OS RO F CNY Ia VEGETA EWN (Oc! [For Class 41] BNC MMOLE Dent ee POO er Cone Ud fundamental misconceptions Pe OL cea POU CORI LEON o Cun and Answers Miscellaneous Exercises with harder problems for competitive examinations erent erenlcatinus Objective problems according to present need M.N. Mukherjee P. Mukhopadhyay SAUER U. Dasgupta ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS aS AER gssveeen Ese SNeRudiments of MATHEMATICS 2 level, W.B. Joint Entrance and Other Competitive Examinations [FOR CLASS xt] For +: Dr. Manabendra Nath Mukherjee se. «cord Medatis. Phd. Mathematics, University of Caleutta. thematics, Charu Chandra College «’s College, Kolkata. Professor, Department of Pure Formerly, Lecturer in Mat and St. Xaviet Dr. Parthasarathi Mukhopadhyay yy se, (11 class ts. MP PD Reader in Mathematics, shna Mission Residential College, Narendraper raduate), Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, Belur Math, Howrah “Teacher in Mathematics, South Point High School, Kolkata. Rami Guest lecturer (Post Gi Formerly, Asst. Dr. Srimanta Sinha ROY. yysc..p.n1. MP. MP. Senior Lecturer in Mathematics, parackpore Rastraguru Surendranath College, 24 Parsi (North). “Teacher in Mathematics, Kinkarbati Ag. Institafion Hooghly. Formerly, Asst. Sri Utpal Dasgupta, yc. nea. mPrit a College, Habra, 24 Parganas (North). mohan Roy Mahavidyalaya, Hooghly. Point High School, Kolkata, ndriya Vidyalaya, Kankinara. Senior Lecturer in Mathematics, Sree Chaitany Formerly, Lecturer in Mathematics, Raja Ram "asst. Teacher in Mathematics, South Kendriya Vidyalaya, Barrackpore, Ke . ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS KOLKATA-700 073 web ; wawacabooks.net e-mail ; info@acabooks.net Thais one {ANU 8ET7-ZJ8-3W0O© Reserved by the authors First edition April 2004 ; ‘Second edition April 2005 . Third edition March 2006 Fourth edition February 2007 Reprint August 2007 . Fifth edition March 2008 Reprint May 2008 ISBN : 978-81-89781-54-5 Price : Rupees three hundred only, transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic. Permission of the copyright holders. (iv) ‘Table of Contents The Contents of » marked Chapters are not included in the Syllabus of WBJEE 2008. Page Useful Formulas, Definitions & Results xix Chapters Aa a ' *ONE : IDEA OF NUMBER SYSTEM 3 Natural Number, Prime and composite number, Fraction, Rational number, Number axis, Irrational number, Real number. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers *TWO : LAWS OF INDICES 25 Fundamental laws of indices and their applications. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers *THREE : SURDS eth? ui . 2 Basic properties of surds and their applications. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers FOUR : THEORY OF SETS : oo) Set : Description of sets, Finite and infinite set, Order of a finite set, Subset, Proper subset, Empty set, Equivalent (finite) sets, Universal set, Power set. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers Set Operation : Union and Intersection of two sets, Algebra of sets, Difference and Symmetric difference of two sets, Complement of a set, De Morgan's laws, Cartesian Product of two sets. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers Venn diagram, Inclusion-Exclusion Principle and its applications. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers FIVE : ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 131 Definition, Common difference, Generat term, A.M Examples, Exercises, Answers (iti)" Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers SIX _: GEOMETRIC PI a 163 £. Sinition, Common ratio, General term, G.M. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers: SEVEN : COMPLEX NUMBERS 2 389 Introduction and fundamental operations, a + ib form of a complex” ‘number, Real and Imaginary part of a complex number, Conjugate ofa complex number and its properties, Modulus and Amplitude of a complex number, Algebra of complex numbers, Triangle inequality (|=) +z. 1S EIGHT : THEORY OF QUADRATIC EQUATION 232 Concept of a quadratic equation with real co-efficients, Remainder theorem and Factor theorem (statements only), Fundamental theorem of algebra, Shreedhar Acharyya’s formula. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers Relations between roots and coefficients of a quadratic equation, Discriminant, Conditions of common root. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers Sign of a quadratic expression, Maximum and Minumum values of a “quadratic expression, Factorisation of a quadratic expression with rational ‘eoveffictents : Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers NINE : LOGARITHM “ 212 Definition and properties of logarithm and their applications, Inequalities of logarithm. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers TEN : PERMUTATIO! ABINA’ : 298 Introduction, Addition and Multiplication laws of counting, Definition (xiv) Copyrighted materialof pei ‘mutation, Number of permutations of different things taken r at ., 'P.); Permutations of n things taken all togethe.. when things: are not all different; Permutations of different things taking rat a time, when each thing can be repeated once, twice. ... up tor times in any arrangement, Some restricied permuations Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers Definition of combination, Combinations of 1 different things taken r at a time (ie., "C,), Complementary combination, Properties of "C,, Restricted combinations, Division into groups, Greatest value of "C,. (En). Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers ‘MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES TRIGONOMETRY Introduction, Measuring an angle, Trigonometric ratios of any angle and their signs, Range of values of trigonometric ratios, Trigonometric ratios to different associated angles [e.g, OGve or ~ve), 90° = @, 180° + @, 270° + 6, 360° + A, n. 360° + 8, n € Z). Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers TWO : COMPOUND ANGLES Formulas of different trigonometrical ratios of sum and difference of two angles, [e.g. sin (A + B), cos (A + B), tan (A + B) etc. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers ‘THREE : TRANSFORMATION OF SUMS AND PRODUCTS Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers FOUR : TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF MULTIPLE ANGLES 409 Formulas of different trigonomettical ratios of multiple angles viz. 20, 30, ... fe.g., sin 20, sin 30, cos 20, cos’ 30, tan 20, tan 30, etc.]. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers (xv) Copyrighted materialFIVE : TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF SUBMULTIPLE ANGLES Formulas for different trigonometrical ratios of submultiple angles viz., Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers SIX : GENERAL SOLUTIONS OF TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers SEVEN : INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Definitions and principle values of sin~!x, cos“!x, tar, Formula for sin“ + sin-!y, cos“l + cosy, tan“r + tanc!y, 2sin-'x, 2cos-h, 2tanm!x, 3sin“'x, 3cos-!x, 3tan!x etc. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers EIGHT : PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES Sine rule, Cosine rule, Tangent rule, Projection formulas, Half-angle formulas, Regarding area of a triangle, Simple applications of the formulas. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 427 449 472 509 533 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS Introduction, Cartesian Co-ordinate system, Polar co-ordinate system, Relations between Cartesian and polar co-ordinates, Tranformation of the co-ordinates of a point from Cartesian to polar and’ conversely, Transformation of co-ordinates, Distance between two points. Section of a line segment in a given ratio, Middle point of a line segment, Area of a triangle, Condition of collinearity of three points, Centroid of a triangle. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers TWO : LOCUS Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers (xvi) 562THREE : STRAIGHT LINE! Inclination and gradiant of a straight line, Gradiant of a straight line parallel to an axis of co-ordinates, joining two given points, intercepted form, point-slope form, slope-intercept form, symmetric form, normal form etc., Condition of parallelism, Condition of concurrency, Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers FOUR : CIRCLE Definition, Equation of a circle with given centre and radius, General form of the equation of a circle i.e., x2 + y? + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, where g? +f? - ¢ > 0, Different forms of equation of a circle, Concentric circles, Parametric equation of a circle, Equation of a circle passing through the intersection of two circles. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 511 626 647 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (First Part) ONE : FUNCTIONS OF A REAL VARIABLE Variables, constants, parameters, functions, geometric representations of various functions, idea of rational functions, exponential functions, logarithmic functions, periodic functions, increasing and decreasing functions, odd and even functions, algebraic function and transcendental function. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers TWO : LIMIT OF A FUNCTION Idea of limit with stress on geometrical and intuitive approach, algebra of limits (statements only), one sided limit, limit of a function of function, simple application of some standard limits in evaluating limits. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers THREE : CONTINUITY Geometrical idea of continuity of function at a point, various types of discontinuit Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers (xvii) 655 750FOUR : DIFFERENTIATION 763 Derivative (from the first principle) Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers Derivative oof constant function, x” (n-rational) sin x, cos x, e%, log 2; working rule of derivative of x" (for real n), rules of differentiation (statement only) of sum, product and quotient of two function, derivative of tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x, sins, cos!x ete. Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 809 VECTORS (IN A PLANE) i oe VECTORS IN A PLANE 817 Vectors and scalars, equal vectors, unit vectors, zero vector, position vector of a point in terms of i and j, localised and free vectors, collinear vectors, negative of a vector, components of a vector, addition of vectors, multiplication of a vector by a scalar, position vector of a point dividing a line segment in a given ratio, application of vectors in geometry (simple geometrical problems). Worked-out Exercises, Exercises, Answers MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 854 APPENDICES 859 Mathematics Question of the Annual Examination of Class-XI (With Solutions/Hints) Year 2007 901 Year 2008 909 (wii)At A Glance Useful Formulas, Definitions @ PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBE} & Results ifa>O 0 ifa=0 -aita<0. (i) For any real number a, lal= (ii) la + BLS lal + [OL Gii) Hal - WON S 1a — OL (iv) a — bY S lal + 161 @ LAWS OF INDICES = nezero real numbers a and b and ration oe atdct=tGinat=e'yr 2. For two nonzero reals a and b and for (wo ‘m Gi) arty’ = a" Civ) (aby" = a" b™ () (3) 1, For nor nal indices m and n, rationals m and n, mn eam (iy) = Wat at = 4. For any two positive reals a and b and for any non-Zer0 real x, @ ax = be a= b, ii) ax = ay, #01 laxey @ SURDS : then a — Jb is the conjugate (i) Ia and b are two rationals and b is +e and not a perfect square, of a+ yb. Gi) If a, 6, ¢, d are rationals and Jb,/d are surds then Ad @as fh zct Vd 2a- tbe wae vb -e# Vb 2 aaG bad (© Yard =c+ 2 Yao ac-Vd (az Yb #0. @ THEORY OF SETS + For three seis A, Band C and the universal set S (yxeAUB> xedorxeB xeAnB 2xeAandreB xeAUBaxeAandxeB (ix)r€ANB=>xeAorxeB reA\B=> xeAandxeB. (ii) AU A =A, AMA =A (Laws of idempotence) iii) AU B= BU A,A 9 B =B 0 A (Laws of commutativity) (iv) AU BUC) = (ALB) UC An (BOC) = (AM B)AC (Laws of associativity) (WAU (BAC) =(AUB)N (AUC), AN (BY C) = (ANB) YU (ANC) (Laws of distributivity) (vi) (AU BY = A’ 9 BY, (An BY = A’ u BY (De Morgan's laws) (vii) (A’y' = A, S’ = 9g, ¢ =S, AU A’ =S, ANA’ = ¢ (Complement laws) (vill) AU @=A,A 1 O= 9 AUS =S,A0S=A (Laws of identity) (ix) An (AUB) =A, AU (A B) =A (Laws of absorption) (x) For two finite sets A and B (a) |AUB/=|A1+1B|-1A AB | (Inclusion-exclusion principle) (b+) |A\BI=JAI-|ANBI (©) |A’] =1S|-|A | (where $ is universal set under consideration) @ ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (A.P.) 1. Let a and d be respectively the first term and the common difference of an A.P.; then @) 4, =a + (n- Dd Gi) S, = F020 + (n= 1)d) = x +1) where | denotes the nth term of the A.P. atb ae 2. The arithmetic mean (A.M.) between two real numbers a and 6 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (G.P.) 1, Let a and r be the first term and the common ratio of a G. P; then a a) (use, when r > 1) @ 4, =a! Gi) S, = ‘ a(t=r") (use, when r< 1) 2. The geometric mean (G.M.) between two real numbers a and b = + Jab. COMPLEX NUMBER (1) A complex number z is defined to be a pair (a, 6) of real numbers ‘a’ and ‘b" subject to the following stipulation : (a) two complex numbers z, = (a, b) and z, = (c, d) are equal ie., (a, b) = (¢, d) if and only if'a = cand b = d. (ax)image not available[Triangle inequality) sprovided2,#0. (Dis; #181214 @)lz4-2121y ul (ix) Arg. z = arg. z+ 2nm (n © 2), where arg. z is the principal value of the argument, to be solved from, x = r-cos 8, y = r sin 8 subject to- #< OS x. + iy =r (cos 0 +i sin 8)] (x) (a) arg (cy zp) = arg. cy + arg. zy + 2k (b) arg (2y/zq) = arg x, - arg @ THEORY OF QUADRATIC EQUATION : + 2km, where k = 0, 1 or— 1. 