Chapter 1 Project Overview

CHAPTER 1
PROJECT
OVERVIEW
 Chapter 1 Project Overview

CHAPTER 1
PROJECT OVERVIEW

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Visual impact is the most effective mode of influencing human minds which
is the main aim of Advertisements etc. A display device serves this purpose.
A display device is a device for presentation of information for visual or
tactile reception, acquired, stored, or transmitted in various forms. The
display devices used to display information on machines, clocks, railway
departure indicators and many other devices require a simple display of
limited resolution. The display consists of a matrix of lights or mechanical
indicators arranged in a rectangular configuration (other shapes are also
possible, although not common) such that by switching on or off selected
lights, text or graphics can be displayed. Various modifications has been
made in the display board.

Now LED display panels are widely used throughout the world in all
situations to create images for visual displays in a variety of applications
including communication and visual display devices. LED array display
board is a popular instrument for commercial usage. Many banks, shops and
cinemas are willing to install one piece of it because of its versatility. LED
array display board can be very bright and eye-catching. Display signs used
for advertising or for displaying direction or other information to motorists
have an important feature in common. They should be eye-catching and their
information should be easy to absorb. In advertising, a signboard made of an
LED display generally standing at a conspicuous location, such as a bustling
road, is widely used. The LED display comprises a plurality of LEDs
controlled by special hardware and software to perform moving images on a
screen thereof to attract the attention of passersby. The LED array display
board is used in a bank to show the current stock market value, currency
exchange rate and interests rate. It can also be used in a shop to tell people
the prices and other commercial information. LED display board serves the
above purposes with advantages rendered by LEDs.
 Chapter 1 Project Overview

 LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs; this is
useful in battery powered or energy-saving devices.

 LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of color
filters that traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient
and can lower initial costs.

 The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light.
Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external
reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner.

 LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-
off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when
cycled frequently, or HID lamps that require a long time before
restarting.

Organic light emitting diodes (OLED) are a promising technology for flat
panel displays. Owing to high brightness, fast response speed, light weight,
thin and small features, full color, no viewing angle differences, no need for
an LCD back-light board and low electrical consumption, an organic light
emitting diode display takes the lead to substitute a twist nomadic (TN), a
super twist nomadic (STN) liquid crystal display, or a small-sized thin-film
transistor (TFT) LCD display. Light emitting diodes are useful in a wide
range of high and low resolution display devices.

1.2 OBJECTIVE
Display technology pervades all aspects of present day life, from televisions
to automobile dashboards to laptop computers to digital cameras. Single
colored LED display boards are very common nowadays. The same yellow
or red colored board is not attractive .The introduction of multicolored LEDs
into the display boards make them attractive. This project is oriented
towards the development of a prototype of a multicolored LED display
board which is being controlled by an LED driver. The use of multicolor
LED opens door to many applications. The display board is made on readily
available components. The important requirement is that the display board
should have long life expectancy, high tolerance to humidity, low power
consumption and minimal heat generation. The fundamental part is a 64X16
 Chapter 1 Project Overview

LED module which could be repeated column wise or row wise to enlarge
the display without any change in circuitry. Both single line and double line
display could be affected. Motivation towards the project was to make
available a readily expandable multicolor display board which can be used
for multiple purposes.

1.3 PRINCIPLE

This project can be made by using following two principles they are as
follow:-

1. Co-ordinate drives.

2. Shift register.

In this project we use shift register. According To this concept in a LED

matrix if the pattern of data is given to first column and the same data is cut
and paste to left or right but in any one direction, to the next adjacent
column. Then the data is seems to be moving

1.4 SPECIFICATIONS

 64 x 16 multicolored LED modules.

 Keyboard interface.
 High speed response.
 Power supply requirement: 5V, 3A
Chapter 2 System Overview

CHAPTER 2
SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
 Chapter 2 System Overview

CHAPTER 2
SYSTEM OVERVIEW

2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

A simplified block diagram is given below

Fig 1. Block diagram of LED board display.

2.1.1 LED Matrix

A 64X16 LED module is the fundamental part of the display. LED display
panels use matrix addressing techniques to organize the light emitting
elements or pixels into a number of rows and columns with each pixel at an
intersection of a particular row and a particular column. A light emitting
device (LED) display is typically supplied with data addressed from
graphical memory location in accordance with a column-major display. The
LED display illuminates pixels on a column basis by providing sourcing and
sinking currents to diodes in the display. An LED display is typically made
up of various dots arranged in a matrix pattern having rows and columns.
The dots are usually called pixels where the pixels are made up of several
LEDs. Illuminating the pixel requires activating an intersecting row and
column thereby providing a closed current path that includes the pixel to be
illuminated.

The individual LEDs emit light of three basic colors: red, green and blue.
Typically, each pixel is composed of at least one LED of each color. In LED
 Chapter 2 System Overview

displays, one dot is formed by utilizing a plurality of cannon ball-shaped

LED lamps each having different luminescent colors. The intensity of the
LEDs is usually controlled by controlling the current to the individual LEDs.
This is done by means of a led driver. A pixel can produce a specific
perceived color by varying the drive to the three colors of LEDs that
comprise the pixel. By controlling the current drive to each of the LEDs that
makes up a pixel and in turn controlling each of the pixels that make up a
matrix of pixels, an LED display device is capable of displaying a plurality
of colors and light intensities so as to realize, for example, a multi-color
display. As the resolution of displays increases, the number of pixels in each
row and column also increases and the amount of time available to
illuminate each pixel decreases. As the illumination time decreases, each
pixel must be driven with a larger current to provide a pixel intensity that
maintains acceptable image intensity and viewing characteristics.

