RAHMAN & AL-MUYEED

Water
and
Environmental Engineering
 Water
and
Environmental Engineering

M. Habibur Rahman §§Abdullah Al-Muyeed

Water and
Environmental Engineering

First Edition: June 2012

Published by:
ITN-BUET
Centre for Water Supply and Waste Management,
BUET, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh

All rights reserved by

ITN-BUET
Centre for Water Supply and Waste Management

This book or any part of it cannot be reproduced in any form or by any

means without written permission of the publisher.

ISBN: 978-984-33-4356-7

Drawing: Tahmid Ritu, Tanjil Hasan, M. Saiful Islam

Layout & Design: Tahmid Ritu, Abdullah Al-Muyeed
Print: Mati ar Manush
Dedicated to
All our beloved students

v
About Authors
Prof. Dr. M. Habibur Rahman received B.Sc. Eng. (Civil) and M.Sc Eng. (Civil
and Environmental) from Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology
(BUET), Dhaka and Ph.D from University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK as a
Commonwealth scholar. Immediately after graduation he joined the faculty of
Civil Engineering, BUET, Dhaka, where he served as Lecturer, Assistant
Professor, Associate Professor, Professor and Division Chief. He served as
Director of International Training Network, ITN–BUET as well, awarded
Commonwealth Academic Staff Fellowship and worked as a Visiting Professor
during 1999-2000 for 1 year at Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK.
He has more than 30 years of teaching, research and professional experiences in
Civil and Environmental Engineering. He worked as a Consultant to more than
50 major Civil, Water Supply, Sanitation and Environmental Management
projects of national importance including some UNCRD-Japan, World Bank,
IDB and WHO projects. The author worked as a Member of the PMU Steering
Committee for Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project
(Government of Bangladesh - World Bank); Member of the Scientific and
Technical Council of International Water Supply Association; Member of the
Executive Board of International Water Supply Association ASCEN Region;
Board Member of International Water Association; Board Member of Asian
Academic Network for Environmental Safety & Waste Management; and, also
as a Board Member of the Asia Pacific Association of Hydrology & Water
Resources. He is also the Chairman of the Technical Committee of National
Domestic Biogas and Manure Program, Member of the Technical Committee of
Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant Project, Government of the People’s Republic of
Bangladesh and Member of the Trustee Board of the Climate Change Trust
Fund, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. He authored or co-
authored more than 160 papers in National and International Journal and
Conference Proceedings and authored or co-authored chapters of more than 10
books. He is the contributory author of Bangladesh National Building
Code1993. He also authored a text book titled, ‘Solid and Hazardous Waste
Management’, published by ITN-BUET in 2010. At present, he is working as
Pro-Vice Chancellor of BUET. The author can be reached at the mail:
habibr@ce.buet.ac.bd and habibr82@yahoo.com
Dr. Abdullah Al-Muyeed received Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering and
Master of Science in Civil Engineering (Environmental) from Bangladesh
University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Dhaka and Ph.D from the

vi
University of Tokyo, Japan, as a prestigious Monbusho scholar. His professional
experiences cover graduate and post graduate level teaching and research in
renowned universities of Bangladesh and abroad since 2002. The author has
more than 35 technical papers in National and International Journal and
Conference Proceedings. He also worked as Environmental Consultant in
different projects funded by World Bank/DANIDA/JICA etc. He also worked as
honorary editor and reviewer in distinguished journals of international
publishers. He worked as Reviewer in the research project funded by University
Grant Commission, Bangladesh. He is also a distinguished Specialist on Solid
Waste Management of International Training Network, ITN–BUET. He also
authored a text book titled, ‘Solid and Hazardous Waste Management’,
published by ITN-BUET in 2010. At present, he is working as Associate
Professor in the Dept. of Civil Engineering of the Ahsanullah University of
Science and Technology, Dhaka. The author can be reached at the mail:
muyeed.ce@aust.edu and amuyeed@yahoo.com .