1. The general form of quadratic equation in one variable x is ax? + by +c = 0 (a # 0) @ = b+ Jb? - 4ac {a) The roots of (i) are x = 2a (b) If @and are the roots of (i), then @ + B= - s and ap= © 2. The quadratic equation of which the roots are a and Bis x*-(a@+ B)x + aB=0. @ LOGARITHM Le logy! =0 2.loga= 1 3. fu = M. logb 4 dot = ctv’ S.tog,b= ie, 6 logya = inact 7. (i) log, (MN) = log, M + log, N. (ii) log, (#4) = log, M - log, N (iii) log, M" = n log, M. (iv) log, M = log, M x log,b. @ PERMUTATION : 1. Number of permutations of n different things taking r (Sn) at a time = . n nr (n-r)! 2. Number of permutations of n different things taking all at a time = "P= n! = a(n ~ Wn ~ 2) (= re Ve 3. Number of permutations of n things taking all at a time is which p things are alike of first kind, q things are alike of a second kind, r things are alike of a third kind and the rest are all different, nt Pq 4, Number of permutations of n different things taking rat a time when each thing may be repeated upto r times in any permutation, isn’. (xxii)@ COMBINATION = 1. Number of combinations of a different things taking 7 aatime="C,= 7p a 2p srhtC, RM HNC =t & "Cr = MC yp SMC + Cr G.I p#qand"C,="Cy then p +g = 7 fee HEEL "Cry = 8. The total number of combination of w different things taking any number at a time MC) HMC, HNC, Hoe HNC, = B= Ne 9, The total number of combination of ip +. + r+) things of which p things are alike of a first kina q things are alike of a second Kind, r things are dlike of a third kind and so on, taking any number at atime is ((p + q+ Nort Ded TRIGONOMETRY (Following formulas are applicable only when the concerned trigonometrical ratios are defined.) @ TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS FOR ASSOCIATED ANGLES w 2nd quadrant Ist quadrant in all (Positive) (Positive) 3rd quadrant | 4th quadrant tan cos (Positive) (Positive) Gi) 1 8's a positive acute angle and mis an even integer then (a) sin (n. 90” # 6) = sin Bor, sin @) (by cos (n. 90" # 8) = Cos A oF, (- £08 6) (@) tan (1, 90° = 0) = tan or, ( tan 8) (ii) If @ 8 a positive acute angle and m is an odd integer then (a) sin (a. 90° # 8) = cos Aor, (- cos 6) () cos (n. 90° + 6) = sin Bor (- sin 6) @ COMPOUND ANGLES (i) sin (A +B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B. (iy sin (A ~ B) = sin A cos B ~ cos A sin B. Git) cos (A + B) = cos A cos,B ~ sin A sin B (iv) cos (A ~ B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B. (v) sin (A + B) sin (A - B) = sin2A — sin’B = cos?B - 087A. (vi) cos (A + B) cos (A ~ B) = costA — sin?B = cos*B - sin?A. Wi) _ tant tanB (ii _ tan A= tan B (ii) cn (A+B)= Fo ona (A-B)= Fy ge Aan B (xxiii)STR (a) cot (A — ny = tA cot B41 (ix) cot (A + B) = cot A+ cot B cot B= cot A ¥ n B + tan C~ tan A tar Bian Gian (A+B + C)= re Bian tanC unt ( i) 2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A — B) (xiii) 2 cos A sin B sin (A + B) - sin (A-B) (xiv) 2 cos A cos B = cos (A +B) + cos (A - B) (xv) 2 sin A sin B s (A — B) — cos (A +B). C+D [-D : ; (xvi) sin C + sin D = 2 sin (xvii) sin C - sin D = 2 cos =F sin =. (ix) e08 C- cos D = 2 sin £42 in Pee MULTIPLE ANGLES in 20 = 2 sin @ cos @. Gi) cos 20 = cos?@- sin2¢ cos 20= 2 cos’@- 1 (iv) cos 20= 1-2 (¥) 1 + cos 20 = 2 costo (vi) | - cos 26 = 2 sin2@ ‘i) tan2g = 1260820 hay 2tan 0 (vii) an? = Treos20 (iii) sin 20: Teena 1-tan29 2tand (ix) cos 29 = ——tan@ () tan 29 = 71400 _ 1+tan?9 ~tan?@ (xi) sin 39 = 3 Gili) an 39 = 3tan@ ~ tan? 1-3tan?9 * SUBMULTIPLE ANGLES (@ sin 0=2 sin 3 cos Gi) cos 6 = 005? — sin? 2 cos O=2c03 $ | (iv) cos O= 12 sin (1 +05 0= 2 cos? (i) 1 ~c08 6 = 2 sin? 2 a ayn 98) 0s 8 ‘iy sing = 2 8an$ (wil) tan? *Traeo (viii) sing = Trent T= tan? @ 2tan 2 x) cos 9 = —T 2. (0) tan = 2 I+ tan? S tan? $ (xiv) sind- 4 sina (xii) cos 30 = 4 cos* @- 3 cos 08 asin S 3 (xi) sin @ =3 sin M3 8 = OT +1 (b) cos 15° = sin 15° = “ar (@) sin 224 = $a : (f) tan 224° = V2 - 15 5a = (xiii) (@) sin 15° (h) cos 36° V5+1 4 () sin 36° = cos 54° = + 10 - 245 @ GENERAL SOLUTIONS ( (@) If sin @= 0 then, 9= nz. (6) Ifsin == 1 then, 9= (4n~ (ii (@) if cos @ = 0 then, @= Qn + DF (©) If cos 0 =-I then, 0= Qn + Ie (ii) (@) If tan @= 0 then, O= nx @ INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS x) =x, when |x |S 1, Cos (cos when - 9 0 cor! Lm when <0 _ x (iv) sine! x= cos! fl—x? = wr! = cor! we = = cosec! wesecrt al ae! ae J ven 0 and x2 4 y2 5 1) cov'[ay + yi-2? vi-¥?]. (try ~cos!fay ty 1-27 1-9], (fx>yy ) (vi) sin! x + sin cos"! x + cos tan! x + tan -I Cos y =x a — ZZ tanle e> tan y = x R (-$4 ye cote e cot y= x Rg ©.) y= secnly e sec y= [x[21 [o.4) vu (F] LIMIT OF A FUNCTION A. Some standard limits 1. If a #0 and a is a negative integer, then lim." = a", ra (For any natural number », we have lim. = a") rou ed! xa ‘i any rational number, then’ tim {+#)" =! 0 2. If w is any rational number, then lim = na"; 3.1 a 4, lim = = 1, where x is measured in radians; 1 5. im" = 1; 6, tim + tog. +.) = 1; mo Biyx (8! +9 a 7. Tim (Ix) = €, where o is the base of natural logarithm ; 8. fim “=F = log,o, (a > 0). wa rt B. On algebra of limits Let a, c be real numbers and be a positive integer ; further let flx) and g(x) be such functions that lim f(x) and lim g(x) both exist. ra ra ‘Then following hold : 1. lim fe fix)] = ¢ lim fx) 2. fim (fx) + gx)] = lim fix) + lim gx) lim fx) 3 09] tim gc] 4. tim £2 2 224 provided lim gix) # 0. roa Leone ae gt) ~ “tim gC" xa ; 3. fim fx)" = [tim roo] 6. fim] fey) |= | lim fs) | re pe a pau (xxx)image not availableimage not availableimage not availableCopyrighted materialimage not availableimage not availableimage not available6 _ RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS. point lying to the right of O, on the line, at that unit distance and this point represents the number 1. At twice the unit distance from the origin to the right should be the point representing 2, at thrice the unit distance, the number 3 and so on. Dually, fo the left of the origin at the unit distance from it on the line should be the point representing, Number Axis the number —I and so on. Intuitively, it is now clear that in this way all the integers (positive, negative and zero) can be plotted on a straight line. We shall call it the number axis. Observe that if a natural number a is less than a natural number b (written a < b), then the point corresponding to a lies 10 the left of the point corresponding to b. A positive integer greater than | is called a prime number provided its only factors! are 1 and the number itself. Note that most integers can be resolved into smaller factors : “6 =2.3, 15 = 3.5, 111 = 3.37, 462 = 2.3.7.11. The above definition clearly tells that numbers like 6, 15, 111 or 462 are not prime, whereas one can check that 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 ete, are prime numbers. The positive integers (except 1) Prime Number that are not prime are called composite integers ; ie, a composite integer can be expressed as a product of two or more prime factors. Note that the integer 1 is considered neither a prime nor a composite. How many of the natural numbers are prime ? It is fascinating to know that this question was successfully addressed in around 300 BC by Euclid and he had proved the following : 2 I. There are infinitely many primes. He then further proved a result which is known as the fundamental theorem of arithmetic that states 2 IL. Every integer greater than 1 is either a prime or a product of primes. This expression is unique, except for the order in which the factors appear?, ie., if n= py py» p, and n = q, gy ~. q, where p's and q’s are primes then r= s and after rearranging the q's (if necessary) we will have p, = q, for all i. Remark ; Prime numbers happen To be one of the most challenging and mysterious areas of number theory. Many a problem about primes, some of which are quite innocent looking, are still unsolved. ‘We point out only one such interesting problem. Take an even number (i¢., 2 isa factor of it) except 2. See that it can be expressed as a sum of two primes, For example, 4 = 2+ 2,6=3+3,8=3+5, 10=3+7,24=7 +17 etc. Indeed, you cannot find an exception, But is if generally true for all even integers ? This problem, known 45 Goldbach conjecture, Wa5 posed by C. Goldbach in 1742 in a letter to L. Euler, a great mathematician. The result is believed to be true, but till date nobody has been able to give a general proof ! The closest result is due toa Chinese mathematician Chen Jing Run, who in 1966 proved that—every sufficiently large even integer is a sum of a prime and a product of at most two primes (ée., a sum of a prime and an almost-prime number), ‘We put an end to the discussion about primes with another result of fundamental importance : 1, A natural number x Is said t0 be @factor Of natural number y if there is some natural number : such that, yer 2. Observe that this theorem is no more valid if 1 is considered to be prime in the definition. As then 6 = 2.3 and 6 = 1.2.3 could spoil the uniqueness of representation of 6 as product of its prime factors.image not availableimage not availableimage not available10__ RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS denominator n. If we do this for every positive integer n, then all the rational numbers will be represented by points on the number axis. These points are referred to as the rational points, as they represent rational numbers. Rational Points ‘A rational number « is said to be less than a rational number y (denoted by x < y) or, equivalently, y is greater than x (denoted by y > .), if y — x is positive, In such a case y lies to the right of x in the number axis and the points between x and y refer to numbers between xand y. With the above description of rational points lying on the number axis, don’t you feel that as we continue to plot the rational points for higher and higher values of n, the line number axis) is gradually getting filled up by these points? Indeed, one fecls that if we could do it for all the positive integers 1 (theoretically!), then there would be no gap whatsoever on the number axis, i.e., every point of the number axis seems to become a rational point. This fact is mathematically expressed by the formal statement that : the rational points are dense on the number axis. This means, on every tiny segment of number axis, no matter however small, there are rational points, infact ‘infinitely many’ rational points. In other words, between any two points on number axis, however