
of unconditioned air from outdoors. To
pressurize the building, the amount of
outdoor air brought in for ventilation must be
greater than the amount of air exhausted
through central and local Exhaust fans.
Chapter:2
37
 The equations used to calculate the required quantity of outdoor air involve
Ventilation airflow = number of person X cfm/person

Ventilation airflow = area( )X cfm/
 The sensible and latent loads from ventilation can be predicted byusing the following
equations.
QS = CFM X 1.08 * (To-Ti) BTU/HR

QL= CFMX0.68 ( (Gr/Ib)o – (Gr/Ib)i ) BTU/HR
3 systems
Chapter:2
38
3.1 general
 air system name

 equipment type
 Refrigeration Equipment
 There is two type of Refrigeration cycle, can be vapor compression cycle or

absorption. In this section will focus on refrigeration equipment based on vapor
compression cycle.
 Refrigeration equipment is used to transfer heat from a cooler place to a warmer
place. In the domestic refrigerator, the refrigeration equipment absorbs heat from
inside the refrigerator and discharges heat into the house. On a much larger scale,
refrigeration machines are used to chill water that is then pumped around buildings
to provide cooling in air-conditioning systems. The heat removed from the water is
expelled into the atmosphere through a hot, air-cooled coil, or by evaporating water
in a cooling tower. The domestic refrigerator and most other refrigeration systems
use the same basic process of vapor compression and expansion.
Chapter:2
39
 The vapor compression refrigeration system comprises four components:

Compressor, Condenser, Expansion valve, and Evaporator. Figure (2) shows the
arrangement.
 Compressor—which compresses refrigerant vapor to a high pressure, making it hot in

the process.
 Condenser—in which air or water cooling reduces the temperature of the refrigerant
sufficiently to cause it to condense into liquid refrigerant and give up its latent heat
of evaporation.
 Expansion valve—which allows a controlled amount of the liquid refrigerant to flow
through into the low-pressure section of the circuit.
 Evaporator—in which air or water heats the liquid refrigerant so that it evaporates
(boils) back into a vapor as it absorbs its latent heat of evaporation.
Fig (2) .Basic Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle.
 Refrigeration Equipment can be classified to various types under various categories as

follow.
 According liquid of refrigerant inside the evaporator.

 According to the medium used to cooling the refrigerant Inside at the condenser.
Chapter:2
40
3.2 system components.
 ventilation air .
 central cooling.
Chapter:2
41
 supply fan
 duct system.
Chapter:2
42
 return fan.
Chapter:2
43
3.3 zone components.
 spaces.
 thermostate.
Chapter:2
44
 supply terminal.
4 Terminal unit data
Chapter:2
45
 sizing data
Chapter:2
46
Chapter:2
47
Chapter 3-system selection and air distribution
Contents
 1 -System Choice.
 2 System Performance Requirements.
 3 Decision Factors for Choosing Units.
 4 DX Refrigeration Equipment.
 5. Air Distribution System.
 6 Supply and return air system layout.

Tasmem Fundamentals of HVAC Systems
Nosier And partners sys selection and air distribution
Chapter 3-system selection and air distribution

1 System Choice
 The first step in making a choice is to calculate the system loads and establish the
number and size of the zones. Understanding of the loads may eliminate some systems
from consideration. For example in warm climates where heating is not required only
systems providing cooling need be considered. Also there are several factors have great
effects on system selection as:
 Building Design: The design of the building has a major influence on system choice.
Location Issues: The building location determines the weather conditions that will affect
the building and its Occupants. For the specific location we will need to consider factors
like: peak summer cooling conditions-summer humidity-peak winter heating conditions-
wind speed sunshine hours-typical snow accumulation depths.
 Utilities: Availability and Cost: The choice of system can be heavily influenced by
available utilities and their costs to supply and use. The cost of electricity may be very
high at peak periods, encouraging the design of an electrically efficient system with low
peak-demand for electricity.
 Indoor Requirements and Loads: The location effects and indoor requirements provide
all the necessary information for load calculation for the systems. The thermal and
moisture loads: Occupants’ requirements and heat output from lighting and equipment
affect the demands on the air-conditioning system.
 Outside ventilation air: The occupants and other polluting sources, such as cooking, will
determine the requirements. Zoning: The indoor arrangement of spaces and uses will
determine if, and how, the system is to be zoned.
 Client Issues: Buildings cost money to construct and to use. Therefore, the designer has
to consider the clients 'requirements both for construction and for in-use costs. For
example, the available construction finances may dictate a very simple system.
Alternatively, the client may wish to finance a very sophisticated and more expensive
system to achieve superior performance, or to reduce in-use costs.
2 System Performance Requirements
 Before choosing a system, you need an understanding of the types of loads you want the
system to manage. Typically, the summer cooling-loads will be the main determinant of
the choice of unit. The heating loads are usually easily dealt with by choosing a suitable
heater to go with the chosen unit. The summer loads, though, will be dependent on
Chapter: 3
several, somewhat interrelated factors:

 Outside summer design temperature. This affects the cooling load in three ways:
Interior load-Outside air temperature-Effectiveness of the refrigeration system.
48
 Outside summer design humidity. The outside design humidity will be a factor in the
ventilation air load and the removal of moisture from any air that leaks into the building.
 Inside summer design temperature and humidity. The warmer and damper the inside is
allowed to be, the smaller the difference between inside and outside, hence the lower
the load on the system. This is particularly important when you are making system
choices.
 Inside summer generation of heat and moisture. These will be added to the building
loads to establish the total loads on the system.
 Summer ventilation requirements. The higher the ventilation requirements, the greater
the load due to cooling and dehumidifying the outside air that is brought in.
3 Decision Factors for Choosing Units
 The initial cost to purchase and install versus the ongoing cost of operation and
maintenance.
 Load versus capacity.
Loads: are the calculated building requirements.
Capacity: is the plant Equipment’s ability to handle the load.
4 DX Refrigeration Equipment
4.1 Refrigeration equipment principle of operation.
 Refrigeration equipment is used to transfer heat from a cooler place to a warmer place.
In the domestic refrigerator, the refrigeration equipment absorbs heat from inside the
refrigerator and discharges heat into the house. On a much larger scale, refrigeration
machines are used to chill water that is then pumped around buildings to provide cooling
in air-conditioning systems.
 The heat removed from the water is expelled into the atmosphere through a hot, air-
cooled coil, or by evaporating water in a cooling tower. The domestic refrigerator and
most other refrigeration systems use the same basic process of vapor compression and
expansion.
 The vapor compression refrigeration system comprises four components: Compressor,

Condenser, Expansion valve, and Evaporator. Figure (1) shows the arrangement.
Chapter: 3
49
Fig (1).refrigeration cycle arrangement.
 Compressor—which compresses refrigerant vapor to a high pressure, making it hot in

the process.
 Condenser—in which air or water cooling reduces the temperature of the refrigerant
sufficiently to cause it to condense into liquid refrigerant and give up its latent heat of
evaporation.
 Expansion valve—which allows a controlled amount of the liquid refrigerant to flow
through into the low-pressure section of the circuit.
 Evaporator—in which air or water heats the liquid refrigerant so that it evaporates
(boils) back into a vapor as it absorbs its latent heat of evaporation.
 As the refrigerant flows round and round the circuit, it picks up enthalpy, heat, at the
evaporator and more heat as it is compressed in the compressor. The sum of the
evaporator and compressor enthalpy is rejected from the condenser. The system
effectiveness is higher, the greater the ratio of evaporator enthalpy to compressor
enthalpy. One wants the most heat transferred for the least compressor work. The
enthalpy flow into and out of the refrigerant is shown in Figure (2).
Chapter: 3
50
Fig (2).Enthalpy Flow in Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle.
4.2 DX air cooled refrigeration equipment types.
4.2.1 Split units.
 In the split system, the compressor condenser part of the refrigeration system is chosen
separately from the rest of the system and connected by the refrigerant lines to the air
system, which includes the evaporator. The pipes, even with their insulation, are only
inches in diameter, compared to ducts that are, typically, feet in diameter. The
separation of the two parts of the refrigeration system to produce the split system is
diagrammed in Figure (3). The system can range in size from the small residential
systems where the inside coil is mounted on the furnace air outlet to substantial
commercial units serving a building.
 The split system allows the designer a much greater choice of performance. The other
main advantage of the split system is that it allows the air handling part of the unit to be
indoors, where it is easier to maintain and does not need to be weatherproofed. The
noise of the compressor is outside and can be located at some distance from the air-
handling unit.
Chapter: 3
51
Fig (3).split system.
4.2.2 Package units.
 Window air conditioner:
 Figure (4) shows the refrigeration circuit with a box around it. The evaporator fan
draws room air over the evaporator coil to cool it. The condenser is outside and the
condenser fan draws outside air over the condenser coil to reject heat into the
outside air.
 The capacity of the unit is highest when the inside and outside temperatures are
close to each other. The refrigerator and the window air conditioner have air flowing
across both the evaporator and condenser to achieve heat transfer. Many systems
use water as an intermediate heat-transfer medium. The evaporator coil can be in a
water-filled shell to produce chilled water. This chilled water can then be piped
around the building, or even from building to building, to provide cooling as and
where it is needed. Water can also be used on the condenser side of the refrigeration
system, here the condenser heats the water, which is generally then pumped to one
or more cooling towers.
 Heat Pump: There are times when the reverse process is valuable, if the outside
temperature is not too cold, one could install a window air conditioner back-to-front.
Then, it would cool outside and warm inside. The total heat rejected to the inside
would be the sum of the electrical energy put into the compressor, plus heat
absorbed from the outside air. It would be pumping the heat into the space – hence
we call it a heat pump.
Chapter: 3
52
Figure (4). Window Air Conditioner.
 Rooftop Units.
 Atypical rooftop system is diagrammed in Figure (5). The return air is drawn up into
the base of the unit and the supply air is blown vertically down from the bottom of
the unit into the space below. As an alternative, the ducts can project from the end
of the unit to run across the roof before entering the building.
 The major advantages of rooftop units are:
 No working parts in the occupied space—so maintenance can be carried out without
disrupting activities.
 No space is built for the unit—which saves construction costs.
 No delay for detailed manufacturer design work—because the unit is pre-designed.
 No wide access during construction—because the unit is outside the building
envelope, the contractor does not have to keep an access available for the unit to be
moved in during construction.
 The disadvantages of rooftop units are:
 Critical units must be maintained regardless of the weather conditions—that means

that maintenance could be required in heavy rain, snow, or high winds.
 Choice of performance is limited to the available set of components—this is often
Chapter: 3
not enough of a problem to make the unit unacceptable, and can frequently be
overcome by using a split unit.
53
Figure (5).Rooftop Unit.
5 Air Distribution System.
5.1 Principle of air distribution system.
 The purpose of air distribution system is to create the proper combination of

temperature, humidity and air velocity in the occupied zone of the conditioned room.
Figure (6) indicates occupied zone boundary.
Chapter: 3
Fig (6).occupied zone boundary.
54
 If not properly designed, the air distribution system has the potential to compromise the
comfort conditions it was designed to maintain.
5.1.1 Successful Design Achieves:
 Good ventilation effectiveness.