vii
Preface
One of the foremost objectives of International Training Network of the
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (ITN-BUET) has been
to reorient the curricula of environmental engineering education in Bangladesh
with emphasis on low-cost technologies, community participation, community
management, hygiene promotion, safety issues in both solid waste and water
supply-sanitation. During the process of curricula development, ITN-BUET,
BUET, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET), Khulna
University of Engineering and Technology (KUET), Rajshahi University of
Engineering and Technology (RUET), Chittagong University of Engineering
and Technology (CUET), Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology
(AUST), Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
acknowledged the need for developing textbooks on Environmental
Engineering education in the academic arena of the universities to support the
reoriented curricula. It was felt that there are very few standard materials
available on environmental engineering, particularly focused on water pollution,
water supply & demand management, distribution mechanics of water network,
leakage, risk management, physical integrity of distribution main, plumbing and
water safety plan issues of engineering curricula of Bangladesh. It was therefore
decided to develop a textbook on Water and Environmental Engineering.
The book has been developed for both undergraduate and graduate students
studying environmental engineering focused on water supply, water treatment
and distribution & management in engineering aspect and their teachers at
technical institutions in Bangladesh. It is also meant for professionals already
working in this water sector, who can use the textbook for reference. The
development of this textbook was a challenging process. All concerned
authorities wanted to make sure that the textbook would be useful for the
students studying in this field, teachers, technicians and professionals working in
drinking water sector. To facilitate this from the beginning staff members of the
ITN centre in Dhaka, faculty members from the engineering universities of
Bangladesh, teachers and technical institutions, professionals working in water
sector and officials from bilateral organizations were asked to prepare
manuscript following the syllabus of environmental education in engineering
sector and therefore the contents of the book were finalized. After, several
months of continual efforts from the authors and receiving
comments/suggestions from professionals of this sector through both formal
and informal discussion, the final manuscript of this book is updated.
This book comprises of 15 chapters where the first chapter covers general
description of environmental engineering and historical background of civil and
viii
sanitary engineering. It also describes the general description of public health,
ecology, biodiversity, aerobic-anaerobic degradation and ethics in
environmental engineering profession. Special emphasis is given to this issues
perspective to Bangladesh. The second chapter includes water pollution and its
effects on streams, lakes, groundwater and oceans. Chapter three comprises of
water demand, consumption, and frequency of water demand and estimation of
demand in water supply system. The next chapter describes different source of
water, aquifer and its types, safe yield and source contamination of water.
Chapter five describes about pumps, classification of pumps, pump curves, flow
meter and pump hydraulics.
Chapter six describes different mechanisms to treat drinking water and how to
treat water from a water source following standards. Here, Bangladesh WHO
and EPA standards are reported to treat water for dinking purpose. Chapter
seven discusses the specific arsenic treatment technologies as it is treated as the
most toxic substance present in ground water of Bangladesh. Chapter eight
discusses briefly about tubewell technologies and mechanism of well
construction
Distribution hydraulics and mechanism of water are explained in details in
chapter nine. The following chapter discusses the plumbing system that present
in Bangladesh. Chapter eleven discusses water demand management and loss
control where cost, auditing and economical values of water are discussed.
Chapter twelve depicts physical integrity of water where structural failure of
different components of pipeline is described. Chapter thirteen describes water
safety plan and components of it. The next chapter describes different options of
alternative water supplies, especially water scarcity if present in the rural
Bangladesh.
Finally, chapter fifteen describes briefly the sustainable water management
(SuWM) of developing countries, especially for Bangladesh. In this chapter, the
elements, principles, technological options, operations and maintenance of
SuWM are briefly discussed.
However, in first edition of this text book, combination of SI and British unit is
used in calculations and examples as both the units are widely used in the
engineering curricula of Bangladesh. But, it is expected that the next edition will
be separately either SI or British unit.

ix
Acknowledgement
We would like to express our sincere thanks to all those who have inspired us for
the development and publication of this textbook. Formal and informal
comments/suggestions from friends and colleagues of BUET, AUST, DUET,
CUET, RUET, KUET, SUST, NSU, IUB, DPHE, LGED, WSP-WB, UNDP,
DANIDA, WHO, NGO Forum, WATER-AID, PLAN BANGLADESH, WB,
ADB and other organizations to finalize this book is gratefully acknowledged.
Their valuable comments and reviews have enriched the publication.
We express sincere thanks to ITN-BUET for publishing this book. Our sincere
appreciation also goes to Prof. Dr. Md. Mafizur Rahman, Center Director of
ITN-BUET and Engr. Sk. Abu Jafar Shamsuddin, former Center Manager for
their support during process of development and getting the book published.
We are also grateful to our Dutch friend Mr. Bert Van de Wiel, for his sincere and
effortless support to provide data/information and many lecture notes about
Europe especially England and the Netherlands while writing this book.
Many students of AUST have assisted in preparing this textbook and the authors
acknowledge their support with thanks.
The useful lecture notes of different course teachers of Environmental
Engineering division of BUET, which were very helpful while preparing this
manuscript, are acknowledged also with respect.
Finally, an honorable mention goes to our families and friends for their
understandings and supports extended to us in completing this book. We remain
indebted to all of them.
M. Habibur Rahman
Abdullah Al-Muyeed