close they may be, there are infinitely many rational points (and hence infinitely many rational numbers). As we make you see this ‘picture’ of number axis, nothing, absolutely nothing can make you feel, even intuitively, that there may still be any ‘gap’ left between rational points on the number axis, once we have plotted ALL of them! But indeed, THERE ARE !! There are enough ‘gaps’ everywhere on the line, even after plotting ALL rational points ! In fact, we shall now show that there is place for enough points on the line, which are not rational points, and you believe it or not, such points are, in a sense, much more than the rational points ! It was a master stroke of the Greek mathematicians (around 300 BC) to have discovered this fact at that early period ! Recall our discussion about ‘commensurable’ segments. We have seen that two segments aand b are commensurable if b = “4a, for some integers m and n, n # 0; if we choose a = n 1 (unit length on number axis), we see that segments that are commensurable with unit segment (ie., length between 0 and 1), correspond to rational points “ on the n Irrational Numbers umber axis, Eudoxus (from the Pythagorean school) pointed out that there exist segments that are incommensurable with the unit. Indeed, it was shown that the diagonal of a square is incommensurable with its side. The extraordinary significance that comes out of this statement lies in the fact that, if we cut out on the number axis, such an incommensurable segment with its one end at origin, the other end gives us a point on number axis which cannot be a rational point (as rational points correspond to segments that are commensurable with unit) ; herice the number corresponding to it is not a rational number: it is something new, We call it an irrational number. Let us explain the aforesaid construction step-by-step. Consider a square with side of lengthimage not availableimage not availableimage not available14 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS Now, as p and g are mutually prime, ie., they have no common factor other than 1, so must be the integers p? and q. This shows that fo must be a rational number which is not an integer ; but Sq is surely an integer, as it is a product of two integers. This shows that the equality in (i) is impossible, Hence our initial assumption must be wrong. Consequently, V/5_ is not a rational number. *2. Proye that Y/2 is not a rational number. Solutio = Note that |< 2<8; not an integer. hence Vi < Y2 < YB, ie, 1< Y2 <2, which shows that Y2 is If possible, let Y2 = - for some rational number [where q > 1, p,q are mutually prime integers]. 3 £~ (cubing both sides) Now, since q an integer (>1), mutually prime with p, q does not divide p and hence does not 3 divide p* either. So, = is a rational number which is not an integer ; but 2q° is clearly an integer, * whence we see that the equality in (i) is impossible. Consequently, our initial assumption must be wrong. So, ¥/2 is not a rational number. [es, Prove that /2 + ./5 is not rational. Solution = et, if possible, J2 + V5 be a rational number ; let us assume, ¥2 + V5 = r (where ris 4 non-zero rational number). Then, V5 = r- V2; squaring both sides we get, 5 =P 42-22, ie, I? =P -3 2-3 = wn (i) whence we have, /2 Clearly the right hand side of (i) gives a rational number but the left hand side (i.e., «/2 ) is irrational. Hence such an equality as (i) is impossible. Consequently, we conclude that ¥2 + V5 is not rational. © 4, Show that the sum of a rational number and an irrational number cannot be a rational number. What can you say about the sim of two irrational numbers? Justify your answer with example, if necessary. Solution = Let a be a rational number and 6 be an irrational number. If possible, suppose the sum a +b = c, where c is rational. Now, this gives, b a, where b is irrational but ¢ — a is rationalimage not availableimage not availableimage not available18 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS | Theorem : I I. (Trichotomy law) for any two real numbers x and y, exactly one of the three relations | | x>y,y>x,x = y holds. 1 | IL Ifx0, then xz < yz, ! Vv, Ifa #0, then a? >0. | VI. 1 > 0 (Oh yes ! it can be proved !) (In fact, from (v) we at once have 1 = 1? > 0). ! | VIL If x yz. | VIL Ifx— y. | | IX. If xy > 0 then either both x and y are positive or, both x and y are negative. | { X. Ifxod lal=, 0 ifa=0 -a ifa<0. For example, |- 41 = 4, |- 2 |= 2,15 |=5 etc. ie, we see that the absolute value of areal number is never negative. When real numbers are represented geometrically on the real line (number axis) then the number | a | is called the distance between a and 0 (zero). A look at the number axis should tell you that for any two real numbers a and b, the number |a — b| represents the distance between them. Note that | a — b |= |b — a |. Following are some of the important properties (without proof) of absolute value : 4 Vee | | @I-a | | Gi) Lab |= ]@ || | for all real numbers a and b. I | Gil) If ¢ 20 then | a|< c if and only if-c 7 for a real number x, then x > 7 or x < ~7. (xiii) If, for a real number x, |x| <3 then either — 3 0 then a > 0 and b> 0. (xv) For two real numbers a and b, if a |b] < 0, then Jal = ~ @ (xvi) If, for two real numbers x and y, |x] = ly} then x = y. x then x <1. (xvii) If, for real x, [x — I] = (xviii) If [x] = 5 then x = (xix) Let @ and b be two real numbers such that a < 6, then lal < |b. (xx) For any two real numbers a and c (2 0), lal $c if and only if-c< ase. (xxi) For any real number a, jal = (xxii) A natural number having no factor other than I is called a prime. (xxiii) For any real x, - x < |x} 3. MCQ: (i) If x is an interger which is neither negative not positive then (a) x must be a rational number which is also irrational (b) x must be zero (c) x is infinite (d) x is not a real number. (ii) If x is a real number such that |x| < 5, then (a) x25 (b)x<-5 (c)x2-5 (d) none of these. (iii) For any two real numbers @ and &, it is always true that (@) la - BI < Jal - [a (b) la = BL < lal + [I (©) la- 5] § lal + |b] (d) la - | < fal - |b}. (iv) For three real numbers x, y and z, if xlylz < 0 then (a) |x] = x and |z| = z () |x] = x and Jz] =— (©) Ix] = — x and |el = z (d) none of these:image not availableimage not availableimage not available26 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS (ii) Suppose m > n. Then, =a. a. a, ... .a [(m— n) times] [after cancellation of n number of a from the numerator and the denominator and noting that m > n] =a™-" [by definition, since (m — n) is again a positive integer] Similar is the case when m = 1, when 4¥ = 8, . Find the value of x for which 2* = 3%, If 3* = 2, 2Y = 5 and S# = 3, show that xyz 8. If x = (xVa)", find the value of x. 9. If 3* = 5*, find the value of x. 10. If x = y? and = x4, then show that a? = b?. 11. Solve : 2% + 2¥= 12; x+y =5. 12. Find the value of (256)%'6 (16):'8, mel 32m-n 13. Simplify : —. 6™.3™ 14, If y > 0, x # O and 2° = 15. Solve : 22 4 21 = 9, vs, then find y. [HS., 1990] [HS., 2002] [HS., 1999] (AS., 1995] THS., 1998] [H.S. 2000] (HS., 2001] 16. If a, b, m are three real numbers and a” = 6”, is it possible that a # b ? Justify your answer 17. If 4* = 83 then find the value of x. 18. If (222-2) = (44-44)? = (8-888)°, then show that 1 + a 1. Simplify : @ (803+ ner) x (643270 aNteabee? , y ePbes2 “eter x x (vy (*) [# (223.2293 2.32) 3 (Section — C Cracsa (beP* (cay (re be gdp ) L mt om win | 4 oe 2.2" | tH.S, 2005) [HS., 1993]image not availableimage not availableimage not availableChapter Three ces Surds In science we sometimes have convictions as to the right solutions of a problem which we cherish, but cannot justify; we are influenced by some innate sense of the fimess of things. — Eddington In the chapter on Idea of Number System we have discussed to some extent about rational and irrational numbers and it was clearly mentioned that every real number is either rational or irrational but never both. Further, we have also, in brief, pointed out to another possible subdivision of real number system, viz. algebraic and transcendental numbers. Note that all the rational numbers are algebraic, and some of the irrational numbers are also algebraic. In this chapter, we propose to discuss abouta class of irrational numbers which happen to be necessarily algebraic also, to be referred to as surds* So, every surd is an irrational number, but non-algebraic (i.e., transcendental) irrational numbers like e, #, 2¥2, log2 are not surds, i are not surds; in fact, an algebraic number need not always be a surd. ,all irrational numbers For our present purpose, we prefer to have the following description of a surd : Let a be any positive rational number and n be any positive integer. Then any nth (real) root of a, denoted by Ya, is called asurd, if it is irrational. It can be proved that if n is even, then there are exactly two real nth roots of a, denoted by +a, and for an odd integer n, there is a unique such nth root of a, denoted by “Ya. For example, /2,9/4,3/12 etc. are surds; however, 4, 3/8 are not surds, as the later two are actually rational numbers. Pure and ed Surds If no rational number (other than 1) can be extracted out of the radical of a surd, then the surd is called a pure surd ; otherwise it is called amixed surd. Note that, if x = a"b then Yx = aX[b is a surd provided Yb is a surd. Let us consider the following examples. Clearly J7,3/13,{/2 are pure surds, but 37,542 etc. are mixed surds. One must at the same time note that 8 is a mixed surd, as 1B = 2v2. % The word ‘surd’ came from the Latin word “Surdus” which means ‘indistinct’ 42image not availableimage not availableimage not available46 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS, Oe ah ey pat yt ot yd = (xt yi! — x y +... + ay? — yh), ifr is even and, (x + yar! — xy +. — xy? + yo), if ris odd. Thus if m, » are positive integers and “la,'Vb are surds, then taking x = “a, y ="Nb and r= m. (7m, 12), we immediately see that @ rationalizing factor of @ Ya -Yb is x! + ry a 3B 4 4 yl Gi) Ya + Yb is xt! - xy +. + yh - yl ii) "Ya + Yb is x! - xy +. — xy + yl Conjugate of a surd A pure or mixed quadratic surd can always be expressed as -tVa, where a is a positive rational number which is not the square of another rational number. The conjugate of such a surd va(or,—~/a) is defined to be the surd — Ja (respectively Va). Note that on multiplication of the given surd and its conjugate, a rational number is produced, i.e., the conjugate of a quadratic surd is a rationalizing factor of it, but not any rationalizing factor of it is a conjugate of it. For example, the conjugates of J/2,-/5,10J7 are —J2,V/5 and - 10/7 respectively and vice verse. For a binomial compound surd of the form a + vb, where a is a rational number and Vo is a quadratic (pure or mixed) surd, its conjugate is defined to be a — yb and vice versa. For example, 2 + 5 and 2 - V3 are conjugates of each other. Here also we see that their product is a rational number. However, note that'(2'+ /5 )(/5 — 2) is also a rational number, but by definition (./5 - 2) is not the conjugate of J5 + 2. ivision of surds As we have already mentioned, this operation is also carried out in tune with the general rule for any two real numbers (accepting the fact that the divisor is non-zero). However, as a convention, the denominator of the quotient is rationalized. For example, V6 _ V2 V3 _ 6 _ 605 _ V0 @ Be = V3, but eae es > In the second case, actually the operation of division has not been performed, rather it is a mere equivalent representation of the quotient according to the mentioned convention.image not availableimage not availableimage not available50 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATI Proof. Let favo = Vx +) witha, b, x, y positive rationals and Vb, Vx, Jy surds, such that a? > b, x > y. Then, squaring both sides and equating the rational and irrational parts we obtain, x+y=aand 2V = Vb whenee, a — Jb =x + y-2fw = (We-q>) so that, Ya—vb = Vx - VY, since a- Vb > 0 (as a2>b)and Jz — yy >0. ‘The proof of the converse is essentially similar and hence left out. So, we have, Ja-Jb = Ve - Vv = [ler tee=o)- (ava? 6) ifa?