 Avoids dumping.
 Avoids draft ( Koestel, Tuve and Reinmannn studied the effect of air motion in the
1950’s, measuring the warmth or coolness of a draft above or below a room temperature
of 76°F at 30 inches above the floor at room center, with air velocity at 30 fpm. They
defined “draft” as: Any localized feeling of coolness or warmth of any portion of the
body due to both air movement and temperature, with humidity and radiation
considered constant).
5.1.2 Impact of draft on comfort.
Fig (7). Effect of draft on comfort.

Chapter: 3
55
5.1.3 Percentage of Occupants Objecting to Drafts.
Fig (8).comfort chart "with ADPI parallelogram.

Chapter: 3
56
5.1.4 Effective Draft Temperature.
 The physiological effects on a human body due to air temperature & air motion can be
described by Effective Draft Temperature (the difference in temperature between any
point in the occupied zone and the control condition). E.D.T. can be quantified as:
𝛉= ) - ( -a( -b)
5.2 Room Air Distribution Methods
 Displacement Ventilation.
 Localized Ventilation.
 Mixing Systems.
5.3 Outlet Classification
 Group A. Outlets mounted in or near the ceiling that discharge air horizontally.
 Group B. Outlets mounted in or near the floor that discharge air vertically in a non-
spreading jet.
 Group C. Outlets mounted in or near the floor that discharge air vertically in a spreading
jet.
 Group D. Outlets mounted in or near the floor that discharge air horizontally.
 Group E. Outlets mounted in or near the ceiling that project primary air vertically.
Chapter: 3
57
5.3.1 Terminology
 Throw: Is the distance from out let device to appoint in the air stream cross section has
been reduced to a selected terminal velocity (50 FPM terminal air velocity except in
case of ceiling slot diffusers where terminal air velocity selected as 100
fpm).table(1)shown occupied zone room air.
Table (1).shown occupied zone room air.
 Diffuser: A diffuser generally refers to ceiling mounted air delivery devices, which
“diffuse” the supply air along the ceiling and induce the room air from below. Diffusers
provide good mixing of supply air with room air and minimize and integrate well
theoretically. Diffusers are intended for ceiling installation and are available in many
shapes, sizes, styles, finishes, and capacities. In many buildings the only portions of an
HVAC system seen by occupants on a day-by-day basis are the supply diffusers and
return air registers or grilles There are however certain other types of ceiling elements
such as the jet nozzle and the laminar flow panel which are termed diffusers but
actually have the aerodynamic characteristics of grilles. To maintain architectural
continuity diffusers can also be used as extraction terminals.
 Register: Registers are similar to diffusers except that they are designed and used for
floor or sidewall air supply applications, or as return air inlets.
 Grille: Grilles are simply decorative covers for return air inlets; they are used to block
sightlines so that occupants cannot see directly into return air openings. A grille is
Chapter: 3
different from a register in that it usually doesn’t have a volume control damper.
58
 Damper: Air dampers are used in conjunction with grilles and diffusers to provide a
means of balancing or regulating the air flowing through the terminal. Various types are
available to suit round, square, or rectangular terminal necks.
 Plenums and Neck reducers: These are used as a means of conveying air from the
system ducting to the grille or diffuser and are essentially sheet steel shrouds attached
to the neck of the delivery device. Many different designs of air diffusers/terminal
devices exist; however linear, circular and square diffusers are most common overhead
displacement systems.
 characteristic room length: Is distance from outlet device to the nearest boundary wall
in the principle of horizontal direction of the air flow however where air injected into
the room does not impinge on a wall surface but mixes with air from neighboring
outlet, the characteristic length is one half the distance between outlets, plus the
distance the mixed jets must travel down ward to reach the occupied zone. Table (2)
summarizes definitions of characteristics length for various devices.
Table (2) .characteristic room length for diffusers.

Chapter: 3
59
5.3.2 Group A Grilles, And Diffuser
 A diffuser
 Normally has profiled blades to direct the air at an angle as it leaves the unit into the
space as shown in figure (9). There are various types of diffusers as: Square, rectangular,
and round ceiling diffuser, linear slot, jet perforated diffuser.
 Square, rectangular, and round ceiling diffuser can be constructed with or without
volume control damper as shown in figures (10).
 Square, rectangular, and round ceiling diffusers are used for supply, and exhaust in
ventilation and air conditioning systems.
Fig (9).one, two, three, four square ceiling diffuser.

Chapter: 3
60
Fig (10). Square ceiling diffuser with or without volume control damper, and round ceiling
diffuser with volume control damper.
 Plenum Box designed for Square Ceiling Diffusers is suitable for supply and ducted return
&exhaust air systems as shown in figure (11).
Chapter: 3
61
Fig (11). Square ceiling diffuser with plenum box.
 Linear slot Diffuser has been designed to maintain a high quality of air diffusion in
occupied spaces. The SD series can be used for supply, return and exhaust air
applications. Air flow pattern can be controlled from Air Deflectors as shown in figure
(12) two air deflectors are provided in each slot, which can be set to provide a
horizontal or vertical air diffusion patterns. Also LSD can have different assemblies as
shown in figure (13).
Chapter: 3
Fig (12).air flow pattern of linear slot diffuser.
62
Chapter: 3
Fig (13).linear slot diffuser assemblies.
63
 Jet Diffuser: An outlet velocity of about 3-5 m/s is available from jet diffusers. An
example of this type of ventilation is used in Usher Hall Edinburgh where 65 jet
diffusers are installed; each handling 280 liters/s at an outlet velocity of approximately 3
m/s. Because of their aerodynamic design jet diffusers give a long throw even at high
outlet volumes. In some diffusers the jet can be adjusted over 360  as these jets
handle different supply temperatures the jet can be oriented upwards or downwards
for heating or cooling mode. This can be achieved by hand or by electric motor figure
(14).
Fig (14).jet diffuser types.
 The diagram below figure (15) shows a sizing diagram and photo of a jet diffuser.
Chapter: 3
64
Fig (15).jet diffuser sizing diagram.
 Perforated Diffuser: are suitable for installation in 600mm ceiling tiles. The face plate
may be pivoted down to gain access. The diffusers are constructed from aluminium or
stainless steel the flat face plates are perforated, this means that they are easily
cleaned and are used in some kitchens as shown in figure (16).
Chapter: 3
Fig (16).Perforated plenum ceiling diffuser.
65
 Swirl diffuser: High turbulence occurs immediately within the proximity of the diffuser,
which allows high air change rates to be successfully supplied into the room. With
careful selection swirl diffusers can handle up to 30 air changes per hour while still
satisfying relevant comfort criteria figure (17).
Fig (17).Swirl diffuser diffuser configuration.
 Floor Outlet Diffuser: There is an advantage in supplying cool air conditioned air at low
level. This can be achieved by floor outlets. Floor diffusers are also useful in areas with
raised floors so that ductwork can be accommodated under the floor. Another area for
floor outlets is under large areas of glass so that condensation and cold down draughts
are eliminated figure (18).
Chapter: 3
66
Fig (18).Floor Outlet Diffuser.
 Punkah Diffuser: Used to give flexible air direction, sometimes in the back of seats so
that occupants have control over flow and direction of air figure (19).
Fig (19).Punkah Diffuser.

Chapter: 3
67
 Supply , return air grilles and Registers
 They have been designed for residential, commercial and industrial buildings
application. This type of outlets can be installed in high sidewalls and ceiling. If exposed
air duct is required it can be fixed directly to duct collars either for horizontal or vertical
airflow. It is suitable for cooling, heating and ventilation applications. It can handle a
wide range of airflows at high temperature differentials and maintain a high quality of
air diffusion in occupied spaces figure (20).
Fig (20).supply and return air grille configuration, ad fixing detail.