Light Emitting Diode: Multicolor LEDs are used to provide colorful

display. They primarily provide three colors: red, green, and blue. By the
combination of these colors in correct proportion many varieties of color are
possible. The three colors could be individually controlled as controlling two
single LEDs.

2.1.2 LED Driver

The control of the LED display module is done by means of LED driver. It is
programmable using microcontroller. An LED Driver has a shift register
embedded that will take data in serial format and transfer it to parallel. It
performs following functions:

 It controls the intensity and brightness of the display.

 It controls the color of the display.
 It decides which led is to be lighted to display specific character.
 It receives the input signal specifying the character to be displayed
from the microcontroller which is controlled by host computer using
USB interface.
 Chapter 2 System Overview

2.1.3 Microcontroller

The character to be displayed is inputted from the host computer using

Keyboard interface. RS232 is used to provide the Keyboard interface to the
LED driver which controls the display. The PIC is programmed such that it
provides Keyboard interface. A self programmable PIC is used.

2.1.4 Keyboard interfacing

It provides the communication between the User and display board. It also
can provide interfacing the microcontroller.

2.2 ADVANTAGES & APPLICATIONS

Advantages:

 No More Monotonous Same Advertisement again and again for

days/months. (message to be displayed can be changed
instantaneously)
 Instant, Current and Hot Topics reach the Public immediately.
 Common Display system which displays instant messages like Flash
News, in Places like exhibitions, Road side Hoardings.
 Instant Message Delivery.
 Easy to change messages.
 Attractive multicolor display.
 A high density display board could be used for video display.
 Eye catching display serving the purpose of advertisements.
 Media for indoor & outdoor advertising and are clearly visible from
very long distance.
 Chapter 2 System Overview

Applications:

 Advertisement Hoardings with dynamic update of Flash News.

 Instant update of Petrol Prices to all petrol Bunks from a Central
office.
 Stock Tickers, which displays dynamically current value of the Stocks
and the trend.
 Current Prices of Commodities at different parts of the country.
 Shopping malls & retail stores.
 Railway information.
 Amusement Parks & Zoo's.
 Traffic Information.
 Pedestrian countdown system for maximum pedestrian safety.
Chapter 3 Project Design

CHAPTER 3
PROJECT DESIGN

CHAPTER 3
PROJECT DESIGN
 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.1 LED MODULE

Hardware requirements:

 64x16 LED array.

 LED driver MAX 232.
 Microcontroller AT89S52.
 Shift register.
 Resistors – 22 KΩ, 15KΩ.
 Capacitor 0.01μF.

3.1.1 LED Array

It consists of 2 multicolored LEDs arranged in 64x16 matrix format. The

LED used is LED 339-1VRKGBBW1 from ever bright. It is a multicolored
common cathode led with LEDs; Red & Green LED Multicolor LED
provides primarily Red, green, colors by giving bias to appropriate pins.

Specifications:

If (typical forward current): 20mA.

Cut in Voltage
 Red: 1.6V.
 Green: 1.8V.
 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.1.2 LED Driver – MAX232

LED driver used is MAX232. It can drive 64 single LEDs. The 232 can
source up to 40mA and control an 8x8 single LED matrix. (Here 2 MAX232
is used to control a 4X4 matrix). Individual LEDs can be turned on or off
with 3 wire serial interface (CLK, DATA, LOAD). 16 Brightness steps are
also provided, which can control the brightness of all the 64 LEDs. Thus it
provides both software and hardware control of brightness. It drives
common cathode LED display. It provides 100MHz serial interface.

The LED driver has a 16 bit shift register. Input signals are CLK, DIN, and
LOAD. Serial data at DIN, sent in 16-bit packets, is shifted into the internal
16-bit shift register with each rising edge of CLK regardless of the state of
LOAD. The data is then latched into either the digit or control registers on
the rising edge of LOAD/CS. LOAD/CS must go high concurrently with or
after the 16th rising clock edge, but before the next rising clock edge or data
will be lost. Data at DIN is propagated through the shift register and appears
at DOUT 16. 5 clock cycles later. Data is clocked out on the falling edge of
CLK.

Specifications:

 Operating Supply Voltage: 5V

 Shutdown Supply Current: 150μA
 Operating Supply Current: 330 mA
 ISEG: -40mA
Chapter 3 Project Design

Fig 2. MAX 232 Pinout.

 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.2 DESIGN

MAX232 can drive 64 single LEDs. A multicolor led is equal to 3 single

LEDs. Thus two MAX232 is used to drive a 4 x 4 LED module. Each
MAX7219 has 8 segment lines (SEG Dp through SEG G) to control the
anode (horizontal) lines of the display and 8 digit lines (DIG0 through
DIG7) to control the cathode (vertical) lines. Here one MAX7219 is used to
control the red and green LEDs which have a common cathode. Another
MAX7219 is used to control the two blue LEDs. Only 4 digit lines of an
LED driver are used. The current value is to be set at 20mA which is the safe
value for the LED. This is provided by selecting a resistance equal to 22K.

For the expansion of the display, cascading of the MAX232s is done. This is
done by connecting LOAD and CLK inputs of all the devices together and
connecting DOUT to DIN on adjacent devices. DOUT is a CMOS logic-
level output that easily drives DIN of successively cascaded parts.
Chapter 3 Project Design

Fig 3. LED driver circuit.