>ba>0. a, b, c, d are rational numbers, b c, d, > 0 For any (+ve) rational numbers x, y, z, we have the identity (Jet pevey =a ty tet ay + aoe + aver which suggests that if we can find suitable values, of x, y, z such that xty+z=a,2y =Vb,2y9 = Ve and 2Ve = Vd ... (1) then the square roots of a+ Jb + Ve + Jd are + (Vx +4/y +2). Hence it suffices to find the values of x, y, z satisfying (1). We have from (1), b = 4xy, c = 4yz and d = 4zx, so that bed = 64 x2y22 or, Vbed = 8xyz (note that x, y,2>0 = Vbed > 0, as desired). and similarly,image not availableimage not availableimage not available54 __ RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS natal =a - £ (rejecting the case 2yx7—1 = [a +): see note below). a edie hy = Le = x - ye" yada +e ate fing Va =14a- 1. Proved) 0 Note : 2 This problem has been wrongly stated. In fact, from 4(x2 - 1) =| Va +) ‘one should conclude 2yx?-1 = + (va -t} and the possibility where (+ve) sign prevails proves the desired result, while the other case does not yield the result. For instance, take x = 3 and a= {e-1 43 awl a — = = = and Fla ~ 1) =— = 80 that @ 1. (b) If ar? = fy? = cz) and oe = I show that Yar" + by? + cc? = Va+ Vo +¥e. 3 po Solution : Let, E = Yax? + by? + cz” Thus, B= ts By ce it (noting that x #0, y #0, 240, as t+t 1 dey +e) ad = by = 23} = Yar = x¥a. Similarly, E = y¥b = Ve. Hence, Ya+¥b+¥e= ££. = Jytylie (otetdyl (t+t+t) Comment on Problem 6 : From the given form of the sum, the students can well appreciate that if at least any two of a, b, ¢ are equal, then the third is also equal to them. If the above does not happen, a, b and ¢ are pairwise distinct, whence at least one of a - b, b ~ ¢ and ¢ — a becomes negative. Thus, in accordance with the accepted definition of surds, the only solution to this problem could readily be stated as a = b = c. We have however, not ruled out the possibility that Ya—b, Jo~c and Je—a may be imaginary numbers and worked out a detailed analytical solution accordingly. The significance of such a solution should become apparent to the students only after they have acquired some elementary knowledge on Complex Numbers. We give below a detailed description (an alternative solution of the problem) of the initial observation above, for the students who have already gone through the chapter on complex numbers : », then by the given condition fb-c + Je—b = 0, which gives b = c (as one of the terms in Lh. real and the other imaginary), so that a = b =c in this case If the above does not hold, then a, b, ¢ are pairwise different. Take for definiteness, a Comment on Problem 7(iv) : This problem also suffers from the discrepancy that if a= b = c does not hold, then at least one of (a — b) (b — c), (b - cc — a) and (c - a) (a - 6) is negative. Though this is not allowed in the realm of real numbers, we have again worked out a solution, as J(a@—by(b-e), Jib-e)(e—a) or f(c—aya—b) may as well be imaginary numbers and our answer is also on imaginary number (unless a = b = c). We categorically state that the @bove two are not problems on surds, rather they should be treated as SUMS on complex numbers byt we have prefered to include them here (as done unknowingly in many prevalent books of this level) so that students can get acquainted with the If at least two of a, b, ¢ are equal, say aimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not available70 _ RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS ambiguity regarding the membership of a collection that can be called a set ; i.e., the collection should be such that, given any object, it shall be possible to determine in exact terms whether the object is a member of the collection. For example, ‘fat men of the world’ does not form a set, whereas ‘men weighing 130 kg and above’ does. Note that in the first case the criterion for membership of the collection is not clear, as there can be a difference of opinion regarding the membership of some particular man to this collection, as some may consider him to be fat enough, whereas some others may disagree. However, such a situation will not occur with the second case, whence this collection can be considered to be well-defined, and hence a set. Few more examples in this regard will surely help to grasp the idea clearly. Try to appreciate that the collections comprising ‘tall boys of your class room’, ‘rich people in India’, “brilliant students of West Bengal’, ‘beautiful flowers’ do not form sets for similar reasons. But if we propose collections comprising ‘boys in your class room, who are taller than six feet’, ‘people in India, who earn more than I lakh of Rupees a month’, ‘students of West Bengal who were enlisted in the last IIT entrance examination’|, or “Rose, tulip, jasmine and sunflower’ then each of these collections is a set. Well-definedness Turning our attention towards the domain of mathematics, a collection of ‘some’ positive integers cannot be called a set, whereas a collection comprising first ten positive integers is surely a set, as undoubtedly the objects of this collection are the integers 1, 2, 3 ... up to 10. Another point to be highlighted is that a set must consist of distinct objects, i.e., repetition of the same object is not allowed in a set. For example, if we consider the set of solutions of the equation x? - 4x + 4 = 0, it consists of the integer 2 alone, though this equation has two roots, both of which happen to be 2. ‘Yet another point to be noted is that, while accepting a well-defined collection of distinct objects to be a set, we do not really require to know each of these distinct objects individually, Indeed, we can freely talk about the set of natural numbers (ie., positive integers) though we do not really know all of them, individually ! Similarly, we may refer to the set of prime integers, since we know that any positive integer (> 1) must either be prime or composite, but never both—and that clears out any possible ambiguity regarding the membership of an arbitrary positive integer to this collection?, though we do not know all the prime numbers. Notation : We shall adopt the usual convention of denoting a sei by upper case Latin letters, viz, A,B, * C,..... and we shall denote the elements of a set by lower case Latin letters, viz.,a, b, c,... etc. Ifa isan : element of a set A, we write in notations ¢ A, Tead aS¢q belongs to the set A”. The symbol (belongs to), has its origin in the Greek letter ‘epsilon’ and it was 1. “There is no doubt that the enlisment in ITT entrance examination may be one of authentic ways of measuring the merit of a student but definitely that is not the only yard-stick 2. In fact, given an arbitrary large positive integer, it is anything but easy to decide whether it is prime or composite. Only very recently, (in August’ 02) a professor of IIT, Kanpur, Dr. Manindra Agarwal, along with two of his research students had found a computer algorithm to decide upon such a problem. Refered to as AKS (Agarwal, Kayal, Saxena) gheorem, it is reportedly being appreciated all over the world,image not availableimage not availableCHAPTER FOUR _O THEORY OF SETS 73 Definition : A set X is said to be a subset of a set Y, written as X CY, if every element of X is an element of Y. In this case we say that the set X is contained in the set Y, or equivalently, the set Y contains the set X. If X is a subset of Y, then the set Y is called a superset of X, denoted as Y2x. Definition : A set X is said to be a proper subset of (or, properly contained in) Y, (i) if X is a subset of Y and (ii) if there exists at least one element in Y, which is not in X. It is denoted, in notation, by X c Y. In this case, it is also said that Y is a proper superset of X or Y contains X properly, and we denote it by Y > X. Observe that, according to the definition of a subset, we may claim that every set is a subset of itself, Indeed, for any set X, it is trivially true that every element of X is an element of X and hence X ¢ X. Note that, sometimes a set is also called an improper subset of itself. Whenever a set A is not a subset (not a proper subset) of a set B, we write A ¢B (respectively, A ¢ B). Following examples will establish the concepts more clearly. > (i) Let X = {2, 4, 6, 8} and Y = {x] 1 < x 10, x EN} ; then clearly we have Y = {1, 2, 3, .., 10}, so that X c Y. 2 (ii) In our usual notations Ec Z, Nc R. R* CR, Q* COCR. Note that, in each of these examples, the subsets referred to are proper subsets and hence we could have expressed the notational relationship by using ‘c’ instead of ‘c’. However, for any set X, we cannot write X ¢ X ; indeed, here X is not a proper subset of itself, so that we have X ¢ X. 1 Note : Be it noted that, for two sets A and B, if A c B holds, then A c B holds also ; but if A c B holds then we may write A c B only when we know that A # B. 2 (iii) LetA = {a, b,c) and B= (b,c, d,e,f}; then A ¢ B, asa eA buta €B. D (iv) Let X = {x |x = 20,1 € N) and ¥ = (x].x= 3n, n EN) and Z= (x [x= 6n, 0 EN); i.e., X is the set of all positive integral multiples of 2, ¥ is that of 3 and Z is that of 6. Thus X ZY. Yc X but Zc X and Zc Y [note that every positive integral multiple of 6 is essentially a positive integral multiple of 2, as well as that of 3]. According to our definition of equality of two sets, We see that two sets X and Y are equal if every element of X is an element of Y and every element of Y is an element of X, ie, X=Y iff CY and Yc X. We consider the following examples. D (i LetX= (a, b,c], Y= {c, b, a}; then X = ¥ [note that the order of appearance of the elements of a set does not matter in this respect].74__RUDIMEN’ OF MATHEMATIC! Let X = {x |x is a positive even prime integer) and Y = (2); then X = Y, since 2 is the only positive even prime integer. Here we would like to point out that a set having only one element is called a singleton set or just a singletan > (iii) Let A B = {x: x isa letter in the word ‘god’}, (x: is a letter in the word ‘good’ }, C= (x: x isa letter in the word ‘dog’}; then, A = B=C = (d, 0, g}- Div) Let P= (x: a2 8x + 15=0),Q= {x | 2 and x is an even prime integer}; eovvde (iy) the set (x | 3 Y c X andX mY c Y. Again, every element of X is an element of X U Y; so that, X c XU Y ; similarly Y c X U Y. If we combine the above inclusions, it clearly gives that X © Y c X u Y. Further, if in particular X c Y, then it follows from the above definitions that, XUY=Yand XV Y=X. xanp le |: ESS SES Smee asa AU Oi ae ne ee EY aS > (i) Let A= (I, 2,3, 4, 5}, B = (3, 4; 5, 6, 7). Then A UB=(x|xeA or, x eB) = (1,2, 3, 4,5, 6,7}, AN B= (x|xeA and x € B} = (3, 4, 5}. [Note that while forming the union, the common elements of A and B are considered only once.]CHAPTER FOUR _O THEORY OF SETS 83 D (ii) Let A= (x|3$x< 5}, B= {x|6Sx <8] and A, BON, Clearly, A = (3, 4, 5} and B = (6, 7, 8} whence as above A U B = {3, 4, 5, 6,7, 8), and AB = @, ie., the sets A and B are disjoint. Dili) Let A= (x |xe Rand 1< 2S 6), B= (x|xeRand3 xe X or, (« €Y and xe Z) => (x € X or, x € Y) and (x € X or, x € Z) => xe€(X UY) and xe (X UZ) =x e(XUY)A (XU Z). Hence, XU (YNZ) ¢ (KUY) A (KU Z) on) Turning round the matter, let us choose any element x €(X UY) A (XU Z). Now, xe(XUY)N(XUZ) =>xeXuYandreXuZ = (x © X or, x € Y) and (x € X or, x € Z) = xX or, (x € Y and xe Z) =>xreXornxeYaZ =>xreXUu(YNZ). Hence, (X UY) A (KU Z) C XU (Y OZ) ons.) Combining (1) and (2) we observe that, XU (YNZ) =(XUY)N (KV Z). (Proved.) Observe that the steps done in the second part of the above proof are nothing but those of the first part in the reverse direction. Usually for problems of the above type, where equality of the two sets A and B (say) is being proved, one may obtain the proof of B c A by just tracing back the arguments given for proving A ¢ B. Thus by replacing the sign *=9' by ‘<9’ in the Ist part of the above proof, we could arrive at the conclusions L.H.S. © R.H.S. and R.H.S ¢ LHS simultaneously. In the following proof we exactly do that, which clarifies our contention. 