Chapter: 3
68
 Transfer Grille: These are often used in doors and walls or partition transfer grilles
where cold air or return air can be transferred to the adjacent room. In case of fire and
smoke to stop the spread of smoke damper is incorporated in some Transfer grilles as
a means of isolation in the event of a fire. The frame and blades construction were
designed to match the interior architectural design of any occupied rooms as shown in
figure (21).
Fig (21).transfer air grille.
 Linear bar grille: The LBG Series supply linear bar grilles has been designed for
residential, commercial and industrial buildings application. This type of outlets can be
installed directly in sidewalls or in plenum box. If exposed air duct is required it can be
fixed directly to duct collars. It is suitable for cooling, heating and ventilation
applications. It can handle a wide range of airflows at high temperature differentials
and maintain a high quality of air diffusion in occupied spaces as shown in figure (22).
Chapter: 3
69
Fig (22).linear bar grille with, without volume damper, and fixing details.
 Valves: Valves are used where the air flow needs to be regulated or throttled and are
suitable for supply and exhaust applications figure (23)
Fig (23).valves.
Chapter: 3
70
5.3.3 Blade effects.
 Blades affect grille performance if the blade depth is least equal the distance between
The blades if the blade ration is less than one, effective control of the air stream
discharged from the grille by means of the blade is impossible .increasing blade ratio
more than two has little or no effects, so blade ratios should be between one and two.
 A grille discharge air uniformly forward (blade in straight position )has a spread angle in
range 14 to 24 depending on the type of air outlet ,duct approach, discharge velocity
.turning blades influence the direction and throw of the discharged air stream as shown
in figure (24).
 With Converging Vanes: result in approximately the same spread (19°) as when the vanes
are set straight. However, the resulting approximately 15% longer throw than the straight
vane setting.
 Diverging Vanes: Outlets with vanes set to give an angular spread to the discharge air
have a marked effect on direction and distance of travel. Vertical vanes with the end
vanes set at a 45° angle, and all other vanes set at intermediate angles to give a fanning
effect, produce an air stream with a horizontal included angle of approximately 60°.
Under this condition throw is reduced about 50%.
 To miss an obstruction or to direct the air in a particular direction, all vanes can be set
for a specific angle as illustrated in Fig. 67. Notice that the spread angle is still
approximately 19°.
Chapter: 3
Fig (24). Blade effects on air stream.
71
5.3.4 Recommended neck velocity.
Fig (25).air outlet details.
Chapter: 3
Fig (26).recommended air outlets velocity, and recommended NC
72
 Terminal Velocity: A targeted value of interest – usually 50, 100 or 150 fpm (see previous
table figure (27).occupied zone room air).
Fig (27).terminal air velocity distribution.
5.3.5 Coanda Effect.
 The attachment of a jet flow introduced parallel to a ceiling or other surface. This
“surface” effect creates a lower-pressure region above the jet stream than below it,
causing the higher pressure in the room to hold the airstream to the ceiling figure (28).
Conditions necessary for surface effect include:
 Angle of discharge < 40° from parallel surface.

 A side wall outlet is within one foot of the ceiling.
 A Floor or sill outlet is within 10 inches of a wall.
 A ceiling outlet discharges along the ceiling.
Chapter: 3
73
Fig (28).coanda effect.
5.3.6 Air Diffusion Performance Index.
 ADPI statistically relates the space conditions of local temperatures and velocities to
occupant’s thermal comfort Quantitatively, ADPI is the percentage of locations where
measurements show that the effective draft temperature, q, is between – 3 and +2°F
and the air velocity is less than 70 fpm figure (29).
Chapter: 3
Fig (29).room isodraft.
74
5.3.7 Designing to ADPI Criteria.
 ADPI performance can be predicted based on air outlet “throw” data referenced to
room “characteristic room length” figure (30).
Fig (30).a-ADPI VS T50/L. b – throw vs characteristic room light.
5.3.8 Outlet Selection Steps.
 Determine Air Volume Requirements & Room Size.

 Select diffuser type and location within room.
 Determine room characteristic length, L.
Chapter: 3
75
 Select recommended Tv/L ratio.
 Calculate throw distance by multiplying Tv/L ratio by room characteristic length.

 Locate appropriate outlet size from catalog.
 Check static pressure & noise criteria.
5.3.9 Air terminal distribution example.
Design the diffuser system for the supply and return air conditioning for the room shown
below.
DATA:
Air change rate from Table A3.1 in CIBSE guide B2 (2001) is 6 – 10 ACH. Choose 10 ACH for
this room. The Noise Rating level from Table 1.17 CIBSE guide for Television (Audience
Studio) is 25dB. The throw required is Ceiling height 3.0 minus 0.8m = 2.2 metres. Keep
the pressure drop below 20Pa. Use Waterloo Air cell M Series 4-way diffusers.
Chapter: 3
76
10
Broadcasting
meters
Studio, TV
Audience
6
meters
Ceiling height =
PLAN
3.0 m
 Answer.
 Calculate ventilation rate for room in litres / second.
Ventilation rate (m3/h) = Air Change Rate (/h) x Room Volume (m3)
Ventilation rate (m3/h) = 10 ACH x 10 x 6 x 3
Ventilation rate (m3/h) = 10 ACH x 180 m3.
Ventilation rate (m3/h) = 1800 m3/h
Ventilation rate (m3/s) = Ventilation rate (m3/h) / 3600
Ventilation rate (m3/s) = 1800 m3/h / 3600
Ventilation rate (m3/s) = 0.5 m3/s
Ventilation rate (l/s) = Ventilation rate (m3/3) x 1000
Ventilation rate (l/s) = 0.5 m3/s x 1000 =500l/s
 Look at Waterloo catalogue and choose suitable sizes of diffusers to provide air into the
room and meet the design criteria. The design criteria are; Throw 2.2m, NR 25 and 20Pa.
If two diffusers are used each flow rate is; 500 /2 = 250 l/s From the sizing chart below
for a flow rate of 270 l/s, an M450/M500 gives 2.5m throw, 33NR, 33 Pa. This is too noisy
with too much pressure drop.
Chapter: 3
77
 500 / 3 =167 l/s If three diffusers are From the sizing chart below for a flow rate
of 180 l/s, an M450/M500 gives 2.0m. Throw, 23NR, 15 Pa. This is good; the
throw is just slightly less than 2.3m. From the sizing chart below for a flow rate of 135
l/s, an M450/M500 gives 1.5m throw, - NR, 9 Pa. The throw is not enough but the
other criteria are met. On the basis of the above data three M450/M500 diffusers are
chosen.
 The final diffuser layout should consider ceiling layout and lighting layout. If ceiling tiles
are used the diffusers position will be determined by the tile grid pattern. Careful co-
ordination is required to install all the equipment into modern ceilings including
warning devices and other service.
6 Supply and return air system layout.
 When designing ventilation systems it must be remembered that since most of the
ductwork is installed within ceiling spaces, it is a good idea to liaise closely with the
Architect at the early stages of design so that space requirements are met.
 Figure (31) shows a typical air conditioning system layout. One method, which can be
adopted, is to run main supply and return ductwork in the ceiling space above corridors
and the branches into adjoining rooms. Ceiling heights in corridors may be lowered to
accommodate larger ductwork. Or supply duct work run in the ceiling space and air
return to air conditioning equipment from return air outlets into ceiling space into the
equipment without using return air duct.
Chapter: 3
78
Chapter: 3
Fig (31). A typical air conditioning system layout.
79
 It is common practice to use flexible ductwork to grilles and diffusers. These have
several advantages; sharp bends are eliminated, flexible ductwork has better sound
adsorption qualities compared to sheet metal, it is easier to install especially in a
congested area and it allows more freedom in positioning the grille or diffuser.
 A plenum box can be used to connect the ductwork system to the grille or diffuser. This
has a larger cross sectional area than the connecting duct and reduces the air velocity
before it enters the diffuser thus giving better air distribution over total diffuser area. A
less expensive method is to use diffusers with factory-fitted square or round necks,
which can be fitted directly to the flexible duct connection.
 Each grille or diffuser should have a damper to regulate flow of air. This damper can be
an opposed blade type incorporated within the diffuser or a butterfly volume control
damper (VCD) positioned in the branch duct. All dampers require access as shown in the
figure (32).
Fig (32). Different types of duct layout construction. Chapter: 3
80
6.1 Duct layout sizing
 After calculation amount of CFM required carrying T.R required for conditioning the
space, distribute this CFM according to number of air outlets used, and distribute the
air outlets in space as described in previous paragraphs. The final step is drawing the
air duct pass that transfer to each air outlet it is amount of CFM, and determine air
duct size. Their several methods used to calculate air duct size:
 Duct reduction method

 Equal friction method
 Static regain method
 The common method used is equal friction method, and will be concerned by this
method and how used for air duct sizing.
 Equal friction method procedures.
 Determine total amount of CFM flow through main duct figure (33).
 Determine max recommended air velocity through main duct according to work
application. Table(2) show max recommended velocity in main duct.
Fig (33).duct layout nomenclature.

Chapter: 3
81
Table (2).Max duct velocity
 After specify total CFM, and max duct velocity through main duct, then enter the
following Equal Friction Chart and specify the friction loss (IN. WG PER 100 FT OF
EQUIVALENT LENGTH).
 Take value of friction loss for all headers branches equal to value of friction loss
determined for main duct.
 By knowing value of friction loss and amount of CFM pass through each branch and
header .can determine their sizes from Equal Friction Chart.
Chapter: 3
82
Chapter: 3
Chart) 1(.friction loss for round duct.
83
 The equivalent round diameters determined from equal friction chart used to select the
rectangular duct sizes from (carrier hand book: Table 6).
 One of the important factors in duct design is aspect ratio (aspect ratio = long side /short
side). It is, therefore, good practice to design the duct system for low aspect ratios
because increasing aspect ratio causes increasing duct heat gain ,and duct material, so
increasing aspect ratio lead to increase in both installed and operating cost of the system
the following chart indicate relation between installed cost vs. aspect ratio figure () .
Fig (34).aspect ratio versus heat gain, and installed cost
6.2 Duct gauge

Chapter: 3
84
6.3 Duct test
6.4 Duct insulation
 Material used for duct insulation is fiber glass, and Adhesive material like glue used to
stick the fiberglass with the duct to prevent presence any gap between duct and duct
insulation that may be sources of heat dissipation to duct and water vapor.
 For insure attachment between duct and duct insulation yellow plastic belts are used,
and distance between each belt about 30 cm.
 Duct fiber glass insulation cover with external aluminum foil
 Duct insulation thickness is 1"at when the duct passes at conditioned spaces and
2"when the duct passes at unconditioned spaces.
 For the duct pass at parts exposed to the sun outside the building ducts at this parts
covered with cladding(cladding is duct made from saj it is thickness about 0.5mm)to
protect the duct from rains and any other factors cases duct insulation destroys
.sometimes the cladding replaced with and painted by foster marital.
6.5 Duct installation &support
 At the connection between duct and any mechanical equipment, canvas must be used
prevent vibration transfer from the equipment to the duct. Also canvas must be
installed at building structural separation.
 Distance between each duct support according to smacna code as in the following
table.
Chapter: 3
85
Table (3).standard duct supports distance
6.6 Sound insulation
 With air handling unit: air plenum insulated with arm flex inside the air plenum for
sound insulation. And the duct insulated for 3m internally after air plenum. In case of air
plenum not used duct insulated 5 m internally figure (35).
Fig (35).H vac equipment sound insulation

Chapter: 3
86
 At spaces required more silence sound attenuators are used .they are installed at supply
and return duct. As shown in figure (33).
Fig (36).sound attenuators.
Chapter: 3
87
Chapter4-Ventilation Systems
Contents
 1 Introduction.
 2 Purposes of Ventilation.
 3 Ventilation Calculations.
 4 Ventilation Systems.
 5 Mechanical ventilation equipment.
 6 Ventilation design Methodology.