Chapter 3 Project Design

Fig 4. Schematic diagram of 4x4 LED modules.

 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.2.1 AT89S52

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit

microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory.
The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory
technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction
set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory pro-
grammar. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable
Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful
microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution
to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the
following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O
lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-
vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip
oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with
static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software
selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while
allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to
continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but
freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next
interrupt or hardware reset.

FEATURES:

 Compatible with MCS®-51 Products.

 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory –
Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles.
 4.0V to 5.5V is Operating Range.
 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz.
 Three-level Program Memory Lock.
 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM.
 32 Programmable I/O Lines.
 Three 16-bit Timer/Counters.
 Eight Interrupt Sources.
 Full Duplex UART Serial Channel.
 Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes.
 Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode.
Chapter 3 Project Design

 Watchdog Timer.
 Dual Data Pointer.
 Power-off Flag.
 Fast Programming Time.
 Flexible ISP Programming. (Byte and Page Mode)
 Green (Pb/Halide-free) Packaging Option.
 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.2.2 Block diagram

Fig 5. Block diagram of 89S52.

 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.2.3 PIN diagram

Fig 6. Pin diagram of 89S52.

 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.2.4 Pin Description

 VCC Supply voltage.

 GND Ground.

 Port 0-Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an

output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written
to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0
can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data
bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this
mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes
during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program
verification. External pull-ups are required during program
verification.
 Port 1- Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups.
The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s
are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups
and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally
being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal
pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the
timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter
2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the following
table. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash
programming and verification.

Table 1. Description of Port Pin P1.0-P1.7.

Chapter 3 Project Design

 Port 2 - Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-

ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When
1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-
ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are
externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during
fetches from external program memory and during accesses to
external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR).
In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting
1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses
(MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function
Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some
control signals during Flash programming and verification.

 Port 3 - Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-

ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When
1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-
ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are
externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
pull-ups. Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming
and verification. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special
features of the AT89S52, as shown in the following table.
Chapter 3 Project Design

Table 2. Description of Port Pin P3.0-P3.7.

 RST - Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while
the oscillator is running resets the device. This pin drives high for 98
oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in
SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the
default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.

 ALE/PROG - Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for

latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external
memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during
Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant
rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external
timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is
skipped during each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE
operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With
the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction.
Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit
has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.

 PSEN - Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external

program memory. When the AT89S52 is executing code from external
program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except
that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external
data memory.

 EA/VPP - External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in

order to enable the device to fetch code from external program
memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that
if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA
should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin
also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during
Flash programming. 4.11 XTAL1 Input to the inverting oscillator
amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. 4.12
XTAL2 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
 Chapter 3 Project Design

 Special Function Registers

A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function

Register (SFR). Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and
unoccupied addresses may not be implemented on the chip. Read
accesses to these addresses will in general return random data, and
write accesses will have an indeterminate effect. User software should
not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used in
future products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or
inactive values of the new bits will always be 0.

Timer 2 Registers: Control and status bits are contained in registers

T2CON and T2MOD for Timer 2. The register pair (RCAP2H,
RCAP2L) is the Capture/Reload registers for Timer 2 in 16-bit capture
mode or 16-bit auto-reload mode.
Interrupt Registers: The individual interrupt enable bits are in the IE
register. Two priorities can be set for each of the six interrupt sources
in the IP register.
 Chapter 3 Project Design

Table 3. Description of symbols and their functions.

3.2.5 Shift Register

In digital circuits, a shift register is a cascade of flip flops, sharing the same
clock, in which the output of each flip-flop is connected to the "data" input
of the next flip-flop in the chain, resulting in a circuit that shifts by one
position the "bit array" stored in it, shifting in the data present at its input
and shifting out the last bit in the array, at each transition of the clock input.
More generally, a shift register may be multidimensional, such that it’s "data
in" and stage outputs are themselves bit arrays: this is implemented simply
by running several shift registers of the same bit-length in parallel.

3.2.5 20MHz Crystal oscillator

The crystal oscillator is used to provide the clock for the PIC. A crystal
oscillator has a very stable Q. It is equivalent to an LCR circuit. It oscillates
at its resonating frequency. Here the crystal provides 20 MHz clock to the
PIC. It requires resistors and capacitors to oscillate properly.

Fig 7. Crystal Oscillator.

 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.2.6 Key Board Pin

 Pin 1 Data.
 Pin 2 Not Connected.
 Pin 3 GND.
 Pin 4 Vcc (+5V).
 Pin 5 Clock.
 Pin 6 Not Connected.
The PS/2 protocol can actually do two-way communication -- that is to say
you can actually send information to the keyboard. This can be used to set
the LED lights on the keyboard.
PS/2 Keyboard Protocol
As stated in the video, the PS/2 Interface is quite easy to implement. To send
a key stroke, the keyboard begins driving the clock line. On the falling edge
of the clock line, the data line represents the current bit. Each keystroke is
sent as 11 bits: first a start bit of 0, then the 8 bits of the scan code (least
significant bit first), then a parity bit (odd parity, which we did not
implement for simplicity's sake), and finally a stop bit (always 1).
All data is transmitted one byte at a time and each byte is sent in a frame
consisting of 11-12 bits. These bits are:

 1 start bit. This is always 0.

 8 data bits, least significant bit first.
 1 parity bit (odd parity).
 1 stop bit. This is always 1.
 1 acknowledge bit (host-to-device communication only)
 Chapter 3 Project Design

Fig 8. Pin Description of keyboard socket.