2 To Prove: X A (¥ UZ) =(XNY)U (XN Z). Now, we see that xEXN(YUZ) eo xeXandxeYUZ © x © X and (xe Y of, xe Z) © (x € X and x € Y) or, (x € X and x € Z) @ xe (X AY) onx€ (XZ) @ xre(XAY)U (KAZ). Hence Xm (¥ UZ) c (KNY)U (KZ) and (XY) U (KOZ) CXA(YUZ), whence combining these inclusions we conclude that XA (¥ UZ) = (KAY) U (KA Z). Proved.)CHAPTER FOUR O THEORY OF SETS 85 11 Note : The notation ‘p => q’, read as ‘p implies q’, indicates that, if ‘p’ holds then ‘q’ holds, for two mathematical statements ‘p’ and “g’. Again ‘p © q’, read as ‘p if and only if q’ (also as ‘p iff q’), indicates that, “if p holds then q holds and if q holds then p holds’. The symbols = and © are known as implication symbol and bi-implication symbol respectively. 2 (vii) To Prove : XV (XUY)= Let us choose any element x € X 9 (XU Y). Now, x € X A (X UY) implies that x € X and x ¢ X UY, which clearly shows that x © X, whence X 9 (X UY) ¢ X. Conversely, let x € X. Then, it follows that, x ¢ X UY, whence x € X 0 (X U Y). Thus X ¢ XM (X U Y). Combining these two inclusions we get, X =X (Xv Y). (Proved.) > To Prove: X U(X OY)= From the definition of union of two sets if follows that, X c X U (X 0 Y); (indeed AGAUB for any two sets A and B). Again, let us choose any x € X U (X 4 Y). Now, this implies that x € X or, xe X OY; ie. x € X on, (x € X and x € Y), whence both the options commonly indicate that x e X. Consequently, X U (X M Y) c X. Hence we have XU (XM Y) =X. (Proved.) The idea of union and intersection can be generalized to more than two sets. Indeed, for any n sets (n 2 2) X,, Xy,... X,, Wedefine : x |x € X; for some i, 1S i <2) a and OX) = X/0 X00 X, = (|x eX, forall 1S 7S) Note that associativity of both the operations, union and intersection, as described in part (v) of the last theorem plays a key role in the above definition. Indeed, it allows us to get rid of the brackets, since it tells us that the order of composition is not important for union of sets or intersection of sets. Definition : For two given sets A and B, the difference of them, denoted by A \ B. is defined to be the set,A \B = {x |x € A but x ¢ B}, ie., A\ B consists of exactly those elements of A, which are not members of B. Sometimes A \ B is also referred to as the relative complement of B in A. Forexample, consider A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. B = (3. 4, 5, 6}, C = {7, 8, 9}. Then A\B = {x |x €A but x ¢ B} = {1,2}; B\A = {x |x € B but x ¢ A} = {5, 6}. Further, observe that here AM C= @and A\C = {x]xeA but x ¢C} = {1, 2,3, 4} = A, whereas C\A = {x |x € C but x ¢ A} = {7, 8, 9} = C. Indeed, we can generally have that, for two disjoint sets X and Y, X \Y = X and Y \ X =. Also, note in the above example that, A\B # B\A, whence we say that difference of sets is non-commutative, Try to observe that for any set A, A\A=6,A\ b=A and P\A=¢.86 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS Remark 1 is worth pointing out that, 4.\B = A \(A 9B). Indeed, while forming the set A \B, we take away actually the common elements of A and B from the Set A. Indeed, if A = {1, 2, 3], B = (3, 4}. we have A\ B = (1. 2}: ii stead, B = {3. 4. 5, 6, 7}. sti! A\B = (1, 2). as AQ B = (3}, in both the cas s. Definition : The complement of a set A with respect to a universal set S, called simply the complement of A and denoted by A’, is defined as A’=S\A={xeS|x eA} For example, jet A = {a, b,c}, B= (b,c, d}, and S = {a, b, c,d, e, f} be a universal set under consideration. Then A’ =S\A= (x |x eS but xe A} = {d, 6, fh B’ = (a, e, fh. Note that, #’ = S\ @ =S and S’=S\S=9. The interplay of the operation of complement of a set vis-a-vis the operations of union, intersection and difference of sets is discussed in the next theorem. (ii) AV\B=ANB’ " (iy) De Morgan’s! Laws : (A U BY = A’ 9 B’ and (A 9 BY’ = A’ U BY. inverecetio i Theorem | | Let A, B be any two sets and S be a universal set‘under consideration. Then, | | @AUA'=SandAnA’=¢ I | di) ay | | | () Since A c S and A’ c S (all sets under consideration being subsets of S), AUVA'CS. Conversely, let x € $ be chosen arbitrarily. Clearly, for any set A whatsoever (which has to be a subset of S, as S is a universal set under consideration) either we must have x € A or, x €A. This shows that, xe A or, xe A’, ie.,.x€A UA’ whence SC A UA’. Combining the reverse inclusion, we conclude A U A’ = S. (Proved.) The proof of A m A’ = @, follows directly from the definition and we leave it as an exercise. (i) Let x € (A’Y be chosen arbitrarily. Then, x€S\A’ (as X’ = S\ X for any set X), which shows that x € S but x € A’, Recall that, A’= {x |x ©S but x € A). This clearly shows that x ¢ A’ means!, either x ¢ S or x € A. But here we already have that x € S ; so we conclude that x € A. Consequently, (A’)’ c A. Conversely, let x € A be an arbitrary element. Now, xe A => x€A’; again as ACS, xe Ax eS. So, we have xe Sand x € A’, ie, xES\ A’, ie, x € (A’); consequently Ac (A’)’. Combining the above two inclusions, we conclude that (A’)’ = A. (Proved) 1, An interesting piece of information is that Augustus De Morgan was an Indian by birth. He was born at Madura of Peninsular India on June 27, 1806.CHAPTER FOUR O THEORY OF SETS — g7 ( This proof is routine and left as an exercise. 2 (iv) To Prove : (AU BY =A’ B’ (X1-final, °06] Let x € (A U BY’ be arbitrarily chosen. Then, xe€(AU BY = x S but.x¢ (AU B) = xe S but (ve A and x € B) = (x € S but x @ A) and (x S but x B) =xeS\AandxeS\B => € A’ and x ¢ BY => xe A OB’ whence we have, (A UB) c (A OB’) () Following the above arguments in the reverse direction, we can show in an essentially similar manner that, (A’ 0B’) c (AV BY’ ..... (2) Combining (1) and (2) we conclude that (A U B)' = A’ A BY’. (Proved.) 2 To prove : (A BY =A’ U BY. We have, xeS\(ANB) e@xeS butxeAnB xe S but (re A or, x € B) © (we S but x ¢ A) or, (x € S but x ¢ B) exeS\AonxeS\B exc’ onxe B exe UB, Consequently, (A 9 BY’ c A’ U B’ and A’ U B’ c (A 2 By’ so that, we get, (A 9 BY =A’ UB’, (Proved.) [Note that, the first part of (iv) could also be proved by using bi-implication as we have done in the second part] Definition :The symmetric differenceof two sets A and B, denoted by A A B, is defined to be the set given by A AB =(A\B) vu (B\A). 1, Two points must be carefully noted. The conjunctive ‘but’ used in the definition of ‘difference’ of two sets is to be mathemati as ‘and"; secondly, under negation, the conjunctive ‘and? changes to ‘or’ and vice versa. For example. x €A © B => x @ A and xe B: whereas, x € AM B= xe Aorxe B. Further, xe AUB > xeAornreB:r€AUB>xeAand xe B.88 _ RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS. Note that A A B is the set of those elements which are either only in A or only in B but not in both A and B. Clearly, A A B = B A A for any two sets A and B, whence we have that, symmetric difference of two sets is commutative. For example, consider A = (1, 2. 3.4}, B= (3.4.5. 6). Now, A\B = {x |. A but x ¢ B} = (1, 2} B\A= (x|x eB butx¢ A} = (5, 6}. So, A A B = ({A\B)U (B\A) = {1, 2) u {5, 6} = {1, 2.5, 6). Definition : The Cartesian product of two non-empty sets A and B, denoted by A x B, is defined to be the set ((a, 6) [a €A, b €B). In other words, A x B is the set of all ordered pairs of elements of A and B, where by an ordered pair we mean a pair of elements, such that the first component is an element of the first set A and the second component is an element of the second set B. Further, we assume that A x @ = @ = @ A, for any set A. For example of cartesian product, let us consider A = (1, 2}, B = (2, 3). Then AXB = {(1, 2}, (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3)}, whereas B x A = ((2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 2)}. Now, (1, 2) € A x B but (1, 2) ¢ B x A, and (2, 1) € B x A, but (2, 1) ¢ A x B whence we conclude that in general, A x B ¢B x A, B x A GA x B and hence A x B # Bx A, i.e., Cartesian product of two distinct sets is non-commutative. Note in this connection that the ordered pairs (1, 2) is different from the ordered pair (2, 1). In fact, it is not difficult to observe that for two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d), (a, b) = (c, d) iff a = ¢ and b = d. However, one may consider the cartesian product of a set with itself ; e.g. if A= {1,2}, then Ax A= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}. The set of the elements (x, x) in A x A for every x € A, is called the diagonal of A and is generally denoted by A,. For example, in the aforesaid case, A, = {(1, 1), (2, 2)}.. Note further that, for two finite sets A and B with |A |= mand|B|=n,|Ax B= mn. | WorkeEp-out EXERCISES 9 1 Let X= (1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10), ¥ = (1, 3, 6, 9}, S = (r[1S4<12,x€ Nj. (a) Find () X U ¥ (i) X 9 ¥ (iil) XV (iv) ¥\X (9) XA ¥ (yi) X’ (vi) Y', (b) Verify that () (& A YY =X°UY" @) KAYUOV\K = KYYVKAY), Solutio: (a) (i) XUY = (x| xe X or, xe Y} = (1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 3, 9). (ii) XO Y = (x| xe X and xe Y) = (1, 6).CHAPTER FOUR OQ THEORY OF SETS 89 (ii) X VY = (x[ xe X but xe Y) = (2, 4,8, 10). (iy) YX = (x |r ¥ but re X) = (3, 9). (vy) XAY =(X\Y)U (Y\X) = (4] xe XVY or, xe Y\ X} = (2, 3, 4, 8, 9 10). (i) X= S\X = [x [x eS butx eX} = (3, 5, 7, 9, 1, 12} (ii) Y= S\Y = (x |e S bute eY} = (2, 4, 5,7, 8, 10, 1, 12). (b) @) In part (a) we have found that, XY = (1, 6). Now, KK AYY =S\(KOY) = (x] xe 8 bute XOY) = (2,3, 4,5, 7, 8,9, 11, 12) (D) Again, we know, X’ = (3, 5,7, 9, 11, 12} and Y’ = {2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12}. Now, X'U Y= (x |x X’ or, xe Y’) = (2,3, 4,5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}... 2) Combining (1) and (2) we conclude (Xn YY’ = X’ U Y’. (Verified). Gi) We have already found X \¥ and Y \ X in part (a). Using those information we see that, (KAY) U (WV X) = [efx © XV or, re ¥VX} = (2,3, 4, 8,9, 10} Also, we know, X UY and X 9 Y from part (a). Using them, we obtain, (KU Y)\ OKAY) = fx fx eX UY but ee XY) = (2,3, 4,8, 9, 10). So, we conelude that, (XY) U (¥ \ X) = (KX UY) \(X 9 Y). (Verified). G Note + We would like to point out, in the light of above discussion that, X A Y may also be defined as, XAY=(XUY)A\(X NY). Indeed, we may prove it directly, as we shall in the next sum. '® 2. Using laws of algebra of scts prove that, e CAYUGA KEY OY. Solution : (XU Y)\(X AY) =(KUY)N(KaYY fas A\B=ANB'] =(XUY) A (UY) . [by De Morgan's law] B(KYY)OX )U(KYY)nY)) [by distributivity] (Ka xX) ua Xyu(KaYyuway) {-do-] =GUYAX)V(KAY) YO) AXA’ = @, for any set A] =(¥AX)U(KAY) Au @=A, for any set A] =(Y\X)u (XY) [le A\B=A0B’) = (K\Y) u (¥\X). {Since set union is commutative] (Proved). 9 3. LetA=(x12<4 <5), B= {x /4<2<7}. Find AUB, AO BLA\B,B\A. Solution : (Observe that, unless otherwise is mentioned, such sets are to be considered as sets of real numbers, whence both A and B are infinite sets]. The given sets, observed on real line, are as follows : 1290 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS B -—*—1 tt tt o 1 2 3 4 $ 6 7 8 -——_ A Note that 2 ¢ A and 7 ¢ B. Clearly, AU B = (x |x ¢ A or, xB) = (x]2 xeA;CHAPTER FOUR 1 THEORY OF SETS — 93 ES ©XCrCiSes Sectio 1. Fill in the blanks : @ FAUB=AQB then__. Gi) If X = {ee N [1 B. 1. (i) A =B. (ii) 3. (iii) X. (iv) X. (v) @. (vi) 10, (vii) 9. (viii) 25. 2. (i) False, (ji) True, (iii) False (the statement is meaningless, since A +B is undefined’), (iv) False, (v) True, (vi) False, since AN B#¢ > |AUB/45. 