Nosier And partners Ventilation systems
Chapter4-Ventilation Systems
1 Introduction
 In this chapter, we will be discussing an important factor which is Indoor Air Quality,
IAQ. The maintenance of indoor air quality (IAQ) is one of the major objectives of air-
conditioning systems because IAQ problems are a significant threat to health and
productivity.
1.1 Air Pollutants and Contaminants
 Air pollutants and contaminants are unwanted airborne constituents that may
reduce the acceptability of air. The number and variety of contaminants in the air is
enormous. Some contaminants are brought into the conditioned space from
outside, and some are generated within the space itself. Figure (1) lists some of the
most common indoor air contaminants and their most common sources.
Fig (1).Common Air Contaminants

Chapter: 4
88
 Indoor Air Quality Effects on Health and Comfort: The HVAC designer and building
operator may take different approaches to contaminants that can be detrimental to
health and those that are merely annoying. Although it is the annoying aspects that will
draw immediate attention from the occupants, it is the health affecting contaminants
that are of the utmost short and long term importance. It is useful to think of
contaminants in terms of the following classes of effect:
 Fatal in the short term: (These include airborne chemical substances, such as carbon
monoxide, or disease-causing bacteria and other biological contaminants.
Legionella).
 Carcinogenic (cancer causing substances).
 Health threatening (such as allergens, volatile organic compounds, bacteria, viruses,
mold Spores, ozone and particulates).
 Annoying, with an impact on productivity and sense of well-being.
 Controlling Indoor Air Quality
 Maintaining acceptable IAQ depends on the judicious use of three methods:
 Source Control: The most important method of maintaining acceptable indoor air
quality is by controlling sources of contaminants and pollutants. Sources can be
controlled by restricting their access to the space, either by design or by appropriate
maintenance procedures, and by exhausting pollutants that are generated within the
space.
 Filtration: Filtration is the removal of contaminants from the air. Both particulate
(particles of all sizes) and gaseous contaminants can be removed; Particulate filters
work by having the particles trapped by, or adheres to, the filter medium. The actual
performance of a filter depends on several factors, including particle size, air velocity
through the filter medium, filter material and density, and dirt buildup on the filter.
Figure (2) shows a sample of particles and their range of size.
Chapter: 4
Fig (2).Particle Diameter, Microns (millionths of a meter)
89
a new standard was introduced, ASHRAE 52.2-1999 Method for Testing General
Ventilation Air-Cleaning Devices for the Removal Efficiency by Particle Size5. It is
based on using a particle counter to count the number of particles in twelve
different size fractions. This data is used to classify a filter into one of 20 “Minimum
Efficiency Reporting Values” called MERV. The least efficient filter is MERV 1 and
the most efficient, MERV 20. Figure (3) shows typical filters with their range of
performance and typical applications. And the three main factors control filter
characteristics: Efficiency in removing dust particles of varying sizes, Resistance to
airflow, and Dust-holding capacity.
Fig (3).Basic Filter Media Filter Arrangements
 Dilution: In most places the outside air is relatively free of pollutants, other than
large dust particles, birds, and insects. When this air is brought into a space, through
a screen and filter to remove the coarse contaminants, it can be used to dilute any
contaminants in the space. We also need a small supply of outside air to provide us
with oxygen to breathe and to dilute the carbon dioxide we exhale.
2 Purposes of Ventilation
 The purposes of ventilation are:

 To provide a continuous supply of oxygen necessary for human existence.
 To remove contaminants such as:
 Water vapour
 Heat and smells from cooking
 Gases and vapours from industrial processes.
 Formaldehyde from; insulation foam, furnishings, wallpaper, carpets, resin in wood
products and plasterboard.
Chapter: 4
 Outdoor aerosol pollutants such as; smoke, soot, mist, fumes, pollen, plant fibres,
mould spores, viruses and bacteria
 Indoor aerosol pollutants such as; carpet fibres, furniture fibres, clothing fibres, skin
flakes, mites, viruses and bacteria.
90
 In practice most ventilation systems for rooms inhabited by people dilute contaminants
such as Heat and Carbon Dioxide to acceptable limits for short and medium Term
exposure.
3 Ventilation Calculations
 For General Mechanical Ventilation:
Ventilation rate (m3/h = Air Change Rate (/h) x Room Volume (m3)
Ventilation rate (m3/s) = Ventilation rate (m3/h) / 3600
 For Calculating Fresh Air Ventilation Rates:
Fresh Air Rate (m3/s) =Fresh Air rate per person (l/s/p) *number of occupants.
 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality can be calculated according to ASHRAEE
STANDARD 62.
4 Ventilation Systems
4.1 Natural Ventilation Systems

 Natural ventilation is ventilation without the assistance of fans or other mechanical air
moving equipment. Natural ventilation uses no energy or little energy therefore
reduces building running costs. Air moves naturally due to the buoyancy effect when a
temperature difference exists and less dense air rises. This is called the stack effect. Air
also moves unassisted by wind. These effects can be utilised in a building to create a
‘free’ ventilation system that requires no fans. Some systems incorporate fans and are
partially natural ventilation but with a greater degree of control.
4.1.1 Natural ventilation systems in use
 In large buildings where large amounts of air need to be changed in rooms, natural
ventilation can be used if special features are used. Also is commercial building the
ventilation system should be controlled to meet comfort criteria in rooms. This can be
achieved by careful building design and using technology to provide adequate
ventilation. figure (4) shows a building layout that uses the stack effect to increase
natural ventilation.
Chapter: 4
91
Fig (4).a building layout that uses the stack effect to increase natural ventilation.
 Exhaust outlets at roof level can be disguised or

used as a feature of building design as shown
infigure(5). And Low level vents are shown in
figure(6).
Fig (5).Exhaust outlets at roof level.

Chapter: 4
Fig (6).low level opening.
92
 Another natural ventilation system uses the sun to assist air movement. The vertical
shafts in the building are glass fronted so that the sun heats up the air inside and causes
it to rise out the openings at roof level. The high level openings in this case are stainless
steel chimneys. As air flows out of the chimneys at roof level replacement air is drawn
from the rooms into the shaft and thus naturally ventilated as shown in figure (7).
 One of the difficulties with Natural Ventilation is that buildings have to be specially
designed to incorporate features to assist air flow; these features may not look very
good from the inside and outside and are sometimes disguised.
Fig (7).ventilation system with sun assisting the air movement
4.1.2 Effectiveness
 Figure (8) show The effectiveness of natural ventilation for commercial buildings
depends on several criteria. These are wind strength and direction, size of openings, air
temperatures and height of building. For effective controlled ventilation the designer
should not rely solely on the wind but more on the stack effect and air controls.
Dampers can be used to control air entering and/or exiting a natural ventilation system.
These dampers could be linked to occupancy sensors, temperature sensors, time
switches and other weather sensors to give automatic control of ventilation which is
the key to a useful system.
Chapter: 4
93
Fig (8).The features of natural ventilation system for four story buildings
4.1.3 Designing Natural Ventilation Systems
 CIBSE guide Applications Manual AM10 (1997) Natural Ventilation in non-domestic

buildings gives design details. Section 4.2 of AM10 gives details of how to control
Natural ventilation systems. Section 5 gives methods of calculating flow rates for wind
driven and stack effect ventilation.
 Stack Driven Ventilation Calculations: Stack ventilation calculations in the simplest form
ignore wind effects, although these can be allowed for in a more complex analysis. The
pressures developed in stack systems can be determined from the following formula.
where;
Ps = - . g . Tins (h2 – h1) (1/Tout - 1/Tins)
Ps = Stack Effect Pressure (Pa)
= Air density inside stack (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
h1 = Height of inlet of stack above datum (m)
h2 = Height of outlet of stack above datum (m)
Chapter: 4
Tout = Temperature of air outside stack (oK)

Tins = Temperature of air inside stack (oK)
94
 The equation below can be used to determine air flow rates in stack driven ventilation
or the opening areas required.
Q = Cd* A [ ( 2/ )*g * (hnpl – h ) (Tins - Tout / Tins ) ]
where;
Q = Air flow rate through a large opening (m3/s)