3.2.7 Status LEDs

They show the state of USB. The various conditions are shown below.

Table 4.USB device state LED status.

 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.2.8 Design

For providing the clock using crystal oscillator 22pF capacitors and 1Mohm
resistors are required. They make the crystal oscillate properly. A capacitor
0.47 μ F is connected across the pin 18. It is required for the proper
functioning of internal voltage regulator. A decoupling capacitor of value 0.1
μF is connected across the power pins of USB socket. Status LEDs are
connected at pins 19 and 20.

Fig 9.Example of 4X4 matrix keyboard interfacing with IC.

 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.3 POWER SUPPLY

Fig 10. Block diagram of power supply.

Fig 11. Circuit diagram of power supply.

Hardware requirements:

 A Transformer (230-9V, 1A).

 Bridge Rectifier (Power Diode BY127).
 Voltage Regulator IC 7805.
 Power Transistor 2n2955.
 Capacitor (4.7μF 35V).
 Resistor (10 K ohm)
 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.3.1 Transformer

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive

coupling between its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary
winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a
varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the
secondary winding.

Transformers range in size from thumbnail-sized used in microphones to

units weighing hundreds of tons interconnecting the power grid. A wide
range of transformer designs are used in electronic and electric power
applications. Transformers are essential for the transmission, distribution,
and utilization of electrical energy.

We use step down transformer which step down the voltage from 230V to
9V.

Fig 12. Step-down transformer (230V- 9V).

 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.3.2 Bridge rectifier

The bridge rectifier provides full wave rectification from a two wire AC
input. It is formed of power diode BY127. The ac input voltage is applied to
the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. . The load resistance is connected
between the other two ends of the bridge. For the positive half cycle of the
input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2 and D4
remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL. For the
negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be
in series with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL
in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional
wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Fig 13. Bridge rectifier.

 Chapter 3 Project Design

3.3.3 Regulator IC 7805

The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family of self-

contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family
is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply
due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is
replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for example, the
7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line
are positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive
relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which
are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be
used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the
same circuit.

Fig 14.Voltage regulator (IC7805).

 Chapter 3 Project Design

Specifications

 Output Voltage =5V.

 Ripple rejection ratio =78dB.
 Input regulation 3mV.
 Load regulation 15mV.

3.3.4 Capacitor

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal

electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical
conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common
construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating
film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many
common electrical devices.
 Chapter 3 Project Design

Fig 15. Capacitor.

3.3.5 Resistor

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements

electrical resistance as a circuit element.

The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the
resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law: I = V/R

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the

potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is
the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.

Fig 16. Resistor.

Chapter 4 PCB Design

CHAPTER 4

PCB DESIGN
 Chapter 4 PCB Design

CHAPTER 4
PCB DESIGN
4.1 PCB DESIGINING PROCESS

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and

electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways,
tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-
conductive substrate. When the board has only copper tracks and features,
and no circuit elements such as capacitors, resistors or active devices have
been manufactured into the actual substrate of the board, it is more correctly
referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. Use of the
term PWB or printed wiring board although more accurate and distinct from
what would be known as a true printed circuit board, has generally fallen by
the wayside for many people as the distinction between circuit and wiring
has become blurred. Today printed wiring (circuit) boards are used in
virtually all but the simplest commercially produced electronic devices, and
allow fully automated assembly processes that were not possible or practical
in earlier era tag type circuit assembly processes.
A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit
assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB Assembly (PCBA).
In informal use the term "PCB" is used both for bare and assembled boards,
the context clarifying the meaning.
 Chapter 4 PCB Design

Fig 17. Printed circuit board.

4.2 MANUFACTURING

Excluding exotic products using special materials or processes, all printed

circuit boards manufactured today can be built using the following four
items which are usually purchased from manufacturers:

 Laminates.
 Copper-clad laminates.
 Resin impregnated B-stage cloth (Pre-preg).
 Copper foil.

4.3 PROCESS

There are ten steps for preparing PCB they are:

1. Patterning (etching)

The majority of printed circuit boards today are made from purchased
laminate material with copper already applied to both sides. The unwanted
copper is removed by various methods leaving only the desired copper
traces, this is called subtractive. In an additive method, traces are
electroplated onto a bare substrate using a complex process with many steps.
The advantage of the additive method is less pollution of the environment.
The method chosen for PCB manufacture depends on the desired number of
boards to be produced. Double-sided boards or multi-layer boards use
plated-through holes, called vias, to connect traces on different layers of the
PWB.

2. Chemical etching

Chemical etching is usually done with ammonium per sulfate or ferric

chloride. For PTH (plated-through holes), additional steps of electro less
deposition are done after the holes are drilled, then copper is electroplated to
build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and plated with tin/lead. The
tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched away.
 Chapter 4 PCB Design

The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by

hobbyists, is immersion etching, in which the board is submerged in etching
solution such as ferric chloride. Compared with methods used for mass
production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be applied to the
bath to speed the etching rate. In bubble etching, air is passed through the
etchant bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses
a motor-driven paddle to splash boards with etchant; the process has become
commercially obsolete since it is not as fast as spray etching. In spray
etching, the etchant solution is distributed over the boards by nozzles, and re
circulated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle pattern, flow rate,
temperature, and etchant composition gives predictable control of etching
rates and high production rates.