x
Contents
Preface viii
Acknowledgement ix
List of Tables xviii
List of Figures xxii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 1
1.1 Environmental engineering 3
1.2 Sanitary engineering 7
1.3 Public health 8
1.4 Ecology and environment 8
1.5 Biodegradation 13
1.6 Aerobic and anaerobic decomposition 14
1.7 Climate change 17
1.8 Biodiversity 20
1.9 Ethics 27
1.10 Environmental engineering as a profession 33
1.11 Water supply and sanitation 34
1.12 Water supply system 54
1.13 Public water supply 55
1.14 Elements of public water supply 55
1.15 Planning a municipal water supply system 63
1.16 Conclusion 65
References 66

Chapter 2 Water Pollution 69

2.1 Introduction 71
2.2 Sources of water pollution 71
2.3 Effect of pollution on streams 74
2.4 Effect of pollution on lakes 86
2.5 Effect of pollution on groundwater 90
2.6 Effect of pollution on oceans 92
2.7 Heavy metals and toxic substances 93
2.8 Conclusion 96
References 97

xi
Chapter 3 Water Requirement 99
3.1 Introduction 101
3.2 Factors affecting per capita consumption 104
3.3 Consumption categories 107
3.4 Water demand patterns 115
3.5 Fire demand 130
3.6 Fire hydrants 132
3.7 Demand calculation 133
3.8 Demand frequency distribution 142
3.9 Elements for water supply system 147
3.10 Designing water consumption 147
3.11 Conclusion 149
References 150

Chapter 4 Water Supply 151

4.1 Introduction 153
4.2 Sources of water 154
4.3 The hydrologic cycle and water availability 154
4.4 Surface water supplies 156
4.5 Groundwater supplies 157
4.6 Aquifer and its types 160
4.7 Hydraulic characteristics 162
4.8 Safe yield 167
4.9 Source contamination 168
4.10 Ground water development 169
4.11 Flow of groundwater 171
4.12 Safeguards in groundwater development 172
4.13 Interference between multiple extraction wells 172
4.14 Infiltration gallery 173
4.15 Conclusion 175
References 176

Chapter 5 Pumps and Pumping Machineries 177

5.1 Introduction 179
5.2 Classification of pumps 179
5.3 Selection of pumps 188
xii
 5.4 Pump curves 193
5.5 Valving 193
5.6 Flow meters 195
5.7 Pumping layouts 197
5.8 Control 198
5.9 Reliability factors 199
5.10 Pump hydraulics 201
5.11 Economical diameter of pumping main 207
5.12 Conclusion 214
References 215

Chapter 6 Water Treatment Process 217

6.1 Introduction 219
6.2 Classification of impurities 220
6.3 Physical impurities 220
6.4 Microbiological quality of water 228
6.5 Indicator organism 229
6.6 Radioactivity in water supplies 230
6.7 Organic contaminants 230
6.8 Process selection factors 230
6.9 Preliminary treatment 232
6.10 Aeration 234
6.11 Coagulation and flocculation 241
6.12 Sedimentation basin 256
6.13 Filtration 268
6.14 Problems caused by deficiencies in washing 280
6.15 Disinfection 289
6.16 Water fluoridation 304
6.17 Advanced water treatment processes 306
6.18 Taste and odor control 312
6.19 Softening 313
6.20 Adsorption 324
6.21 Chemical oxidation 325
6.22 Membrane processes including reverse osmosis 326
6.23 Arsenic removal 328
6.24 Design Consideration of Water Treatment Plant 330
xiii
 6.25 Operating considerations of a water treatment plant 330
6.26 Conclusion 338
References 339

Chapter 7 Arsenic Crisis 341

7.1 Introduction 343
7.2 Causes of arsenic contamination 345
7.3 Effects on health 347
7.4 Treatment of arsenic contaminated water 347
7.5 Arsenic removal technologies practised in bangladesh 351
7.6 Comparison of arsenic removal technologies practised in 362
bangladesh
7.7 Conclusion 363
References 364