Cd = Discharge coefficient (0.61 for large openings)
A = Opening area (m2)
hnpl = Height of neutral pressure level above datum (m)
h = Height of opening above datum (m)
 Neutral Pressure Level
This is where the outside pressure equals the internal pressure. At this level there would
be no flow of air in or out of the building. This is usually high up in a building otherwise the
stack effect would not work. The neutral pressure level for most buildings is about 0.25
metres above the level of the top floor ceiling.
 Temperatures
The internal room temperatures need to be calculated since in summer heat gains elevate
the room temperature. This can be done using software where summertime temperature
can be predicted along with required air flow rates to keep room temperatures to
acceptable levels. The HEVACOMP software package and other programmes may be used.
Outside summer temperatures may be obtained from the CIBSE guide A section 2. It
would seem that the outdoor temperature in summer rarely exceeds 27oC, and if the
temperature does rise above 27oC it is only for a maximum of 4 days in the south of
England and less than one day in the north of the U.K.If a solar chimney is used to assist
stack suction pressure then the temperature inside the stack would have to be altered. It
is important to obtain accurate inside and outside temperatures since this difference
creates the driving force inside the stack or the pressure difference to move air up the
stack to outside.
Chapter: 4
95
 Example 1
 Calculate the ventilation opening area required in a Stack ventilation system for the
building shown below.
Warm extract
air
Outside air
temperature 0.25 2m
25oC Neutral Pressure
m Level 28oC
Lecture Room .. Stack
Fresh air 25oC 2
intake
..
28oC
9m
4m Lecture Room 1 ..
25oC
1
..
Datum
m
 data:
The flow rate required each room is 4 air changes per hour.
Each lecture room measures internally 24 m x 10 m x 4m high.
 answer:
Air flow rate for each room Q = Room volume x Air change rate / 3600
Q = 24 x 10 x 4 x 4 / 3600
Q = 960 x 4 / 3600 = 1.07 m3/s
Rearranging above formula for Area (A) gives;
A = Q/Cd[( 2 / ) *g*(hnpl – h) (Tins - Tout / Tins )]
For Ground floor room;
A = 1.07/0.61[(2/1.1656)1.1656*9.81(9–1)*(301–298/301)
A = 1.07/0.61[ 1.716 *1.1656*9.81*8*0.00997 ]
A = 1.07 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 x 8 ]
A = 1.07 / 0.61 x 1.565
Chapter: 4
A = 1.121 m2.
96
For First floor room; A = 1.07/0.61[(2/1.1656)*1.1656*9.81(9–5)*(301–298/301)

A = 1.07 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 *4 ]
A = 1.07 / 0.61 * 0.782
A = 2.242 m2.
 Note: The upper floor has less stack suction pressure so openings are larger.
 Example 2.
 Calculate the ventilation opening area required and the size of fresh air louvre required
in a Stack ventilation system for the building shown below.
 data:
The flow rate required for the Class room is 10 air changes per hour.
The Class room measures internally 18 m * 10 m * 4m high.
The Fresh air louvre has a 50% free area.
 answer:
Air flow rate for each room Q =Room volume x Air change rate / 3600
Q =18 * 10 * 4 * 10 / 3600
Q =720 * 10 / 3600 = 2.0 m3/s
Chapter: 4
Rearranging above formula for Area (A) gives;

A =Q /Cd[(2/ )* *g*(hnpl–h)(Tins-Tout/Tins)]
A =2.0/0.61[(2/1.1605)1.1605*9.81(8–1)*(299– 296/299)
A =2.0/0.61[1.723*1.1605*9.81*7*0.01003 ]
97
A =2.0 / 0.61 [ 1.377 ]

A =2.0 / 0.84
A =2.38 m2 fresh air area required
The fresh air louvre has a 50% free area so the size of louvre is;
Louvre area=fresh air area / ( percent free area / 100 )
Louvre area=2.38 / ( 50 / 100 )
Louvre area=4.76 m2.
4.2Stack Outlet
 The opening at the top of a stack can be sized in a similar manner to the fresh air inlets.
The height difference in the formula is between the NPL and the stack outlet.The flow
through the stack outlet is the sum of all the flows through the rooms in a building
feeding the stack.
AOutlet =QTotal/Cd[(2/ ) *g*(h–hnpl)*(Tins-Tout/Tins)]
where;
QTotal = Total air flow rate through stack (m3/s)

AOutlet = Stack outlet area (m2)
hnpl = Height of neutral pressure level above datum (m)
h = Height of stack outlet above datum (m)
= Discharge coefficient (0.61 for large openings)
Chapter: 4
98
 Example 3:
 Calculate the stack outlet opening area required in the system given in Example 1.
 data:
The flow rate required each room is 4 air changes per hour.
Each lecture room measures internally 24 m * 10 m * 4m high.
 answer:
Air flow rate for each room Q =1.07 m3/s (Already Calculated in Ex.1)
Total air flow rate QTotal =1.07 x 2 = 2.14 m3/s
AOutlet =QTotal/Cd[(2/ ) )*g*(h–hnpl)*(Tins-Tout/Tins)]

A=2.14 /0.61[( 2/1.1656)1.1656*9.81(11– 9)( 301–298/301)
A =2.14/0.61[ 1.716 * 1.1656 * 9.81 * 2 * 0.00997 ]
A =2.14 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 x 2 ]
A =2.14 / 0.61 * 0.391
A =8.97 m2.
4.1.4 Fittings Pressure Drop
In a rigorous analysis of a stack ventilation system the pressure drop from fittings such as
Chapter: 4
intake and exhaust louvres should not exceed the driving pressure from the stack and the
stack pressure drop. The driving pressure (dPs) can be found from the formula at the
beginning of this section and the pressure drop from the stack and fittings can be
determined by the normal method for ductwork fittings.
99
4.1.5 Using Curves for Q/A
 curves as shown in figure (9) may be used to calculate air flow rates if the areas of
openings are known.
Chapter: 4
Fig (9).a-stack driven design for summer conditions,b-stack driven design for winter
condition
100
 Example 4:
Size the fresh air intake and shaft outlet openings for the building shown below.
 Use the formulae given below to calculate the openings based on summer
temperatures and compare this with the results given in Figure 5.3 given in the text.
 Use cures figure to estimate winter opening areas required for spring and winter
conditions.
 Calculate air velocity rates at fresh air intakes in summer and winter.
 data:
The rooms measure 12 m * 12 m * 4m high.
Occupancy=60 people
 Summertime:
The flow rate required for each Office is 8 air changes per hour in summer.
This is to reduce internal temperature rise due to heat gains.
 Spring & Winter:

Chapter: 4
The flow rate required for each Office is 3 air changes per hour.
This is to supply occupants with sufficient fresh air calculated as follows;
8 l/s/person x 60 people = 480 l/s = 0.48 m3/s = 1728 m3/h
Room volume 576 m3 = 3 AC/h
The inside and outside spring temperatures are 10oC and 0oC respectively.
101
The inside and outside winter temperatures are 21oC and 0oC respectively.
 ansswer(a):
Air flow rate for each room Q = Room volume x Air change rate / 3600
Q = 12 * 12 * 4 * 8 / 3600
Q = 576 * 8 / 3600 = 1.28 m3/s
 Fresh Air Openings:
For Ground floor room;

A = 1.28/0.61[(2/1.1656)1.1656*9.81(14– 2)(301–298/301)
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ 1.716 * 1.1656 * 9.81 * 12 * 0.00997 ]
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 * 12 ]
A = 1.28 / 0.61 * 2.347 = 0.89 m2.
For First floor room;
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 * (14 – 6 ) ]
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 * 8 ]
A = 1.28 / 0.61 * 1.565
A = 1.34 m2.
For Second floor room;
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 (14 – 10 ) ]
A = 1.28 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 * 4 ]
A = 1.28 / 0.61 * 0.782
A = 2.68 m2.
 Stack Outlet Opening:
Air flow rate for each room Q = 1.28 m3/s

Total air flow rate QTotal = 1.28 * 3 = 3.84 m3/s
A = 3.84 / 0.61 [( 2/ 1.1656)1.1656* 9.81(16–14) ( 301 – 298 / 301 )

A = 3.84 / 0.61 [ 1.716 * 1.1656 * 9.81 * 2 * 0.00997 ]
A = 3.84 / 0.61 [ 0.19557 * 2 ]
A = 3.84 / 0.61 * 0.391
A = 3.84 / 0.2385
A = 16.1 m2.
A table (1) drawn to accommodate data for summer timeInside to outside temperature
difference =28oC - 25oC = 3deg.C
Chapter: 4
102
Air flow Area (A) by Q/A from graph

Area by Graph
Building Level rate (Q) Calculation below A/Q
= A/Q x Q (m2)
(m3/s) (m2) (m3/s/m2)
Ground floor fresh air

1.28 0.89 0.92 1.087 1.39
opening
First floor fresh air

1.28 1.34 0.77 1.299 1.66
opening
Second floor fresh air

1.28 2.68 0.55 1.818 2.33
opening
Stack outlet 3.84 16.10 0.37 2.703 10.38
Table(1).for summer conditions
Height from VALUE

opening to
npl
G-FLOOR 12
F-FLOOR 8
S-FLOOR 4
STACK 2
OUTLET
Chapter: 4
103
 answer (b):table(2) drawn for spring and winter conditions:
0.48 m3/s = The air flow rate from DATA

10deg.C = 10oC - 0oC = Spring inside to outside temperature difference
21deg.C = 21oC - 0oC = Winter inside to outside temperature difference
Air flow Q/A from graph Compare summer

Area by Graph
Building Level rate (Q) Condition below A/Q Area by Graph
= A/Q x Q (m2)
(m3/s) (m3/s/m2) (m2)
Spring 1.75 0.571 0.27

Ground floor fresh
0.48 1.39
air opening
Winter 2.50 0.400 0.19
Spring 1.40 0.714 0.34

First floor fresh air
0.48 1.66
opening
Winter 2.05 0.488 0.23
Spring 1.00 1.000 0.48

Second floor fresh
0.48 2.33
air opening
Winter 1.45 0.690 0.33
Spring 0.51 1.961 2.82

Stack outlet 1.44 10.38
Winter 0.75 1.333 1.92
Table(2).for spring and winter conditions
Height from VALUE

opening to npl
G-FLOOR 12
F-FLOOR 8
S-FLOOR 4
STACK OUTLET 2
 Foot Note: the fresh air and stack

outlet areas required in winter are
less than in spring. Also the spring
and winter areas are much less than
the summer areas. This means that
automatic dampers would need to be
used to change the air flows.
Chapter: 4
104
 Answer (c): Air velocity (m/s) = Volume flow rate (m3/s) / Cross sectional area (m2).
Air velocity
Air flow rate (Q) Area by Graph
Building Level Condition at inlet
(m3/s) (m2)
(m/s)
Summer 1.28 1.39 0.92

Ground floor fresh air
opening
Winter 0.48 0.19 2.53
Summer 1.28 1.66 0.77

First floor fresh air opening
Winter 0.48 0.23 2.09
Summer 1.28 2.33 0.55

Second floor fresh air
opening
Winter 0.48 0.33 1.46
 Foot note: It would be important to check that the velocity in winter does not exceed
comfort criteria in the room. The manufacturer’s catalogue for the fresh air intake
louvers should give appropriate data.
Chapter: 4
105
4.2 Mechanical ventilation in use
4.2.1 introduction
 Continuous mechanical ventilation
 There are some advantages in having a ventilation system that operates

continuously. Compared to natural ventilation, a continuous mechanical system has
better control over air flows and air change rates. The air change rates vary in natural
ventilation systems with wind direction, wind strength, air temperatures and height
of building.
 This does not happen in mechanical systems. A continuous system of ventilation is

efficient at controlling humidity levels in buildings and in many cases is the answer for
damp buildings. The system runs for 24 hours per day continuously but does not
consume a lot of electrical energy since fan power is small.
 Operation
 Air is extracted from areas of high contamination e.g. Toilets, Showers, Bathrooms, En-
suites, Kitchen and Utility Rooms. The air is removed and exhausted at high level usually
through the roof. Replacement air is either drawn in naturally as shown in figure (10) or
supplied by a fresh air supply fan. Replacement air is normally able to be provided via
structural air leakage with background ventilation openings like trickle vents not
normally needed.
Fig (10).simple continuous extracts ventilation system.