As more copper is consumed from the boards, the etchant becomes saturated
and less effective; different etchants have different capacities for copper,
with some as high as 150 grams of copper per liters of solution. In
commercial use, etchants can be regenerated to restore their activity, and the
dissolved copper recovered and sold. Small-scale etching requires attention
to disposal of used etchant, which is corrosive and toxic due to its metal
content.

The etchant removes copper on all surfaces exposed by the resist.

"Undercut" occurs when etchant attacks the thin edge of copper under the
resist; this can reduce conductor widths and cause open-circuits. Careful
control of etch time is required to prevent undercut. Where metallic plating
is used as a resist, it can "overhang" which can cause short-circuits between
adjacent traces when closely spaced. Overhang can be removed by wire-
brushing the board after etching.

3. Lamination

"Multi layer" printed circuit boards have trace layers inside the board. One
way to make a 4-layer PCB is to use a two-sided copper-clad laminate, etch
the circuitry on both sides, then laminate to the top and bottom prepreg and
copper foil. Lamination is done by placing the stack of materials in a press
and applying pressure and heat for a period of time. This results in an
inseparable one piece product. It is then drilled, plated, and etched again to
get traces on top and bottom layers. Finally the PCB is covered with solder
 Chapter 4 PCB Design

mask, marking legend, and a surface finish may be applied. Multi-layer PCB
does allow for much higher component density.

4. Drilling

Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-diameter drill bits
made of solid coated tungsten carbide. Coated tungsten carbide is
recommended since many board materials are very abrasive and drilling
must be high RPM and high feed to be cost effective. Drill bits must also
remain sharp so as not to mar or tear the traces. Drilling with high-speed-
steel is simply not feasible since the drill bits will dull quickly and thus tear
the copper and ruin the boards. The drilling is performed by automated
drilling machines with placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file.
These computer-generated files are also called numerically controlled drill
(NCD) files or "Excellent files". The drill file describes the location and size
of each drilled hole. These holes are often filled with annular rings (hollow
rivets) to create vias. Vias allow the electrical and thermal connection of
conductors on opposite sides of the PCB.

When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly
because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be
evaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface
finish inside the hole. These holes are called micro vias.

It is also possible with controlled-depth drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-

drilling the individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes
that connect only some of the copper layers, rather than passing through the
entire board. These holes are called blind vias when they connect an internal
copper layer to an outer layer, or buried vias when they connect two or more
internal copper layers and no outer layers.

The hole walls for boards with 2 or more layers can be made conductive and
then electroplated with copper to form plated-through holes. These holes
electrically connect the conducting layers of the PCB. For multilayer boards,
those with 3 layers or more, drilling typically produces a smear of the high
temperature decomposition products of bonding agent in the laminate
system. Before the holes can be plated through, this smear must be removed
by a chemical de-smear process, or by plasma-etch. The de-smear process
ensures that a good connection is made to the copper layers when the hole is
 Chapter 4 PCB Design

plated through. On high reliability boards a process called etch-back is

performed chemically with a potassium permanganate based etchant or
plasma. The etch-back removes resin and the glass fibers so that the copper
layers extend into the hole and as the hole is plated become integral with the
deposited copper.

5. Exposed conductor plating and coating

PCBs are plated with solder, tin, or gold over nickel as a resist for etching
away the unneeded underlying copper.

After PCBs are etched and then rinsed with water, the solder mask is
applied, and then any exposed copper is coated with solder, nickel/gold, or
some other anti-corrosion coating.

Matte solder is usually fused to provide a better bonding surface or stripped

to bare copper. Treatments, such as benzimidazolethiol, prevent surface
oxidation of bare copper. The places to which components will be mounted
are typically plated, because untreated bare copper oxidizes quickly, and
therefore is not readily solder able. Traditionally, any exposed copper was
coated with solder by hot air solder leveling (HASL). The HASL finish
prevents oxidation from the underlying copper, thereby guaranteeing a
solder able surface. This solder was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder
compounds are now used to achieve compliance with the RoHS directive in
the EU and US, which restricts the use of lead. One of these lead-free
compounds is SN100CL, made up of 99.3% tin, 0.7% copper, 0.05% nickel,
and a nominal of 60ppm germanium.

It is important to use solder compatible with both the PCB and the parts
used. An example is Ball Grid Array (BGA) using tin-lead solder balls for
connections losing their balls on bare copper traces or using lead-free solder
paste.

Other plating used are OSP (organic surface protectant), immersion silver
(IAg), immersion tin, electro less nickel with immersion gold coating
(ENIG), and direct gold plating (over nickel). Edge connectors, placed along
one edge of some boards, are often nickel plated then gold plated. Another
coating consideration is rapid diffusion of coating metal into Tin solder. Tin
 Chapter 4 PCB Design

forms intermetallics such as Cu5Sn6 and Ag3Cu that dissolve into the Tin
liquidus or solidus (@50C), stripping surface coating or leaving voids.

Electrochemical migration (ECM) is the growth of conductive metal

filaments on or in a printed circuit board (PCB) under the influence of a DC
voltage bias. Silver, zinc, and aluminum are known to grow whiskers under
the influence of an electric field. Silver also grows conducting surface paths
in the presence of halide and other ions, making it a poor choice for
electronics use. Tin will grow "whiskers" due to tension in the plated
surface. Tin-Lead or Solder plating also grows whiskers, only reduced by the
percentage Tin replaced. Reflow to melt solder or tin plate to relieve surface
stress lowers whisker incidence. Another coating issue is tin pest, the
transformation of tin to a powdery allotrope at low temperature.