Chapter 8 Ground Water Extraction: Tubewell Technology 367

8.1 Tubewell technology 369
8.2 Designing of well 380
8.3 Cased section 381
8.4 Intake section 382
8.5 Selection of casing and screen materials 402
8.6 Sanitary protection 405
8.7 Well construction 408
8.8 Installing well casing 425
8.9 Grouting and sealing casing 428
8.10 Well alignment 431
8.11 Installation of well screens 434
8.12 Fishing operations 446
8.13 Well completion 454
8.14 Well maintenance and rehabilitation 463
8.15 Planning for Well Maintenance 464
8.16 Maintenance Operations of Well 465
8.17 Well point instal1ation in dug wells 469
8.18 Summary of designing and constructing tubewells in Bangladesh 470
8.19 Conclusion 480
References 481

xiv
Chapter 9 Water Distribution 483
9.1 Surface water collection 485
9.2 Intakes 489
9.3 Water distribution: Terminology 499
9.4 Methods of distribution 500
9.5 System planning 504
9.6 Cross conection 504
9.7 Pressure regulation alternatives 505
9.8 Distribution mains 509
9.9 Distribution systems pressures 515
9.10 Distribution system equipment 516
9.11 Water pipe materials 525
9.12 Service connections 530
9.13 Forces acting on pipe 532
9.14 Strength of pipe 544
9.15 The joints 547
9.16 Pipe laying 547
9.17 Distribution system design 549
9.18 Main concepts and definitions 552
9.19 Hydraulic losses 563
9.20 Transmission line design 566
9.21 The manning equation 578
9.22 Comparison of the friction loss equations 578
9.23 Minor losses 584
9.24 Single pipe calculation 586
9.25 Serial and branched networks 599
9.26 Looped networks 602
9.27 Pressure-related demand 614
9.28 Thrust resistant 617
9.29 Hydraulics of storage and pumps 621
9.30 Conclusion 643
References 644

Chapter 10 Household Plumbing System and Fixtures 645

10.1 Plumbing system 647
10.2 Principles of designing household water supply connection 651
xv
 10.3 Hot water connection system 651
10.4 Plumbing fixtures 658
10.5 Drainage system of building 664
10.6 Conclusion 671
References 672

Chapter 11 Water Demand Management and Loss Control 673

11.1 Introduction 675
11.2 Economic theory of supply and demand 679
11.3 Timing 686
11.4 The cost of water 691
11.5 Value of water 697
11.6 Loss control 698
11.7 Auditing of water 701
11.8 Conclusion 714
References 715

Chapter 12 Physical Integrity of Water 717

12.1 Introduction 719
12.2 Physical integrity 719
12.3 Recommendations and conclusions 767
References 769

Chapter 13 Risk Management for Distribution System 771

13.1 Introduction 773
13.2 Water safety plans 773
13.3 Water safety plans for distribution systems 774
13.4 Summary of water safety plan content 788
13.5 Conclusion 789
References 790

Chapter 14 Alternative Water Supply Options 791

14.1 Deep tubewell 793
14.2 Shallow shrouded tubewell and very shallow shrouded tubewell 794
14.3 Infiltration gallery/well 795
14.4 Dug well 795
xvi
 14.5 Construction 795
14.6 Sanitary protection 796
14.7 Pond sand filters 798
14.8 Conventional surface water treatment plant 799
14.9 Household/pitcher filters 799
14.10 Solar disinfection 799
14.11 Rainwater harvesting 800
14.12 Rainwater availability 801
14.13 Rainwater catchment 803
14.14 Storage tank 803
14.15 Conclusion 805
References 806

Chapter 15 Sustainable Water Supply Management in Developing Countries 807

15.1 Introduction 809
15.2 Elements of SuWM 809
15.3 Principles of SuWM 810
15.4 The role of institutions in shaping water behaviour 812
15.5 Appropriate technology in SuWM 813
15.6 Operation and maintenance 813
15.7 Benefits 814
15.8 Management options and public/private partnerships 817
15.9 Conclusion 822
References 824