3. (i) b, (ii) d, ye, (iv) d, (vy) a. Section — B 1. i) False (ii) False (iii) True (iv) False ; [For example, consider Z\ N, which is the set of all non-positive integers. This set is clearly infinite.) (y) True (vi) True [as any real number must cither be rational or irrational but never both}. (vii) False [in fact the set is singleton, viz, {0} as 0 is the only integer which is neither negative nor positive]. (viii) True [An B = 380 (AUB) (ANB) =(AUB) 9 $= 9, asX0 g = @, for any set X]. (ix) True (x) True [indeed it is one of the De Morgan's laws). F@WM{abodefsl Gi){ade) ii) a>) Gs) Wlabf gl. 2 (i) {x]1Sxs 10) (i) (e]3 , defined on R, consisting of all those ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y) that satisfy x = y can also be easily seen to be a straight line through the origin (0, 0) and inclined at 45° to the positive direction of the x-axis. Clearly, (2, 2), (64, 64), (— 3, — 3) € R, but (3, 4) € Ry, In a sense the above discussion tells us that any arbitrary diagram (e.g.. a parabola, an ellipse or may be any randomly drawn plane curve) on R? can be looked upon as a relation on R. It is worth mentioning that for a set A, since any subset of A x A is defined to be a relation on A, we must admit A x A itself and the null set ¢ to be relations on A. Definition : Let A be a nonempty set. The relation A x A is called the universal relation and the set ¢ is called the empty relation on A respectively. Since universal relation on A comprises all possible ordered pairs of elements of the set A, it is clear that under universal relation on A, every element of the set A is related to each of the elements of that set i.e., any.two elements of the set A are related. For example, let A = (1, 2}. Then the universal relation on A is given by the set {(1, 1), (I, 2), (2, 1). (2, 2)} However under the null relation no element of a set is related to any element of that set. Its significance is merely logical and we may ignore it at the present level. Note that, for any relation % on a set A, we have PC RCAXA. Another important type of relation on a nonempty set is called the identity relation. Definition : Let X be any nonempty set. The identity relation or diagonal relation on X. usually denoted by Ix, is defined by Ix = [Gs Ola € X} ie, (x, y) € ly & x = y where x, y € X. Hence under the identity relation on a set, every element of that set is related only to itself. For example, let A = {1, 2}. Then the identity relation on A is given by the set {(1, 1), (2, 2)}. Definition : Let % be a relation from a set A into a set B. Then the domain of K, denoted by DO. is the set {ala A and there exists b € B such that (a, b) € K}. The FANEE or image of R, denoted by (HI, is the set (b |b © B and there exists a € A such that (a, b) € K}. Aven pic + SEES eI ec a NNER Let A = (4, 6, 8, 9) and B = {22, 25, 28, 30, 32). Let us define a relation 3 from A into B by declaring, ‘a ® b if and only if a divides b in Z, where a € A and b ¢ B. Then it is clear that 15114 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS ‘RK = ((4, 28), (4, 32), (6, 30), (8, 32)). Here D(X) = {4, 6, 8} and 1() = (28, 30, 32}. Definition : Let % be a relation from a set A into a set B. The inverse of N.denoted by |, is the relation from B into A, which consists of only those ordered pairs which, when reversed, belong to %, i.e. Ro! = {(b, a) | (a, b) € K}. For example, let us refer to a previous example that K = {(1, b), (2, ¢), 3, a), (2, BY) & A x B, where. A = (1, 2, 3} and B = (a, b, c). Here R-! = ((b, 1), (c, 2); (@, 3), (b, D)}- It is trivial to see that the domain of R-! is the range of R and vice versa. Furthermore, (Ky = R. ‘We shall now introduce set theoretically the concept of a function, which is of paramount importance in mathematics. Given two sets A and B, a function (or, mapping) f from A to B (written as f: A > B) assigns to each a € A exactly one b < B; here b is called the value of the function at a or the image of a under f, whereas a is called the preimage of b under fand we denote this state of affairs by the notation fa) = b. More formally, a function from A to B may be defined as a particular type of relation as follows : : Definition : For two onempty sets A and B, a relation f from A into B is called a function or mapping from A into Bi (i) domain of f = A and (ii) f is Well-defined* (of, single valued) in the sense that (a, b) € f and (a, b’) ef imply that b = b’. In this case, we write fla) = b. If we examine this definition closely, we see that, in order to show that a relation f from A into B is a function, we must prove that the domain of f is A, which means that every element of A has some image in B under f and further we have to show that f is well-defined, ie., a single element of A cannot have more than one image in B under f. Combining these two, we see that a function fc A x B is such a relation from A into B that, corresponding to cach a A, there exists a unique 6 € B such that (a, b) € f. For a function f : A —> B, the set A is referred to as the domain of the function and it is denoted by D(f), whereas the set B is called the Codomain of f. The set fA) = (fx) : x AJ is naturally a subset of the codomain B, Some authors prefer to call the set f(A) the range of the function ¢ and denote it by !-(f). When for a function f, the domain of f = codomain of f = A (say), ie., ff: A > A, we sometimes say that f is a function on A. Let us now give examples of relations, some of which are functions and some others of which are not. * Remember that, at the very beginning of this chapter, while introducing the notion of set, we did use the word ‘well-defined’ but in a different sense.CHAPTER FOUR O THEORY OF SETS 145 sone + IRM ir areas a eS aR (i) Let A denate the set of names of all those countries that qualified for the ICC Champions Trophy 2004, and B denote the set of names of all those cricket players of these countries, who were selected for this event. Let us define a relation f by associating with each country in A, the name from B of the captain of its cricket team. Then clearly, fc A x B and since every country in A has one captain of its team, so D(f) = A and as two persons were not the captain of the same team, so f is well-defined. Hence f is a function from A to B. (ii) Let f be the subset of Z x Z defined by f = {(n, 3n - 7) : n € Z}. Then Df {nin © Z} = Z. To show that f is well-defined, let n = m for some n, me Z. Then 3n - 7 = 3m -7, whence fin) = flm) and hence f is well-defined. Consequently, f is a function from Zo Z. (iii) Let A = {p, q. ns}, B = {I, 2, 3) and fe a relation from A into B, given by f= {(p, 1), (@, 3), (s, 2)}. Note that here D(f) = {p. g, 5} CA whence the image of the element re A is not defined under f and consequently f is not a functionfrom A to B. Definition :A function f: A — A is said to be the identity function (identity mapping) if fx) = x for all x A. This function is usually denoted by ‘4: Definition +A function f: A > B is said to be a constant function if f(A) is a singleton subset of B, i.e., under a constant function, every clement of the domain set gocs to some fixed element in B. For example, f : Z — Z, defined by fix) = 0 for all x € Z is a constant function, where Im(f) = 0}. Let us now develop the concept of equality of two functions. Let f: X > Y and g:X — Y be two functions. Clearly, f g ¢ X x Y. Suppose f = g. Let x be any element of X. Then, (x, fix) € f = g and (x, g(x)) eg. Since g is a function, every element of X can appear ‘once and only once in the first component of the ordered pairs in g, whence due to its well- definedness, we must have f(x) = g(x). Conversely, assume that (x) = g(x) for all x € X. Let (x, y) Ef, Then y = fix) = g(x) gives (x, y) € g, whence fc g. In an essentially similar manner, ‘one can show that g ¢ f. Hence it follows that f = g. Thus we conclude that two functions f: XY and g: X SY are ©MAlif and only if f(x) = g(x) for all x € X. For example, let f: Rt > R be given by fx) = 1 + i and g : Rt — R be given by 5 a(x) = 3; then f = g.116 _ RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS Definition ; Let us consider a function f: A > B. Then, (a) fis called injective(or, one-ong! when for all a,, a, € A, a, # ay = fla,) # flay) (ie., distinct elements of the domain are mapped to distinct images). () fiscalled surjective (or, onto) if /(f) = B, ie. fA) = B, where f(A) = (fa) |a eA}, (ie, for every b & B there exists at least one a € A such that fla) = ). (©) fis called bijective if f is both surjective and injective. In the last case it is often said that there is a one-to-one correspondence from A onto B. It can be shown that in such a situation, there also exists a one-to-one correspondence from B onto A. Thus we can talk about one-to-one correspondences between two sets. It is worth pointing out that, a logically equivalen® definition of an injective function is as follows : A function f : A -> B is said to be injective when fla,) = flay) in B implies that a = ay in A, for all aj, ay € A. Another important observation is that if there exists a bijective function from a finite set onto a finite set then those two sets must have the same number of elements and vice versa. In other words, there cannot be a bijective correspondence between two finite sets of different order. In general any two sets are said to be equivalent sets if there exists a bijective correspondence from one onto the other (and hence between them). A word of caution at this point is necessary. The students often tend to call a surjective function an “onto function” and side by side, an injective function an “into function”. While the first one is perfectly all-right, the second one is not. Let us put it in clear terms that every function (and not only an injective function) is by definition an “‘into function”, if one allows such a terminology. Now let us have a closer look at different types of functions in terms of various examples. Note that there can be functions which are neither injective nor surjective, as we shall show in the following list of example: Lxcow: + SERRATE Rn eRe Ree Tae Ma RAS es eee (i) Consider the relation f on Z defined by fl) = | n | for all n Z. It is easy to see that D(f) = Z and f is well-defined. So fis a function. Here (5) =|5|=5=|-5|=fC5) but 5 #—5. This implies that f is not injective. Since for all n € Z, fin) is a nonnegative integer, we see that the negative integers in Z have no preimage under f, whence f is not surjective. Note 1 Some authors prefer to call it one-to-one, 2 The word “sur” in French means “‘on’ 3° Note that, a statement of the form “if “p’ holds then “g° holds” is logically equivalent to “if not hold then ‘p’ does not hold”, and is 0t logically equivalent to “if ‘p’ does not hold then ‘g’ does not hold”. Let us try to explain its significance in terms of a nonmathematical statement. Try to appreciate that your statement like ‘if it rains then T shall not attend the lecture’, will not be binding on you in case it does not rain, but in the event of your attending the lecture it may be logically concluded that it is not raining.CHAPTER FOUR _O THEORY OF SETS 117 that, here Z) = NU {0}. Observe that if we consider f, : Z—» N U (0} by stipulating f,(n) = |n | for all n € Z, then f, becomes a surjective (onto) function but not injective. (ii) Let f be the function given by f: Z — Z such that n > 4n - 5. Here fm) = 4n-5 for all n € Z, Let m,, my € Z and suppose that fi) = feng). Then, 4n, — 5 = 4ny — 5, ie., my = ny. Hence f is an injective (one-one) function. But f is not surjective (onto). Indeed, here 10 Z has no preimage under f. For otherwise, if fn) = 10 for some n € Z, it would lead to 4n-5=10,ie,n= B € Z, which is impossible. * Observe that, if we consider f, : R + R by defining f,(x) = 4x - 5 for all x € R, then f, becomes an example of a function which is both surjective and injective, and consequently a bijective function. Remark : In particular, if we consider functions from R — R, then surjectivity and injectivity of these functions have some interesting geometrical features with reference to their graphs, which can be plotted in the Euclidean plane R x R. FR Ris aninjective function, iff each horizontal line in R x R can intersect the graph of f in at most one point ; whereas f is a surjective function, iff cach horizontal line in RR Y 1 2 x Fig. 2c : A(x) = x5 + 3]x] Fig. 2d : k(x) = “must intersect the graph of f in at least one point. Finally, f is buective iff each Aint fine must intersect the graph of f in exactly one point. For example, let us consider the graphs of the following functions from R to R given by fix) = VP, 96a) = 2, hx) = 23 + 3fel and k(x) = x3 (as in Figs. 2a b, ¢, d). Applying the above mentioned characteristics, it can be verified that the function f is neither118 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS injective nor surjective; the function g is injective but not surjective; the function A is not injective though surjective; finally, the function & is both injective and surjective and hence biject Definition : Let us consider functions f : A + B and g: B > C. The composition of fand g, written gof, is the relation from A into C defined as gof = (a,c): ae A, ¢ eC and there exists b € B such that fla) = b and g(b) = c} (Fig. 3). It can be shown (see A c Remark below) that the relation gif in this situation is always a function, called the composed or product of the functions f and g, provided Im(f) c D(g) (this is why we have wet taken codomain of f = domain of g). Fig. 3 Let (gof)(a) = c. Now, since c = g(b) and b = fla) for some b € B, we combine them to get c = g(b) = g(fla)), whence we have (g of)(a) = g(a). In this connection, it should be taken into account that the composition of two given functions in an arbitrary order may not be defined. 