6. Solder resist

Areas that should not be soldered may be covered with "solder resist"
(solder mask). One of the most common solder resists used today is called
LPI (liquid photoimageable). A photo sensitive coating is applied to the
surface of the PWB, then exposed to light through the solder mask image
film, and finally developed where the unexposed areas are washed away.
Dry film solder mask is similar to the dry film used to image the PWB for
plating or etching. After being laminated to the PWB surface it is imaged
and develops as LPI. Once common but no longer commonly used because
of its low accuracy and resolution is to screen print epoxy ink. Solder resist
also provides protection from the environment.

7. Silkscreen

Line art and text may be printed onto the outer surfaces of a PCB usually by
screen printing epoxy ink in a contrasting color, but can also be done with
LPI or dry film like the solder resist. When space permits, the legend can
indicate component designators, switch setting requirements, test points, and
other features helpful in assembling, testing, and servicing the circuit board.

Some digital printing solutions are used instead of screen printing. This
technology allows printing variable data onto the PCB, including individual
serial numbers as text and bar code.
 Chapter 4 PCB Design

8. Test

Unpopulated boards may be subjected to a bare-board test where each circuit

connection (as defined in a netlist) is verified as correct on the finished
board. For high-volume production, a bed of nails tester, a fixture or a rigid
needle adapter is used to make contact with copper lands or holes on one or
both sides of the board to facilitate testing. A computer will instruct the
electrical test unit to apply a small voltage to each contact point on the bed-
of-nails as required, and verify that such voltage appears at other appropriate
contact points. A "short" on a board would be a connection where there
should not be one; an "open" is between two points that should be connected
but are not. For small- or medium-volume boards, flying probe and flying-
grid testers use moving test heads to make contact with the
copper/silver/gold/solder lands or holes to verify the electrical connectivity
of the board under test. Another method for testing is industrial CT scanning,
which can generate a 3D rendering of the board along with 2D image slices
and can show details such a soldered paths and connections.

9. Printed circuit assembly

After the printed circuit board (PCB) is completed, electronic components

must be attached to form a functional printed circuit assembly, or PCA
(sometimes called a "printed circuit board assembly" PCBA). In through-
hole construction, component leads are inserted in holes. In surface-mount
construction, the components are placed on pads or lands on the outer
surfaces of the PCB. In both kinds of construction, component leads are
electrically and mechanically fixed to the board with a molten metal solder.

There are a variety of soldering techniques used to attach components to a

PCB. High volume production is usually done with SMT placement machine
and bulk wave soldering or reflow ovens, but skilled technicians are able to
solder very tiny parts (for instance 0201 packages which are 0.02 in. by 0.01
in.) by hand under a microscope, using tweezers and a fine tip soldering iron
for small volume prototypes. Some parts may be extremely difficult to
solder by hand, such as BGA packages.

Often, through-hole and surface-mount construction must be combined in a

single assembly because some required components are available only in
surface-mount packages, while others are available only in through-hole
 Chapter 4 PCB Design

packages. Another reason to use both methods is that through-hole mounting

can provide needed strength for components likely to endure physical stress,
while components that are expected to go untouched will take up less space
using surface-mount techniques.

10. Protection and packaging

PCBs intended for extreme environments often have a conformal coating,

which is applied by dipping or spraying after the components have been
soldered. The coat prevents corrosion and leakage currents or shorting due to
condensation. The earliest conformal coats were wax; modern conformal
coats are usually dips of dilute solutions of silicone rubber, polyurethane,
acrylic, or epoxy. Another technique for applying a conformal coating is for
plastic to be sputtered onto the PCB in a vacuum chamber. The chief
disadvantage of conformal coatings is that servicing of the board is rendered
extremely difficult.

Many assembled PCBs are static sensitive, and therefore must be placed in
antistatic bags during transport. When handling these boards, the user must
be grounded (earthed). Improper handling techniques might transmit an
accumulated static charge through the board, damaging or destroying
components. Even bare boards are sometimes static sensitive. Traces have
become so fine that it's quite possible to blow an etch off the board (or
change its characteristics) with a static charge. This is especially true on
non-traditional PCBs such as MCMs and microwave PCBs.

4.4 DESINING

The software used for circuit design is EAGLE. The program consists of
three main modules: Layout Editor, Schematic Editor, Auto router which is
embedded in a single user interface. Therefore there is no need for
converting net lists between schematics and layouts. Its General features are:

 Online Forward- and Back-Annotation.

 Context sensitive help function.
 Chapter 4 PCB Design

 No hardware copy protection.

 Multiple windows for board, schematic and library.
 Powerful User Language.
 Integrated text editor.
 Available for Windows und Linux.

Layout Editor has following features

 Maximum drawing area 1.6 x 1.6m (64 x 64 inch).

 Resolution 1/10,000mm (0.1 micron).
 Up to 16 signal layers.
 Conventional and SMT parts.
 Comes with a full set of part libraries.
 Easily create your own parts with the fully integrated library editor.
 Undo/redo function for ANY editing command, to any depth.
 Script files for batch command execution.
 Copper pouring.
 Cut and paste function for copying entire sections of a drawing.
 Design rule check.

Schematic Editor provides the following features

 Up to 99 sheets in one schematic.

 Electrical rule check.
 Gate- and pin swap.
 Create a board from a schematic with a single command.