Appendix 825
List of abbreviation 827

xvii
List of Table
Table 1.1 General impacts of climate change in Bangladesh 23
Table 1.2 Status of inland and resident vertebrates of Bangladesh 27
Table 1.3 Status of marine and migratory vertebrates of Bangladesh 27
Table 1.4 World average annual rate of increase of selected aspects of human 35
activities (%)
Table 1.5 Categories of water, sanitation and hygiene related diseases 37
Table 1.6 Drinking water supply coverage of Bangladesh 40
Table 1.7 Comparison of Sanitation progress reported by Sanitation Secretariat 43
(SS) and other organizations
Table 1.8 Status of sanitary latrine in Bangladesh 44
Table 1.9 Composition of solid waste in Dhaka city 45
Table 1.10 Types of Pollutants and Applied Pollution Measure in Major Polluting 46
Industries in Bangladesh
Table 1.11 Typical effluent quality of selected industries 47
Table 1.12 Linkage between diarrhoeal frequency and access to water, sanitation 54
and hygiene

Table 2.1 Reaeration constants 77

Table 2.2 Diversity and equitability of aquatic organisms 84

Table 3.1 Water demand in the Netherlands in 2001 102

Table 3.2 Specific demand around Lake Victoria in Africa 104
Table 3.3 Domestic vs. non-domestic consumption in some African states 108
Table 3.4 Industrial water consumption 112
Table 3.5 Seasonal crop water needs 113
Table 3.6 Animal water consumption 113
Table 3.7 Water consumption in institutions 113
Table 3.8 Tourist water consumption in Southwest England 114
Table 3.9 Example of domestic unit water consumption 116
Table 3.10 Empirical formula for computing rate of fire demand 130
Table 3.11 Flow required by the national board of fire underwrites 131
Table 3.12 Water demand and production by DWASA 146
Table 3.13 Year wise water connection and water production 146
Table 4.1 Estimate of average permeability and porosity for selected materials 159
Table 4.2 Distance to source of contamination 169

xviii
Table 5.1 Information on pump selection 189

Table 6.1 Difference between potable and palatable water 220

Table 6.2 Impurities in water 221
Table 6.3 Difference between color and turbidity 224
Table 6.4 Analogy between taste and odor 225
Table 6.5 Water quality standards 231
Table 6.6 Design criteria for sedimentation tank 267
Table 6.7 Variable affecting filter operation and design 270
Table 6.8 Types of filter and characteristic difference 280
Table 6.9 Characteristics of private/public management options 298
Table 6.10 Effectiveness of various unit processes for reducing chloroform 298
formation potentia
Table 6.11 Conventional water treatment unit processes 303
Table 6.12 Classification of hardness 314
Table 6.13 CO2 yields of common fuels 320
Table 6.14 Species of arsenic 330
Table 6.15 Selection of processes in potable water treatment system 331

Table 7.1 Arsenic contamination situation in Bangladesh 344

Table 7.2 Arsenic and Iron removal efficiencies in AIRPs 353
Table 7.3 Arsenic and iron removal efficiencies in 18-DTP AIRPs 354
Table 7.4 Installation, operation and maintenance costs of selected presently 354
operating water supply options
Table 7.5 Comparison of arsenic removal mechanisms and costs in Bangladesh 362

Table 8.1 Intake areas for selected widths of slot openings, (square inches per foot 399
of screen)

Table 9.1 Pipe materials and valves 510

Table 9.2 Valve applications and standards 517
Table 9.3 Hydrant distribution 523
Table 9.4 Pipe type comparison 526
Table 9.5 Value of the coefficient c for Eqs. 9.9 and 9.10 540
Table 9.6 Values of the coefficient cp for Eqs. 9.11 541

xix
Table 9.7 Values of load coefficient (e1) for concentrate and distributed 543
superimpose loads
Table 9.8 (a) Crushing strength of clay and concrete pipes by the three-edge bearing 545
test: (all strength in pounds per linear foot)
Table 9.8 (b) Absolute roughness 566
Table 9.9 The Hazen–Williams factors 580
Table 9.10 Correction of the Hazen–Williams factors 581
Table 9.11 Losses in pipe fittings and appurtenances 581
Table 9.12 The Manning factors 582
Table 9.13 Hydraulic gradient in pipe D = 300 mm, Q = 80 l/s, T = 10oC 582
Table 9.14 Hydraulic gradient S (-) in pipe D = 400 mm at Q = 200 l/s 595
Table 9.15 Soil friction and cohesion factors 621
Table 9.16 Reduction factors 621