1 ole RSE aac Consider the functions f: Z > @ and g: Q > Q, given by fx) = % x for all x € Zand g(x) = x? for all x € Q. Observe that, here gof : Z — Q is given e (gof (®) = = pf 2). 4x? x 1 1 = ee) = a{ 2t) = AF for all. xe Z. But fo g is not defined here, as for 5 © Q, af 3 = 4 € Z and hence +(3) makes no sense. The reason for this is that Im(g) ¢ D()- Poonph ; Cae STS San eae er a Consider the functions f: Z + Z and g : Z — Z, defined by ftn) = (- 1)", n € Z and a(n) = 2n, ne Z. Then, g of : Z > Z is given by (g of) (n) = g(ftn)) = a(- 1") = 2-1)", ne Z, ie. (g 0 f) (n) = 2 or — 2, according as n is an even or an odd integer. Observe that, here one may define fo g : Z— Z by (f 0 g) (n) = fig(n)) = f2n) =(- I)", ne Z,ie, (Fo g) (x) = | forall ne Z. This example shows that g 0 f # fo g in general, even when composition of functions is noncommutative. Let us now point out an important property of the composition of functions. Watch the following diagram (Figs. 4a and b) carefully :CHAPTER FOUR _O THEORY OF SETS 119 Af z & & h D =O hog (hogs Fig. 4a « In fact, we have the following theorem r=-—— ---------3 | Theorem + Letf:A > B, g:B—Candh:C— D. Thenh« (g © f) = (he g) © f, ie., composition | of functions is associative, provided the relevant compositions make sense. L Proof. Observe that h o (g 0 f): A— D and (ho g) of: A D. Let xe A. Then [ho (g of] () = Ag of) (0) = A(g(Aa)) = (ho 8) (fx) = [HO g) Of] (x). Since x is any clement of A, we conclude that h 0 (g 0 f) = (hog) of. Recall the definition of identity function. We leave it to the reader to verify that this function is bijective; furthermore, if f: A > B be any function and 14: A—> A and tg : B + B be identity functions respectively on A and B then, fo ty = f = tp of. Definition : Consider a function f : A > B. Then fis called (i) left invertible if there exists a function g : B — A such that, g 0 f = 14 and then g is called aleft inverse of f, : (ii) right invertible if there exists a function A: B — A such that, fo h = Ip and then h is called aright inverse of f, (iii) invertible if fis both left and right invertible and then the left or right inverse g of fis called aninverse of f. Example 2 (i) Let f: N — N be defined by fin) +3 for all n € N and g: N > N be defined by g(1) = 1. g(2) = 2. g(3) = 3 and g(n) = n — 3 for all n(> 3) € N. Hence (g 0 f) (n) = a(fin)) = g(n + 3) =n + 3-3 =n for all a € N, so that g 0 f= ty, whence g is a left inverse of f. Observe that here (fo g) (1) = fig(1)) = fll) = 4 and so fo g# iy so that gis nota right inverse of f.120 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS 2 (ii) Let f: Z > Ef be defined by lx) = |x |+ x for all xe Z, where E% is the set of all non-negative even integers and let g: Ej — Z be defined by g(x) = > © for all xe E5- Then (f 0 g) (x) = flgta)) = fig(2n)) [as x € Ef, x = 2n for some von:neeale integer n] = fin) =|n|+n In =x, ie, fog = tz. Hence g is a right inverse of f. Observe that, here (g 0 f) (~ 2) = g(f- 2)) = g(0) = 0 and hence g of # 1z so that g is not a left inverse of f. > (iii) Consider the function f: R > R, sates by fx) = 2x - 3 for all x © R and the function g : R — R, defined by g(x) = 3 for all x € R. Now we see that, for all x € R, (8 of) (x) = g(x) = g(2x - 3) = aed =x = g(a) and (fo g) (x) = A(x) -(22) =2. x+3 =3 =x = ig(x). Hence fis invertible and g is a left as well as a right inverse of fand — g is an inverse of f The above examples establish clearly that a function may or may not have a left (right) inverse. However, example (iii) shows that left and right inverses of the function f are the same. This is not a stray incident. In fact, whenever a function is invertible, then its right and left inverses are the same. Indeed, let f: A — B be invertible and assume further that g be a left inverse and h be a right inverse of f Then by definition we have ¢ o f= t, and f 0 k= Ip. Now, 8 = g 0 p= 9 0 (Fo h) =(gof) oh = t4 0h = h. This also justifies that inverse'of a function /, if exists, is unique™ and hence it is denoted by f-1. Further, note that a function f: A — B is invertible if its inverse relation f-! is a function from B to A. Now since the existence of left (right) inverse of a function is not guaranteed, it would be useful to know those functions that admit left (right) inverse. The following theorem, which we prefer to state only, gives a decisive answer to the query. i Theorem : i | Let us consider f: A > B. Then, I (i) fis left invertible if and only if fis injective, I f is right invertible if and only if f is surjective and | invertible if and only if fis bijective, vii) ‘The above theorem tells us in clear terms that only the bijective functions are invertible. Before we conclude this chapter we present a diagrammatic representation of some relations on finite sets below, some of which turn out to be functions of some particular type. This type of visual presentation (on finite sets) is often useful for the beginners to get hold of the inner essence of the underlying abstract concepts. * Remember that, if a function be only left (or right) invertible then it may have more than one left (or right) inverse.CHAPTER FOUR _O THEORY OF SETS 121 16 I Fig. Sa Many-one relation (not a function) AUF Fig. 5c Surjective function (not injective) Fig. Se Bijective function t a _ Fig. Sb One-many-relation (not a function) f Fig. 5d Injective function (not surjective) = | UF Fig. 5f Function (neither surjective nor injective)122 __ RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS @ LWA = (a,b, cd, e) and B= (1, 2, 3, 4) find whether or not the following sets of ordered pairs are relations from A into B: @ K, = (@, 2B, (@, 4), (€, 3}; GH) R = {(e, D, 3, a), @, 4). In case any one of these two turns out to be a relation then find its domain, range and its inverse relation. Worxep-our Exercises Solution ; We know that every subset of the Cartesian product set A x B is a relation from A into B and conversely. Here R, ¢ A x B whence the set R, given in (i) is a relation from A into B. Clearly, 2% )= (a, e} and 1(H,) = (2, 3, 4). The inverse relation is given by Ry! = ((2, a), (A, a), (6) which is a relation from B into A. However, as (3, d) € Ry and (3, d) ¢€ Ax B we conclude that R, g A x B, whence the set Ry given by (ii) is not a relation from A into B. ‘@ 2. Let p be a relation defined on the sct N of natural numbers asp = (%y) ¢ N»N# 2x + y = 41). Find the domain and range of p. Solution + By inspection we see that, as the relation is defined over N, the smallest admissible value for x is 1 for which the corresponding admissible value for y is 39 (which clearly happens to be the largest admissible value of y here), Again when y assumes its smallest admissible value 1, the corresponding value of x is 20 (which clearly happens to be the largest admissible value of x here). Further, since for any assignment of values of x such that | R given by fix) = cos x, x € Ry Solution : (a) We see that - 2 € R, but there does not exist any x ¢ R for which fx) = - 2 (as fx) | * | cannot be negative) we conclude that f is not surjective. Again - 2 # 2 but f(- 2) =|-2|= 2 =| 2| = 2) shows that f is not injective. (b) Clearly for 2 ¢ R there does not exist any x ¢ R such that cos x = 2 (since = 1 cos x 1 for all x eR), whence we see that fis not surjective. Again since from trigonometry we know that itis a periodic funetion (of period 2), we have cos Z = cos Be, though % + R BZ, whence f is not injective,124 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS ‘© 9, Suppose f and g are two functions from R into B such that fo g = g 0 f. Does it necessarily follow that f= g 2 Justify your answer. Solution : No, for any two functions f and g from B into B such fo g = g Of, it does not necessarily follow that f = g. For example, let us take f: R > R given by fix) = 3x and ¢ : R + R given by a(x) = 4. Here 3) = 9, whereas (3) = 1, whence clearly f+ g; but here (fo 8) (x) = fist) -(4) =34 3n = g(3x) = gifx)) = (g 0 f) (x) for all x € R, shows that fo g = g0f ‘@ 10. Let 2A — B be a function. Give suitable examples to show that the inverse relation f ={0, x) € B x A: (, y) © f} need not always be a function, Solution : Suppose A = {1, 2, 3] and B = {a, b, c) and suppose further that f : A B be given by AU) = 2) = 3) = a. Clearly the relation f given by f= ((1, a), (2, a), @, a)} is a function from A into B. However the inverse relation f* c B x A is given by f* = ((a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3)} which is not single-valued and hence not a function from B into A. : EXER CSc Ss 1, Fill in the blanks : () For a non-empty set A, every subset of A x A is a on A (ii) Let A be finite set such that |A] = 4; then the total number of different possible relations on A is (iii) A relation R on a non-empty set A is called an (x, y) € R if and only if x= y. relation on A if for x,y € A, (iv) If A = {a, 5}, then the identity relation I, on A is (v) On the set A = (1, 2,3}, let R= {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2}. Then RQ Rt (vi) Let f= {(1, 4), (2, €), (% ©), (4, @)} be a relation from the set A = (1, 2, 3, 4} into the set B = {a, b,c). Then f turns out to be a function from A into B, only if x = (vii) Let f= ((1, a), (2, a), (3, b), (4, x)} be a relation from the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} into the set B= {a, b, c}. Then, f turns out to be a surjective mapping, only if x (viii) Two sets are said to be equivalent sets if there exists a from one onto the other.image not available126 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS (xviii) A relation f from a non-empty set A into a non-empty set B is a constant mapping from A into B, if the image set of f is a singleton subset of B. (xix) The product g 0 f of two functions f and g is admissible only when codomain of f= domain of g. (xx) A function f : A > B is called left investible if there exists a function g:B->A such that fog = ig (the identity function on B). (xxi) A function f: A — B is left invertible if and only if f is surjective. (xxii) Null set ¢ is a relation on A = (2, 4, 7}. (xxiii) If A = (3, 5, 7, 8} and B = (1, 2, 3), then p = ((3, 1), (5, 1), (8, 3), (2, 3), (7, 3)} defines a relation from A into B. (xxiv) If A and B are two finite sets then the number of relations that can be defined from A into B must be the same as that from B into A. (xxv) If |A|= 5 and |B| = 3, then the number of different relations that one can define from A into B is 157, (xxvi) Each relation is a function but each function is not necessarily a relation. (xxvii) IFA = (a, b,c, d}, B = {p, gsr} then f= ((a, p) (b. ps (c. 7) (dy ph (cy q)} determines a function from A into B. (xxviii) f : Z > Z given by fn) = n? is an injective function. (xxix) f: N > N given by fim) = r? is a surjective function. (xxx) If there exists a bijection between two finite sets, then the sets must have the same number of elements. (xxi) An invertible function may have more than one inverse. (xxii) The domain of definition of lx) = Vx-2 is (x eR: x > 2). Pr = 1 a (xxiii) The domain of definition of f(x) = is (x €R: - V2 B is an invertible function and if [A] = 1 then , (a) IAL< IB] (6) IAI> IB] (©) IA|= |B] (d) JA] # [BL (x) If Ac R and if f: A > R be a function, then any straight line parallel to the y-axis will intersect the graph of f (a) at most at one point on it (b) at least at one point on it (©) may be at more than one point —_(d) at no point on it. (xi) Let A and B be two sets such that |A| = 2 and |B] = 3, then the number of functions from A to B is (a) 23 (b) 32 (c) 6 ~—(d) none of these.128 __ RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS (xii) A function f : N+ N is defined by the rule that jm) = number of factors of 7, then SQ) = (a) {1, 2} (b) (x © N: nis multiple of 2) (c) set of all primes (d) none of these. (xiii) Let A be a nonempty finite set and f : A > A be injective, then (a) f may not be surjective (b) f may not be invertible (c) f must be surjective (d) none of these holds. 