The PCB design comprises of three sections:

4.4.1 LED array

It is a double sided PCB with the upper side of PCB comprising of the anode
lines of the LEDs .the cathode lines are laid on the bottom side of the PCB.
The anode lines are horizontal lines. The cathode lines are vertical lines. The
track width is 10 mils. ((for 1A current). a circular pad has been laid with
 Chapter 4 PCB Design

Diameter of pad 0.5 mm greater than hole diameter. Pads are laid for nodes
on the top side and holes for cathodes and vice versa. Tracks have angles of
45 degree or so (never 90 degree).

Fig 18. PCB of LED’s.

4.4.2 LED driver circuit

This is designed as two layers PCB. The tracks never end at 90 degrees the
VCC tracks (20 mils) are having greater width than normal tracks. The
ground tracks are of width 40mils.
Chapter 4 PCB Design

Fig 19. PCB of MAX 232.

Chapter 5 Software

CHAPTER 5
SOFTWARE

CHAPTER 5
SOFTWARE
 Chapter 5 Software

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Simplicity and ease which higher programming languages bring in, as well
as broad application of microcontrollers today, were reasons to incite some
companies to adjust and upgrade BASIC programming language to better
suit needs of microcontroller programming. What did we thereby get? First
of all, developing applications is faster and easier with all the predefined
routines which BASIC brings in, whose programming in assembly would
take the largest amount of time. This allows programmer to concentrate on
solving the important tasks without wasting his time on, say, code for
printing on LCD display.

To avoid any confusion in the further text, we need to clarify several terms
we will be using frequently throughout the book:

 Programming language is a set of commands and rules according to

which we write the program. There are various programming
languages such as BASIC, C, Pascal, etc. There is plenty of resources
on BASIC programming language out there, so we will focus our
attention particularly to programming of microcontrollers.
 Program consists of a sequence of commands written in
programming language that microcontroller executes one after
another. Chapter 2 deals with the structure of BASIC program in
details.

 Compiler is a program run on computer and its task is to translate the

original BASIC code into language of zeros and ones that can be fed
to microcontroller. The process of translation of BASIC program into
executive HEX code is shown in the figure below. The program
written in BASIC and saved as file program. Pbas is converted by
compiler into assembly code (program.asm). The generated assembly
code is further translated into executive HEX code which can be
written to microcontroller memory.

 Programmer is a device which we use to transfer our HEX files from

computer to microcontroller memory.
Chapter 5 Software

Fig 20. Software implementation process.

 Chapter 5 Software

5.2 LOADING PROGRAM TO MICRO CONTROLLER

As a result of successful compiling of our previous code, mikroBasic will
generate HEX file.

HEX file is created for each module you have included in the project. In the
process of compiling, .mcl files will be linked together to output asm, lst and
hex files. If you want to distribute your module without disclosing the
source code, you can send your compiled library (file extension .mcl). User
will be able to use your library as if he had the source code. Although the
compiler is able to determine which routines are implemented in the library,
it is a common practice to provide routine prototypes in a separate text file.

HEX file is the one you need to program the microcontroller. Commonly,
generated HEX will be standard 8-bit Merged Intel HEX format, accepted
by the vast majority of the programming software. The programming device
(programmer) with accessory software installed on PC is in charge of
writing the physical contents of HEX file into the internal memory of a
microcontroller. The content of a file blink.hex is given below:

: 100000000428FF3FFF3FFF3F031383168601FF30A5
: 10001000831286000630F000FF30F100FF30F2005E
: 10002000F00B13281A28F10B16281928F20B1628A2
: 10003000132810281A30F000FF30F100F00B2128AF
: 100040002428F10B21281E284230F000F00B26282E
: 1000500086010630F000FF30F100FF30F200F00BB7
:1000600032283928F10B35283828F20B3528322868
: 100070002F281A30F000FF30F100F00B4028432801
: 10008000F10B40283D284230F000F00B45280428B1
: 100090004828FF3FFF3FFF3FFF3FFF3FFF3FFF3F3E
: 02400E007A3FF7
: 00000001FF
 Chapter 5 Software

Besides loading a program code into programming memory, programmer

also configures the target microcontroller, including the type of oscillator,
protection of memory against reading, watchdog timer, etc. The following
figure shows the connection between PC, programming device and the
MCU.

Fig 21. Connection between computer & microcontroller.

Note that the programming software should be used only for the
communication with the programming device — it is not suitable for code
writing.
 Chapter 5 Software

5.3 WRITING HEX FILE

Proload is a software which accepts only hex files. Once the machine code is
converted into hex code, that hex code has to be dumped into the
microcontroller placed in the programmer kit and this is done by the
Proload. Programmer kit contains a microcontroller on it other than the one
which is to be programmed. This microcontroller has a program in it written
in such a way that it accepts the hex file from the keil compiler and dumps
this hex file into the microcontroller which is to be programmed. As this
programmer kit requires power supply to be operated, this power supply is
given from the power supply circuit designed above. It to switch on that
power supply, a source is required. Thus this is accomplished from the
power supply board with an output of 12volts or from an adapter connected
to 230 V AC.

 Install the Proload Software in the PC.