Table 11.1 The ten key steps identified by the POLIS project to achieve water 676
sustainability
Table 11.2 Demand management methods and their use 687
Table 11.3 Factors affecting water prices 694
Table 11.4 The benefits of water supply 695
Table 11.5 Type of losses in water supply 698
Table 11.6 Components and definitions of the water balance used in the 702
IWA/AWWA leakage model
Table 11.7 The various options for pricing metered water 706
Table 11.8 Different components of domestic wastewater that can be separated and 710
the potential for reuse
Table 11.9 Breakdown of water usage for an average US family 712
Table 11.10 Code of American Water Work Association 713

Table 12.1 Infrastructure components, what they protect against, and common 720
materials
Table 12.2 Causes of loss in physical integrity 722
Table 12.3 Most common problems that lead to pipe failure for various pipe 725
materials
Table 12.4 Potential for contaminant entry during water main activities 730
Table 12.5 Examples of ways to detect a loss in physical integrity 741
Table 12.6 Examples of ways to maintain physical integrity 751
Table 12.7 Material life expectancies 757

xx
Table 12.8 Use of backflow prevention devices by degree of hazard and mechanism 760
Table 12.9 Ways to recover from a loss in physical integrity 762

Table 13.1 Example of a simple risk scoring table for prioritizing risks 781
Table 13.2 Examples of definitions of likelihood and severity categories for risk 782
scoring
Table 13.3 Types of monitoring in the management of distribution systems 784
Table 13.4 Example of verification schedule for calibration of equipment 787
Table 13.5 Summary of requirements of a water safety plan 789

Table 14.1 Arsenic contamination situation of tubewell in Bangladesh 793

Table 14.2 Installation, operation and maintenance costslected presently operating 793
water supply options
Table 14.3 Advantages and disadvantages of rainwater collection system 801

Table 15.1 Ten SuWM principles and objectives 811

Table 15.2 Characteristics of private/public management options 818

xxi
List of figure
Figure 1.1 Human waste disposal from an old woodcut 6
Figure 1.2 A typical terrestrial ecosystem 11
Figure 1.3 Homeostatic mechanisms 12
Figure 1.4 Energy loss in biodegradation 14
Figure 1.5 Aerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles 16
Figure 1.6 Anaerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles 16
Figure 1.7 Effect of greenhouse gases 18
Figure 1.8 Transmission of disease from faeces 36
Figure 1.9 Proportion of the world’s population using improved or an 39
unimproved drinking water source
Figure 1.10 Population using an unimproved drinking water source 39
Figure 1.11 Percentage of population using an unimproved drinking water source 40
in south-east Asian countries
Figure 1.12 Coverage with improved sanitation facilities 41
Figure 1.13 Sanitation practice scenario by proportion of the world’s population 41
Figure 1.14 Sanitation coverage of South Asia 42
Figure 1.15 Diseases contributing to the water, sanitation and hygiene related 49
disease
Figure 1.16 Sanitation coverage and diarrhoeal deaths in South Asian countries 50
Figure 1.17 Sanitation coverage and under 5 mortality rate in South Asian 50
countries
Figure 1.18 Sanitation coverage of Bangladesh and under 5 mortality rate in 57
different years
Figure 1.19 Diagram of public water supply chain 56
Figure 1.20 Different sources of water 58
Figure 1.21 Essential elements of water supply system 63

Figure 2.1 Dissolved oxygen downstream from a source of organic pollution 75

Figure 2.2 Amount of oxygen required at any time t(z(t)) for various 76
deoxygenation constants (q)
Figure 2.3 Dissolved oxygen used (BOD) at any time t 77
Figure 2.4 Example of dissolved oxygen 78
Figure 2.5 Plot of 7-day, 10-year low flows, for Example 2.2 82
Figure 2.6 The number of species and the total number of organisms 83
Figure 2.7 Typical variations in nitrogen compounds 84
Figure 2.8 Typical temperature depth relationships in lakes 87
xxii
Figure 2.9 Schematic representation of lake ecology 88
Figure 2.10 Water quality profiles for a water supply reservoir 91