Chapter: 4
106
 To provide more control over the system, fresh air may be delivered into the building by
a fan as shown in figure (11). It is normal to supply air, with no extract, to ‘dry’ rooms
such as; bedrooms, dining rooms, living rooms, etc. The extract grilles are installed in
‘wet’ rooms such as; kitchens, bathrooms, shower rooms, utility rooms and WC’s. If
there are not enough ‘wet’ rooms an extract terminal may be positioned in a large ‘dry’
room along with a supply diffuser.
Fig (11).simple continuous supply and extract ventilation system.
 Heat Recovery: A heat exchanger can be installed in the exhaust system to recover heat
in the air as shown in figure (12). This heat is then transferred into the fresh air system in
the Roof space. Modern heat exchangers can have an efficiency of over 90% which
makes them worthwhile. This is probably the best continuous ventilation system for
houses since little heat is lost and the system is well controlled.
Chapter: 4
107
Fig (12).simple ventilation system with heat recovery.
 Noise: The system should be very quiet in operation since it runs during the night as well
as during the day.
4.2.2 mechanical ventilation systems :
 use fans for both supplying and extracting air, thus mechanical ventilation systems may
be classified as follows:
4.2.2.1 Supply Ventilation System
 Fresh air is supplied to a space from outside as shown below; this air provides oxygen
for breathing and ventilation for occupants. Air is removed from the space by ‘natural’
means since the room is pressurised by the supply air.
 In some cases it is advantageous to heat incoming air to offset fabric losses and avoid
cold draughts in winter. This is known as a plenum system and is useful in large rooms
with a high ceiling, which can be difficult to heat with radiators as shwon in figure (13).
Chapter: 4
108
Fig (13).plenum system
4.2.2.1.1 Fresh air net work
 Air can be supplied into a building from the Roof space to reduce dampness and surface
condensation. This is the opposite of the previous forms of ventilation. Roof space air
tends to be warm and dry and can be recalculated down into the living space below to
reduce condensation. Figure (14) shown Grilles may be installed in Bathroom doors to
assist air circulation.
Chapter: 4
Fig (14).roof space ventilation system
109
 For systems of air conditioning using small units like windows, and decorative units it is
not necessary – to make network to supply the required amount of fresh air to space
depending on this amount of fresh enter space through building cracks ,and when the
doors and windows opened.
 For systems of air conditioning using ducted, package, and fan coil units. It is necessary to
make Fresh air network to supply the required amount of fresh air to space. This done by
two methods:
 The fresh air net work supply air into gap between the false ceiling and concerate
ceiling ,then fresh air mixed with room return air in this gap.
 When the air conditiong equipment find above false ceiling of bath room ,or the
return air returned into equipment by duct not by using pleunm . the required
amount of fresh supplied into pleunm box in the back of the equipment. Fofigure
indicate the two method.figure (15) shown fresh air feeding method.
Fig (15).a- Fresh air supplied into gap, b- Fresh air supplied into plenum box.
 Fresh riser diagram: This riser is schematic drawing used to give description to fresh air
network in the building, and give indication to changing in the size of riser duct trough
the shaft as shown in figure(16).
Chapter: 4
110
Fig (16).fresh air riser diagram.

Chapter: 4
111
 Example
 The THEATRE building shown below requires mechanical ventilation. Determine the air
flow rates in the system .CIBSE guide table B2.3 gives a supply ventilation rate of 6 - 10
air changes per hour. Use a supply air ventilation rate of 10 air changes per hour for this
example.
 data
Room width = 20 meters

Occupancy = 750 seats.
 air flow rate:
Room Volume (m3) = L x W x H

Room Volume (m3) = 25 x 20 x 9
Ventilation rate (m3/h) = 4500 m3
Ventilation rate (m3/s) = 12.5 m3/s
Ventilation rate (m3/h) = Air Change Rate (/h) x Room Volume
(m3)
Ventilation rate (m3/h) = 10 x 4500
= 45,000 m3/h
Choose an Outdoor Air Recommended minima Rate from Table B2.2 for a room with non-
smoking = 8 l/s/p
Fresh Air Rate (l/s) = Number of occupants x Outdoor Supply air per
Person (l/s)
Fresh Air Rate (l/s) = 750 x 8 = 6000 l/s
Chapter: 4
Fresh Air Rate (m3/s) = Fresh Air Rate (l/s) / 1000

Fresh Air Rate (m3/s) = 6000 / 1000 = 6 m3/s
112
For comparison convert Fresh Air Rate to an Air Change Rate.
Fresh Air Rate (m3/h) = Fresh Air Rate (m3/s) x 3600

Fresh Air Rate (m3/h) = 6x3600= 21,600 m3/h
Fresh Air Rate (AC/h) = Fresh Air Rate (m3/h) / Room Volume (m3)
Fresh Air Rate (AC/h) = 21,600 / 4500 =4.8 AC /h
Fresh Air Rate (AC/h) = 4.8 air changes of fresh air per hour
4.2.2.2 Extract Ventilation System

 The principal function of an extract ventilation system is the removal of an unwanted
contaminant, whether it is solid, gaseous or thermal. Air is extracted from the space
and replaced by fresh air entering from outside; the space is under negative pressure;
therefore air is naturally drawn into the building as shown in figure (17).
Chapter: 4
Fig (17). Extract Ventilation System
113
 Extract ventiltion application.
 industrial ventilation: airborne dust, toxic fumes, vapours and excessive heat have
to be removed. This is sometimes carried out at source, thus minimising the
contamination of the occupied space. The spread of contaminant is decreased by
installing hoods or canopies over the source and connecting these to the extract
ventilation system as shown in figure (18).
Fig (18). industrial ventilation.
 Toilets ,lundary,grpage,small residential and commerical kitchen s.
 kitchen extract ventilation: it may be necessary to install a fire damper and enclose the
duct which passes through upper floors in a fire resisting shaft.This is because there is a
possible danger of fire and smoke spreading throughout a building in the ductwork
system. Obviously when designing for the event of a fire in the building one should be
careful to provide a safe and protective ventilation installation. Consult all relevant
standards and get as much advice as possible especially from the local Fire Authority. A
simple extract system for a kitchen is shown in figure (19).
Chapter: 4
114
Fig (19).kitchen extract ventilation.
 Figure(20) shown a typical commercial kitchen extract canopy incorporating lights and
removable grease filters.
Fig (20).commercial kitchen extract canopy.

Chapter: 4
115
 The following example is for a Kitchen in a small Restaurant building. Air is extracted
from kitchens from the source of contaminant, that is, the cooking island incorporating
ovens, cookers, fryers, water boilers, etc as shown in figure (21). The fan can be located
in the duct.CIBSE Guide B2 (2001) recommends 30 to 40 AC/h for a Commercial Kitchen.
Fig (21).kitchen extracts ventilation
 The ventilation extract system for a kitchen should be kept separate from all other
ventilation systems. This is because contaminants (smells from cooking, water vapor,
steam, heat) are being removed. No recirculation is used in a Kitchen.
4.2.2.3 Balanced Ventilation Systems
 A balanced system enables full control of ventilation to be achieved by the use of

separate mechanical supply and extract systems. It is usual to provide a surplus of
supply air over extract air so as to maintain the pressure in the building at a slightly
higher pressure than outside. This minimises natural infiltration which reduces the
likelihood of draughts. A typical system as shown in figure (22).
 It is a good idea to filter outside air so that atmospheric pollutants are excluded. Also in
winter, cold outside air may cause discomfort so the fresh air is heated. This can be
used to offset heat losses thus providing the means of heating the building or room as
shown in figure (23). This is the same as a plenum heating system with return air
system.
Chapter: 4
116
Fig (22). Balanced ventilation system.
Fig (23). Balanced ventilation system with heating system .
 In most balanced systems, the supply air quantity, which is required, works out to be
much more than that needed for fresh air supply to occupants. It is possible therefore,
to recirculate some of the extract air back into the supply duct to make use of the heat
which it contains as shown in figure (24).
Chapter: 4
117
Fig (24).Balanced ventilation system with recirculation.
 The amounts of fresh air in each section of ductwork are controlled by dampers, which
can be set during commissioning so that the design quantity of air with the correct
proportion of fresh air is supplied to the space. Recirculation only works if the air has
not been contaminated in the space. In kitchens, toilets, smoke filled spaces, etc.,
where the air contains odours or other contaminants all the extract air is removed and
no recirculation takes place.
 Filters are usually fitted in supply and balanced ventilation systems to remove any
airborne particles in the fresh air intake duct. A finer filter may be installed in a balanced
ventilation system after the mix point to remove dust generated within the space.
Figure(25) show typical filters. The bag filters are for collecting fine particles of dust and
are sometimes referred to as fine filters.
Chapter: 4
Fig (25).bag filters.
118
4.2.2.3.1 Balanced ventilation application.
 Car parking ventilation