1. For each of the following subsets of A x A, where A = (1, 2, 3, 4}, decide whether it is a relation on A. In case the subset turns out to be a relation, find its domain and range. (a) p= {Q, 4)}. (b) p= (3, 4), (4, 3}. (©) P={C, 1), (2, 2) G3, 3), GB, 4), 4, 3D) (d) p= {G, 3), 4, 4) (e) P={C, 1), 2, 2), (3, 3), 4, 4)}. () p= (Cl, 2), (2, 3), 3, 4)}- (g) P= {Cl 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), 4, 4), (2, 3), 3, 2), GB. 4), 4, 30). Section - C 1. If A= (p,q, 7, 5,0) and B are relations from A into MR = (6.4, G @ Ds @ Ry =(M, VG DV. (4). In case any one of these two turns out to be a relation then find its domain and range; also find its inverse relation. {1, 3, 4}, find whether or not the following sets of ordered pairs 2. Let p be a relation defined on the set N of natural numbers as 9 = {(x, y)€NxN:x+y= 10}. Find the domain and range of p. 3. Let H denote the set of all human beings, M denote that of the male humans and F denote that of female humans. Define the relations “motherhood” (4£), “brotherhood” (#) as subsets of suitable Cartesian product sets. 4. Determine which of the following sets are functions from A to B. Justify your answer, (@) f= (a, b), (ay 0), (by d), (c, a) A= (a, bc}, B= (a, by cd). (b) f= (C1, 3), 2, 2), GB, 4) A= (1,2, 3), B= (1, 2,3, 4). (C)F={G, p), (b p), (ce, 9), (di A = fa, b, c,d}, B= {p,q r}-CHAPTER FOUR _O THEORY OF SETS 129 @ f= (a, b)eZxZ|b=at5);A=B=Z. © f= (a, b)eRxRlb=Vaj,A=B=R. In case any of the above sets is a function, determine its nature as to its injectivity, surjectivity or bijectivity. 5. Show that the following functions are injective but not surjective. (@) f: ZZ given by fu) = 2x, xe Z (b) f: N N given by fix) = 2x + 5, xe N. 6. Show that the following functions are surjective but not injective. (@ f: Z—> 2Ny given by fx) = 2 x), xe Zand Ny=Nv (0). (b) f: Z (1, - 1) given by fay = x Z. 7. Determine which of the following functions are surjective, injective or bijective. (@) f: RR defined by fix) = | x | x, for all x°€ Rj [xI(Final), 2006] (b) f: Rt > Rt defined by fix) = Vx, for all xe Rt: (©) f: RO R defined by flx) = |x | +. for all x € R; (@)f: R > Q defined by fix) = 2%, for all se Ry (©) f: RY 3 R° defined by fx) = +, for all x € R’; x () f: RR defined by ffx) = 2x - 7, for all xe (g) f: R > R defined by fix) = 7 - 3x + 4, for all xe R. 8. Let A bea finite set and let f: A > B be a surjective function. Show that the number of elements of B cannot be greater than that of A. 9. Let X = {a, b,c}. Find all possible bijective functions from X onto itself. 10. Justify that while every function is a relation, the converse proposition is not necessarily true. Give example in favour of your argument. 1. iff : RR be given by fix) = x? - 3x - 4, for all x € R, find f-! ({0}). [Hint = Here f-! ({0}) stands for the inverse image of the set {0}. Note that for a function f:A — B and any non-empty subset P of B, the inverse image of P in A is defined as the set f-\®) = (ve A: fix) € P}. It is important to appreciate that though the notation f-! is used here, the concept of inverse image is not dependent on the existence of inverse of the function f, which is also denoted by j-! when it exists. In this example inverse of the function f does not exists as it clearly fails to be bijective.] ANSWERS 1. (i) Relation, (ii) 2", (iii) constant, (iv) {(a, a), (b, b)}, (¥) {(2, 2)}, (vi) 3, (vii) c, 7130. RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS (viii) one-to-one and onto relation, (ix) left, (x) one-to-one, onto. . (i) false (actually thare are two relations, empty relation and universal relation), (ii) false (4A), (iii) false (- (0,0) €R), (iv) false ( (1, d) A xB), (v) true, (vi) true, (vii) true, (viii) false (-- 2x 0 =0 € 0), (ix) false (:— 1-1 =—2¥ 2), (x) true, (xi) true (+ Ad) is undefined), (xii) false, (xiii) false (af 1 and a2 both hold), (xiv) true, (xv) true, (xvi) false (-. any element of B may be a value of x), (xvii) true, (xviii) false (for example f= {(1, 2), (2, 2) is a relation on A= (1, 2, 3} for which I() = {2} CA, but fis not at all a function from A toA), (xix) false (indeed, it is admissible iff Im(f) < D(g)), (xx) false (in fact, here fis right invertible), (xxi) false (indeed, one-to-one), (xxii) true, (xxiii) false (since, (2, 3) €A xB), (xxiv) tue, (xxv) false, (xxvi) false, (xxvii) false, (xxviii) false, (xxix) false, (xxx) true, (xxi) false, (xxii) false (x22), (xxiii) true, (xxiv) false (since gOf :A—> Cis one-to-one = the function fis also injective, (xxxv) false (5). . (i) a, (ii) ¢, (iii) ¢, (iv) b, (v) b, (vi) a, (vii) d, (viii) c, (ix) ©, (x) a, (xi) b, (xii) ¢, (xiii) &: . Indeed each is a relation on A. (a) D(p) = {2}, 10) = = (4); (b) D(p) = (3, 4}, 1(p) = (3, 4}; (©) Dip) = Kp) = U1, 2, 3, 4) = A; @) DP) 1); ) Dp) = 1p) = (1, 2,3, 4} = BG) = U2 3 a) 8 Aw) OB) = He 2A) A. |. (i) not a relation from A into B since (a, 3) ¢ A x B. (ji) it is a relation and D(R,) = {p, 4, r} and1(R,) = (1, 4}; ={0, ph (Lg) Gn). 2. Dip) = {xe N| 1S x<9) =1(). 3. MCF xH, BCMXH. 4. (a) Not a function, since f is not well-defined; indeed (a, 6), (a, ¢) € f though b # c in B; (b) injective function; (c) surjective function; (d) bijective function; (e) Not a function, since it is not defined for negative real numbers, i.e, the domain of this relation is not the whole of R. 7. (a) Bijective; (b) Bijective; (c) Neither injective nor surjective; (d) Injective but not surjective; (©) Bijective; (f) Bijective; (g) Neither injective nor surjective. W. (4,1). vee You see things, and you say, “Why ?” But I dream things that never we and I say, “Why not 2” — George Bernhard ShawChapter Five -cnesctetanienaestenese sasite Arithmetic Progression cngatanenmstea You never know what is enough until you know what is more than enough. — William Blake INTRODUCTION Informally speaking, a collection of numbers arranged in a definite order is called a sequence of the numbers. In a sequence, numbers are arranged in succession in the sense that a sequence has a first number a, (i.e., the number occuring in the first place), then being followed by a second number a, (i.e., the number occuring in the second place), which is followed by a third one a3 and so on. Thus corresponding to every natural number n, we can always assign a unique real number a, which must occur in the nth place. The number a,, is called the nth term of the sequence and is usually denoted by f,,. Thus, a sequence will be written always as {a, | € HW) or more explicitely (a), dy, yy... 5 Gjy---} though, you must realise that a sequence, being denoted by {a,, | € V} may not refer always to a set, because, a sequence may have two or more terms equal, whereas.a sct by definition will not have any clement repeated in it. By a progression we mean a sequence of which two consecutive terms are related by some definite mathematical rule, prescribed in advance. To realize it more clearly, observe the following examples. @ 5,8, 11, 14, (i) 2,4, 8 16, Gili) - 1,0, 2,5, 9, 14, @w F114 1 3781318 If you carefully look at the above four examples of sequences, you will note that, in case of He: Ist sequence, every term is 3 less than the term just succeeding it, ie., 1, = tq 4 ~ 3, for any n-€ W. In case of the 2nd sequence, it is 1, | = 2 t,; for third sequence, the Ist term nis 1 less than the 2nd and the 2nd is 2 less than the third and so on i. In 4.1 = ty + 1 for any n @ N. The reciprocal of every term of the fourth sequence is 5 less than the reciprocal of the term just succeeding it i.e., for any positive integer n, here, 1 1 fn Inst - 5. So, in case of each of the above sequences, we obtain a mathematical rule which relates every two consecutive terms of the sequence. In this sense, the above four sequences are examples of progressions.132 RUDIMENTS OF MATHEMATICS In the present chapter, we shall discuss the progressions of the Ist type only; i.e., more explicitely, the progressions in which the difference of any two consecutive terms is always a constant. Definition A successive arrangement of numbers f}. f9.... . ie., a sequence {1,.hn2 1} of real numbers is called an arithmetic progression (A.P., in short) if each of its terms (other than the first) is obtained by adding some fixed constant with the preceding term, be egy het, = a for all n 2 2. The fixed constant as mentioned in the definition of an A.P.. i-e.. (t, - f, _ 1) for any positive integer n > |, is called the common difference of the A.P. If the first term (1) and the common difference of an arithmetic progression’ are respectively a and d, then we can determine the A.P. which can then be described as a, atd,at2d,a +34, Note: 1. An A.P. with common difference d is increasing or decreasing according as d>O or d<0. 2. If the common difference d is zero, then the A.P. is trivially a progression of single number. This type of AP. has no elegance. For this, throughout the chapter we shall consider an A.P. with non-zero common difference, j.e., in turn we shall consider that all the terms of an A.P. are distinct. | If 1, denotes the nth term (general term) of an AP. of which the first term is a and the | | common difference is d, then, | | 1, = @ + (n ~ 1d for any positive integral value of n. | We shall prove the theorem by the principle* of mathematical induction. For all positive integers n, let P(n) be the statement ‘sat (n= Va, where t, = a and d is the common difference of the A.P. Basis step : a + (n~ 1)d is true for n = 1, In fact, 4 =a = a+ (I - Id. Inductive hypothesis + Let m be a positive integer (m 2 1) such that P(m) holds, ie., ty = a + (m= Id. %* This principle will be discussed in detail in Class XII book. Now you can skip the proof.CHAPTER FIVE 1 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 133 Inductive step : Since d is the common difference of the A.P., Ing Sty + dat (m—Vd+d=atmd-d+d =a+md = a+ [im+ 1) - 1d. Thus P(m + 1) holds when P(m) holds. Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction, f,, = @ + (m —I)d is true for any positive integral value of n. 5 Note 51. when the first n terms of an A.P. are taken under consideration then the nth termof the A.P. is called the last term of the A.P. and itis usually denoted by 1. Thus, ! = a + (n- I)d. numbers Xj, Xp. Xy - » X, are Said to-be in-A:P,;if they are-respectively the r consecutive terms of an arithmetic progression, If. aj, ay, .... a, are in AP. with common difference d, then by definition, a — a, = a =a) = 44-4, = It is convenient to choose (a) three numbers jn A.P, to be of the forma-b,aa+b; (b) four numbers in A.P, as a - 3b, a-b, 0 + ba +365 in general, (©) m numbers jn A.P. as (i) a= (a 1)b, a ~ (n ~ 3), a bat Bw at (0 — 16, when 1 is €%€M (in this case the common difference is 26) and 22 23. Foy Oy 24 2 f three numbers a, b,c are in A.P, then the middle number b is called the arithmetic mean (A. short) between the extremes a and If a, b, ¢ are in AP. then b- a b (= d, the common difference of the A.P.). ate = So, =aatrec nb= . Thus, the A.M. between a and c is Given any two real numbers a and b (a #b) we can introduce n number of A.M.s between them. In fact, for a positive integer n, the numbers x), x9, ... x, are n A.M.s between a and b if @, xy. Xp) oy Zyy Bare in AP. Thus, if x), x5, ... ., be m A.M. between two numbers a and b, then a, x), 23. b may be considered as the first (n + 2) terms of an A.P,, in which 1, =a and 1, , > Suppose, the common difference of the A.P. be d.