 Now connect the Programmer kit to the PC (CPU) through serial cable.
 Power up the programmer kit from the ac supply through adapter.
 Now place the microcontroller in the GIF socket provided in the
programmer kit.
 Click on the proload icon in the PC. A window appears providing the
information like Hardware model, com port, device type, Flash size
etc. Click on browse option to select the hex file to be dumped into
the microcontroller and then click on “Auto program” to program the
microcontroller with that particular hex file.
 The status of the microcontroller can be seen in the small status
window in the bottom of the page. After this process is
completed, remove the microcontroller from the programmer kit and
place it in your system board. Now the system board behaves
according to the program written in the microcontroller.
Chapter 6 Advantages & Applications

CHAPTER 6

ADVANTAGES
&
APPLICATIONS
Chapter 6 Advantages & Applications

CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
6.1 ADVANTAGES

 Easy to implement.
 More reliable.
 Secured data transfer.
 Can be used in places where human beings cannot work.
 Robust system.
 High accuracy because of sensors and microcontroller.
 Can store the message in the memory.
 It is user friendly.
 Bright display in even day light.
 High life span of LED’s.
 Low power consumption.

6.2 DISADVANTAGES

 Special types of command are used to edit the notice.

 Skilled person is required to operate.

6.3 APPLICATIONS

 LED Moving Message Signs are used in any appropriate

locations.LED Moving Message Signs are used in any appropriate
locations to communicate different kind of messages, from time to
time, to many number of people who pass by such area.PowerOn
Automations Private Limited is a group company of M/s Manilec
Controls and Devices Private Limited company incorporated in early
90’s for manufacturing of Electronic and Electrical products.
 To display real time and temperature: Large size digital clocks indoor
or outdoor for shop floors, towers, petrol pumps, educational
institutes, etc. The moving display functions grab attention of the
Chapter 6 Advantages & Applications

people to whatever you want to say. Moving message has a batten

backed memory of 10000 character letters and is available in various
sizes to suit your requirement.
 Bringing forth a wide range of attractive and effective advertising
solutions through LED display systems, animation sign boards, lead
token boards, lighting & display signs, electronic signs, etc.
 The patrons can avail from us a world class array of LED Display
Systems, which is available in various color combinations and
designs. These products can be used for both outdoor and indoor
displaying applications. Moreover, these can also be customized as
per customers' specifications.
The following are the features:-
 The keyboard is used to type message that is to be displayed
Display is kept in a metallic box to provide complete protection from
environmental damage. Primarily used for industrial, official as well
as commercial purposes.
 We are identified as one of the leading service providers of Moving
LED Display. These products are made from high quality raw material
which is skillfully crafted by our expert designers. Due to their
stability and superb finish, these are broadly appreciated in the
market. The products are known for better screen resolution and high-
brightness performance.
 Rolling Message displays are also popularly known as Alphanumeric
Displays, Moving message Displays, Scrolling displays. MIPLs
Scrolling Display Systems are a unique opportunity to enhance the
power of your communication manifold. With unmatched features
such as variety in sizes, unbelievable flexibility, various inputs, and
highly competitive prices, these display systems stand way apart from
the conventional displays. The highlighting feature of these display
systems is the availability of the latest technology comparable to
others, at a very low price as well as the enormous flexibility,
versatility and cost effectiveness.
 Chapter 6 Advantages & Applications

6.4 CURRENTLY USE

USES:-
 FOREX RATE BOARD.

Fig 22. FOREX service rate board.

 SIZE OF CHARACTER HIGHT AVILABLE 0.5”, 0.8” & 1”

 EACH COLUMN WITH 88.88,888.88,888888 WITH DECIMAL
SHIFT
 COLUMN AVAILABLE: 1,2,3,4.
 PROGRAMMABLE WITH: IR REMOTE CONTROL, PC AT
KEYPAD OR PC
 TOKEN DISPLAY.
 NOTICE BOARD.
Chapter 6 Advantages & Applications

 MOVING DISPLAY (MONO & MULTI COLOR

MULTILANGUAGE.).
 AIRPORT SIGN.
 GAS STATION SIGN RAILWAYS.
 TRAFFIC SIGN.
 MULTIPLEX SIGN.
 LED VIDEO WALL.
 CALENDAR CLOCK.
Chapter 7 Conclusion & Future Enhancement

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION
&
FUTURE
ENHANCEMENT
 Chapter 7 Conclusion & Future Enhancement

CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION & FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

7.1 FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

 Can be controlled by using computer with serial cable.
 Can be made Wireless using Transmitter & receiver.
 The wireless LED board could be developed. GSM and GPRS based
Designs are Public utility products for mass communication. This is a
Scrolling (Moving) Message Electronic Display Board which displays
the messages received as SMS or GPRS Packets.

7.2 CONCLUSION

 By implementation of this project we can display or scroll the

messages, notices at notice board on colleges, railway
stations, bus display system and other place where it is
required. In order to save the papers. The major drawback of
this project is its keyboard interfacing by which it is not easy
to change the notices. So, in future this project can be made
wireless by receiver and transmitter and serial port could also
be enable by which the messages, notices can be changed
through computer.
Chapter 7 Conclusion & Future Enhancement
Chapter 7 Conclusion & Future Enhancement

REFERENCES
 http://mebss.blogspot.in/2012/09/step-down-transformers.html
 http://www.electroschematics.com/5362/mobile-charger-using-
bike-battery/
 http://www.talonix.com/shop/category.aspx?
catid=128#.UXLlTaI9HzE
 http://www.westfloridacomponents.com/BridgeRectifiers.html
 http://ram-e-shop.com/oscmax/catalog/index.php?cPath=32
 http://ecbuddy.blogspot.in/2011/02/at89s52-pin-diagram.html
 http://homepage.ntlworld.com/alanet.marshall1/WS-
page/X1CNC/X1CNCpage2.htm
 https://www.physics.iitm.ac.in/courses_files/courses/eleclab03_od
d/regulated_power_supply.htm