 Ventilation of car parking done with using balanced system.
 Amount of air extracted from car parking calculated with using equation of general
 Mechanical ventilation (CFM) = volume of parking (ft3) *number of air change (6) / (60).
 Amount of fresh air supplied to parking equal to amount of extracted air. Figure (26)
indicate car parking ventilation system.
Chapter: 4
Fig (26).car parking ventilation
119
4.2.2.4 negative air system
 At this system value of supply air system less than extracted air by 15-20 degree.
 For insure good distribution. Supply and exhaust air outlets can be distributed in kitchen
for ventilation as the following figure.
 Ventilation system layout:
 When designing ventilation systems it must be remembered that since most of the
ductwork is installed within ceiling spaces, it is a good idea to liaise closely with the
Architect at the early stages of design so that space requirements are met.
 The main supply and return ductwork is running in the ceiling space above corridors
and the branches into adjoining rooms. Ceiling heights in corridors may be lowered to
accommodate larger ductwork.
 It is common practice to use flexible ductwork to grilles and diffusers. These have
several advantages; sharp bends are eliminated, flexible ductwork has better sound
adsorption qualities compared to sheet metal, it is easier to install especially in a
congested area and it allows more freedom in positioning the grille or diffuser.
 A plenum box can be used to connect the ductwork system to the grille or diffuser.
This has a larger cross sectional area than the connecting duct and reduces the air
velocity before it enters the diffuser thus giving better air distribution over total
diffuser area. A less expensive method is to use diffusers with factory-fitted square or
round necks, which can be fitted directly to the flexible duct connection. Each grille
or diffuser should have a damper to regulate flow of air. This damper can be an
opposed blade type incorporated within the diffuser or a butterfly volume control
damper (VCD) positioned in the branch duct. All dampers require access. Figure (27)
shown typical ventilation system layout.
Chapter: 4
120
Fig (27).typical ventilation system layout.
4.2.2.4.1 Negative ventilation system application
 Kitchen ventilation system: can by ventilate with tow procedures as a following.

 Firstly :with using ventilation system layout as shown in figure (28) which indicates:
 Exhaust grille Installed at the bottom of exhaust duct, but the fresh air grille installed
in right side of the duct.
 Amount of air extracted from kitchen calculated by the same way in previous
example. And amount of air extracted must be higher than amount of fresh air
supplied into the space by 15% to make vacuum in the space of kitchen for preventing
smells from kitchen to go out it.
Chapter: 4
121
 Secondly: with using hood system as shown in figure(29)which indicates :
 Amount of air can be extracted by hood can be calculated by Q =A (hood) x vand amount
of fresh air supplied has 75-80% of exhaust air.
Where
Q = amount of air extracted from kitchen by hood.

A = hood area (FT2) and calculated by adding 25cm to both sides of burner. It can
take hood area, 2mx1m.
V= velocity of air entering hood itself FPM, and it take in range 100-150 fpm.
 Air velocity through extracted duct take in range 1800-2200 FPM.As shown in below
figures.
Chapter: 4
Fig (28).procedure one of kitchen ventilation.
122
Fig (29).procedure two of kitchen ventilation.
Chapter: 4
123
5 Mechanical ventilation equipment
5.1 Types of Fans
 There is several types of fan to choose for ventilation as following:
5.1.1 Propeller Fan: can be found at different configuration as shown in figure (30).
 Used in situations where there is minimal resistance to air flow.
 Typical outputs are; up to 4 m3/s and up to 250 Pa pressure. Fan efficiency is low at about
40%.
 Suitable for wall, window and roof fans where the intake and discharge are free from
obstacles.
 Can move large volumes of air and Low installation cost.
Fig (30).different types of propeller fans

Chapter: 4
124
5.1.2 Axial Flow Fan
 High volume flow rate is possible with this type of fan with high efficiency, about 60% to
65%.Typical outputs are; up to 20 m3/s and up to 700 Pa pressure.
 The fan is cased in a simple enclosure with the motor housed internally or externally as
shown in figure (31). Aerofoil blades can be used to increase efficiency. Ductwork can be
simply connected to the flange at either end of the fan.
Fig (31).axial flow fan configurations.
5.1.3 Centrifugal Fan
 High pressure air flow is possible with this type of fan. Used in air handling units and other
situations to overcome high resistance to air flow. The air changes direction by 90 degrees
in a centrifugal fan so more space is required. Usually the motor is placed external to the
casing and a vee belt and pulley drive is commonly used as shown in figure (32).
Chapter: 4
125
Fig (32).centrifugal fan.
5.1.3.1 Centrifugal fan types.
5.1.3.1.1 Forward Curved (FC) Fans.
 It has blades that are curved in the direction of wheel rotation. These are called forward
curved, or FC, fans figure (33).
 FC fans are operated at relatively low speeds and are used to deliver large volumes of air
against relatively low static pressures Up to about 750 N/m2 fan pressure. The inherently
light construction of the forward curved fan wheel does not permit this wheel to be
operated at the speeds needed to generate high static pressure.
 The forward-curved centrifugal fan tends to be quieter and cheaper.
Chapter: 4
Fig (33).Fc wheel
126
 The efficiency of a fan with FC blades is about 50% to 60%. The forward curve has a scoop
effect on the air thus a higher volume may be handled.
 The application rage of a fan with FC blades is about 30% to 80% percent wide-open
airflow figure (34).
Fig (34).FC application range
 The FC fan is referred to as an “overloading” type of fan as shown in figure (35).
Fig (35).FC performance curve.

Chapter: 4
127
5.1.3.1.2 Backward Inclined ,and curved (BI) Fans
 The second centrifugal fan design has blades that are slanted away from the direction of
wheel rotation. These backward inclined, or BI, fans operate at higher speeds than FC
fans figure (36).BI and BC used when the static pressure required above 750 pa.
Fig (36).BI wheel
 The efficiency of a fan with FC blades is about 65% to 75%.
 The application rage of a fan with BI and BC blades is about 40% to 85% percent wide-
open airflow figure (37).The maximum static efficiency of the BI fan is from
approximately 65 to 75 percent and occurs at approximately 50 percent wide-open
airflow.
Chapter: 4
Fig (37).BI, and BC application range.
128
 BC and BI fans are referred to as “non overloading” type fans as shown in figure (38).
Fig (38).BC, and BI performance curve.
5.1.3.1.3 Airfoil (AF) Fans
 A refinement of the BI fan changes the shape of the blade from a flat plate to that of an
airfoil, similar to an airplane wing. The airfoil blade induces a smooth airflow across the
blade surface, reducing turbulence and noise within the wheel. This results in increased
static efficiency to about 80% to 86% and reduced overall sound levels.
 Airfoil (AF) fans exhibit performance characteristics that are essentially the same as
those of the flat-bladed BI fan.
 The application range of the airfoil fan is from approximately 50 to 85 percent wide-open
airflow as shown in figure (39).
Chapter: 4
Figure (39).AF application range.
129
 Characteristics of Axial Flow and Centrifugal Fans comparison.
 Axial flow and backward-curved centrifugal fans have similar characteristics as shown
below.
 The axial flow fan is very convenient from an installation point of view, it can be directly
duct mounted even in restrictive areas but they tend to be noisy. This is because they run
at a higher speed compared to a centrifugal fan.
 Like the Backward-bladed centrifugal fan, the axial flow fan has a self-limiting power curve
as shown in figure (40).
Fig (40).typical fan characteristic curves.
5.2 Fan Laws.
Chapter: 4
130
5.3 Static Efficiency.
Static Efficiency = power out/power in

= air flow x static pressure/ (constant x in put power)
Where:
Airflow is in terms of cfm [m3/s]
Static pressure is in units of in. H2O [Pa]
Constant is 6,362 [982]
Input power is in units of hp [kW]
5.4Methods of Fan Capacity Control
5.4.1 Discharge dampers
 Discharge dampers match the airflow and static pressure supplied by the fan with the
airflow and static pressure required by the system. They accomplish this by adding a
static-pressure loss to the system just downstream of the fan figure (41).
Fig (41).Discharge dampers.
 As the VAV terminal units modulate shut, the system resistance curve shifts upward. The
fan begins to “ride up” its constant-speed performance curve toward B, from the design
operating point A, trying to balance with this new system resistance curve. As a result,
the fan delivers a lower airflow at a higher static pressure.
 The system static-pressure controller senses this higher static pressure and a signal to
the discharge dampers, instructing them to begin closing. This results in a build-up of
static pressure at the fan outlet and causes the fan to “ride up” further on its
performance curve until it reaches its new operating point C at a higher static pressure
Chapter: 4
and lower airflow. The system balances at D along the desired VAV system modulation
curve, bringing the system static pressure (downstream of the discharge damper)
down to its set point.
131
 This method of control is essentially the same as “riding the fan curve,” except that the
static-pressure drop takes place across the discharge damper instead of across the VAV
terminal units. While discharge dampers can be used with all types of centrifugal fans,
they are most effectively used with the FC fan for the same reason mentioned with
“riding the fan curve.” Other methods of supply fan capacity control are more energy
efficient, so discharge dampers are rarely used.
5.4.2 Inlet Vanes
 The next method of capacity control, inlet vanes, modulates a fan’s capacity by “pre
swirling” the air in the direction of fan rotation before it enters the fan wheel. By
changing the air’s angle of entry into the fan, the modulating inlet vanes lessen the
ability of the fan wheel to “bite” the air. This reduces its airflow capacity which, in turn,
reduces its power consumption and its ability to generate static pressure as shown in
figure (42).
Fig (42).inlet guide vanes
 Inlet vanes actually alter fan performance, creating a new fan performance curve with
each vane position. Notice that with each increment of vane closing, the power
requirement becomes less. Therefore, with inlet vanes, fan energy savings are realized
any time the load drops below the design airflow.
Chapter: 4
132
 Inlet vanes can, however, cause significant acoustical tones at part load when applied to
BI, AF, and vane axial fans. As the VAV terminal units modulate shut, the system
resistance curve shifts upward. The fan begins to “ride up” its current vane position
curve toward B, from the design operating point A, trying to balance with this new
system resistance curve. As a result, the fan delivers a lower airflow at a higher static
pressure.
 The system static-pressure controller senses this higher static pressure and sends a
signal to the inlet vanes, instructing them to begin closing. When the inlet vanes are
closed, the performance curve for the fan shifts downward until the balance point C falls
along the VAV system modulation curve and the fan satisfies the system static-pressure
controller.
 The advantage that inlet vanes provide over discharge dampers is that the fan
approaches the surge region at a much lower airflow and static pressure. The low end of
the fan’s modulating range is either the intersection of the modulation curve with the
surge line, or the leakage rate through the fully closed inlet vanes, whichever is larger.
Typically, a satisfactory modulating range is achieved by selecting a fan that is two or
three sizes (fan wheel diameter) smaller than a fan that would be selected for a
constant-volume system. Then the design operating point will fall farther to the right on
the curve, permitting a larger range of modulation.
 It should be noted that the addition of vanes to the inlet of a fan introduces a pressure
drop that must be overcome by the fan. Inlet vane performance curves are established
through fan testing, and manufacturers typically publish fan performance data with the
effect of the inlet vanes included.
5.4.3 Fan-Speed Control
 The third method of capacity control, fan-speed control, modulates fan capacity by
varying the speed of the wheel rotation. This is commonly accomplished using a variable-
speed device on the fan motor, such as a variable-frequency drive, a belt-speed changer,
a variable-speed mechanical drive, or an eddy current clutch as shown in figure (43). The
response of fan-speed control to system static pressure variations is similar to that
described for inlet vanes.
 as the system resistance curve shifts upward and the fan begins to “ride up” the
constant-speed performance curve, toward B, from its design operating point A, it
delivers a lower airflow at a higher static pressure. The system static pressure controller
senses this higher static pressure and sends a signal to the fan-speed controller,
instructing it to slow down the fan motor. This causes the performance curve for the fan
to shift downward until the balance point C falls along the VAV system modulation curve
Chapter: 4
and the fan satisfies the system static-pressure controller.
133
 The low end of the fan’s modulation range is limited by the surge region. The principal
advantages of fan-speed control are its energy saving potential and reduced noise at
part load.
Fig (43).fan speed control.
5.5 Choosing a Fan
 System pressure loss calculation based on longest path connected to fan according to the
following equation.
 𝛿 = Duct friction losses +Dampers pressure drop + air outlets pressure drop.
 𝛿 = (measured length +fitting equivalent length)* + Dampers pressure
drop (0.12 inch) + air outlets pressure drop (0.1 inch).
 Static pressure developed by the fan =equals system pressure loss*1.25.
 Fan total pressure =dynamic pressure +static pressure.
 Determine fan type, and choose the suitable model.
 By fan total pressure and air flow rate specify the state point on model performance
curve as shown in figure (44), and then check model efficiency.
Chapter: 4
134
Fig (44).Centrifugal Fan performance curve.
5.6 Fan Running Costs.
 Running costs can be examined as follows;
( )
Fan power (W) =
 Annual running cost (£/annum) = Fan power (kW) x Hours run per annum x Electrical price £
Per KWH
Chapter: 4
135
 Example
if a fan runs for 2496 hours per year and delivers 0.625 m3/s against a pressure of 200
Pa, then the annual running costs can be calculated as follows; Take electricity cost at
11.2 p/kWh = 0.112 £/kWh.
Fan power (W) = 200 x 0.625 / (say) 0.6

Fan power (W) = 208 Watts.
Fan power (kW) = 0.208 kW.
Annual running cost (£/annum) = 0.208 x 2496 x 0.112
Annual running cost (£) = £58.15 per annual
6 Ventilation design Methodology.
 Ventilation design Methodology When considering ventilation design the following

approach could be adopted before sizing begins and the following questions should be
considered:
 What areas need ventilation?

 The contaminants should be listed for these areas.
 What type of system should be used, supply, extract or balanced?

 Are there any alternative systems to consider?
 Is air conditioning necessary in the building?
 If air conditioning is necessary then should it be incorporated into the ventilation
system?
 Where should the fan(s) and plant be installed?
 What type of fan(s) and plant should be used?
 Is a separate heating system necessary?
 What type of control system should be used?
 What type of air distribution system should be used, upward or downward?
Chapter: 4
136
 Have I considered what will happen in the event of a fire in the building?
 Have I considered the noise from fans?
 After all the above questions have been answered the ventilation process may
commence.
 Ventilation Rates.
 Select the suitable ventilation techniques.
 For Extract ventilation systems: A typical extract system is shown below.
 For Balanced with No Recirculation. : The extract rate may vary slightly from the
supply air rate depending on whether a positive or negative pressure is desirable.
Chapter: 4
137
 For Balanced with Recirculation The Recirculation Rate is the Supply Air Rate minus
the Fresh Air Rat
 Number of Fans and Grilles: Several fans are often better than one since its makes the
ventilation system more flexible. Also the air to be supplied or removed may be in
different areas of a room or building where individual fans can be more effective.
The number of grilles or diffusers may depend on the ceiling layout, lighting layout and
amount to air to be transferred. Sometimes it is necessary to complete a preliminary
grille size to decide on the final number in a room.
 Drawings
 Accurate, scaled plan drawings are necessary for installation, fabrication, estimating
and commissioning a ventilation scheme. Sometimes elevations, sections and details
are also necessary especially in complicated installations. Drawings should show:
 Flow rates of air.

 Ductwork to scale with sizes indicated.
 Air flow direction.
 Items of plantlike (Position of fan(s), and Lay out grilles and diffusers).
 Other details such as; builder’s work, support details, fan specification, grille and
diffuser details, louver details, Plant details, insulation, ductwork specification may
be given on a drawing or in a specification document.
Chapter: 4
138
6.1 Training Example.
 Example 1: Design a ventilation system for the building shown below. The building is a
small workshop used for general metal fabrication and welding. No welding booths are
installed. If the building gets too warm the door may be opened for free cooling.
 DATA: Building dimensions: 15.0 metres long x 7.0 metres wide x 5.0 metres high to
eaves. Roof ridge height is 7.5 metres. The air change rate for mechanical ventilation is
to be 6 air changes per hour.
Chapter: 4
139
 Example 2: It is the ground floor of a three storey building in a terrace of buildings.

Other rooms such as Toilets are upstairs and have a working ventilation system already
installed. The two external walls are shown on the drawing. The heat gains are not
excessive and cooling by air conditioning can be avoided. A plastered suspended ceiling
is to be incorporated into the Restaurant and Conference room. The ceiling in the
Corridor, Kitchen and Food Prep.is suspended with 600mm square tiles.
 Data
The level of cooking is Medium.

Complete the following tasks.
Design a suitable ventilation system for the Restaurant shown below.
Select suitable air terminal devices for the ventilation system.
Size the Kitchen extract canopy.
Select suitable duct sizes and submit a duct sizing table for the above system.
Select suitable fans for the above system.
Design a suitable control system.
Discuss the builder’s work necessary to complete the ventilation system.
Chapter: 4
140
Chapter: 4
141

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تكييف مركزي الجزء الأول

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Fundamentals of HVAC Systems

Dar Al –Tasmem (nosier and partners)

 Chapter 1- HVAC Systems Basic Information

 Chapter 2 –load estimation

 Hourly Analysis Program (HAP).

 Chapter 3-system selection and air distribution

 3 Air Conditioning process.

 4 Basic Air-Conditioning Systems.

 5 How the human body interact with the environmental.

 6 Environments for Human Comfort.

 7 Scope of Modern HVAC

Chapter 1- HVAC Systems Basic Information

Fig (1) .Psychometric Chart

 Dry bulb temperature

 The following is a brief description of each of the properties of air.

 Dry bulb temperature: This is the air temperature measured by a mercury-in-glass

 Wet bulb temperature: This is the air temperature measured by a mercury-in-glass

 Percentage of saturation: The Percentage saturation is another indication of the

 Specific enthalpy) Btu/lb.(

 There is a specific amount of energy in the air water-vapor mixture at a specific

o The temperature of the air.

0.011kg/kg d. a. and the specific enthalpy 65 kJ/kg.

3 Air Conditioning process

4 Basic Air-Conditioning Systems

Fig (2). Air conditioning plant

 The components from left to right are:

Fig (3). Cooling Coil

Fig (4). Cooling and dehumidification process

 The amount of moisture that is removed depends on several factors including:

 The depth of the coil

 Humidifier: which adds moisture, and which is usually controlled by a humidistat.

Fig (5). Package steam humidifier unit, heating and humidification

4.1 Typical summer plant air conditioning

Fig (6). a typical summer cycle

4.2 Typical summer plant air conditioning example.

An office is to be maintained at 22oC dry-bulb temperature, 50% saturation in summer.

Procedure (Summer Cycle)

 Find the room ratio.

 Join points M and ADP.

Mass Flow Rate

Where: HS = Sensible heat gain to room (kW)

Cooling Coil Output

determined from psychometric chart.

Hcooloing Coil = 1.584 / ( 50.5– 25)

Heater Battery Output

Where: H heater battery = Heater battery output (kW)

H heater battery = 1.584 / ( 36.5– 30.5)

5 How the human body interact with the environmental.

 The sensible heat transferred by radiation according the following equation.

QCR = h .V 0.3. (To – 35) (W)

L = latent heat of evaporation of water at the surrounding temp.

 Where w = human mechanical work

6 Environments for Human Comfort.

Fig (7). Personal environmental model

6.8 Clothing and Activity as a function of Individual Comfort

7 Scope of Modern HVAC

reduce energy consumption by controlling increasing in the internal temperature or by

7.3.1 Night-time Cooling.

Fig (8). Typical night time cooling process.

7.3.2 Evaporative Cooling

Fig (9). Evaporative cooling on a psychrometric chart

Figure (10). Shows evaporative cooling using exhaust air.

7.3.3 Chilled Beams and Ceilings

7.3.4 Hollow Floor Slabs with Air