Figure 3.1 Flows in water supply systems 101

Figure 3.2 Specific consumption in Asian cities 103
Figure 3.3 Domestic and nondomestic consumption in The Netherlands 108
Figure 3.4 Water use in Europe 109
Figure 3.5 Domestic water use in Europe 109
Figure 3.6 Structure of domestic consumption in The Netherlands 111
Figure 3.7 Simultaneity diagram 118
Figure 3.8 Simultaneity diagram of various categories of accommodation 119
Figure 3.9 Instantaneous demand 119
Figure 3.10 Night-time demand during football game 120
Figure 3.11 Evening demand during football game 121
Figure 3.12 Urban demand pattern 122
Figure 3.13 Industrial demand pattern – example from Bosnia and Herzegovina 123
Figure 3.14 Tourist demand pattern – example from Croatia 123
Figure 3.15 Commercial/ institutional demand pattern – example from USA 124
Figure 3.16 Typical structure of diurnal demand in urban areas 124
Figure 3.17 Peak factor diagrams of various categories from Figure 3.16 125
Figure 3.18 Weekly demand variations – Alvington, UK 126
Figure 3.19 Seasonal demand variation in a sea resort 127
Figure 3.20 Weekly and monthly peak factor diagrams 127
Figure 3.21 Annual demand patterns in Ramallah, Palestine 128
Figure 3.22 Fire Hydrant 133
Figure 3.23 Hypothetical annual range of flows in a distribution system 136
Figure 3.24 Domestic consumption increase in some European countries 139
Figure 3.25 Domestic consumption increase in Germany 139
Figure 3.26 Water consumption of washing appliances in Europe 140
Figure 3.27 Population and demand growth 141
Figure 3.28 Consumption growthaccording to the exponential model 141
Figure 3.29 Example of a typical diurnal demand pattern 143
Figure 3.30 Example of the annual range of the peak factors 143
Figure 3.31 Example of the annual range of hourly demands 144
Figure 3.32 Frequency distribution of the diurnal peak factors 144
Figure 3.33 Cumulative frequency distribution of the diurnal peak factors 145
xxiii
Figure 4.1 Distribution of Earth’s water 154
Figure 4.2 Hydrologic cycle 155
Figure 4.3 The flow of water through a soil sampler 158
Figure 4.4 Permeameter for Example 4.1 160
Figure 4.5a Confined and Unconfined aquifers 161
Figure 4.5b Drawdown in the groundwater table when water is pumped out of a 161
well
Figure 4.6a Radial flow to a well in an unconfined aquifer 163
Figure 4.6b A cylinder with water flowing through its sides towards the centre 163
Figure 4.6c Two monitoring wells showing drawdown during extraction 165
Figure 4.7 Radial flow to a well in a confined aquifer 166
Figure 4.8 Graphical determination of safe yield by the Hill method 168
Figure 4.9 Interference between two extraction wells 173
Figure 4.10 Infiltration 174

Figure 5.1 Booster pump station 180

Figure 5.2 Single acting reciprocating pump 182
Figure 5.3 Double acting reciprocating pump 183
Figure 5.4 Hand operate reciprocating pump 184
Figure 5.5 Rotary pump 185
Figure 5.6 Volute pump 185
Figure 5.7 Diffuser pump 186
Figure 5.8 Turbine pump 187
Figure 5.9 “Over-the-well” jet pump installment 188
Figure 5.10 Pump curves 194
Figure 5.11 Pump hydraulics 202
Figure 5.12 Pump characteristic curves 204
Figure 5.13 System head curve 205
Figure 5.14 Determination of pump operation point 206
Figure 5.15 Pump characteristic curves with two pumps in parallel and in series 207
Figure 5.16 System head curve with two pumps in parallel 207
Figure 5.17 Variation curve of diameter of main and its cost 208

Figure 6.1 (a) Turbidimeter 222

Figure 6.1 (b) Mechanism in Spectrophotometer to measure turbidity 223
Figure 6.1 (c) Levels of turbidity in NTU/FTU 223

xxiv
Figure 6.2 (a) Different types of aerators 236
Figure 6.2 (b) Different types of aerators 237
Figure 6.3 The colloidal model showing zeta potential 244
Figure 6.4 Electrostatic repulsion 245
Figure 6.5 Van der Waals attraction 246
Figure 6.6 The energy barrier from DVLO theory 247
Figure 6.7 Lowering of the colloid surface charge 248
Figure 6.8 Flocculator used in water treatment 251
Figure 6.9 Schematic of rectangular setting tank 257
Figure 6.10 Schematic of circular setting tank 258
Figure 6.11 Conical sedimentation basin 259
Figure 6.12 Elevation of type I setting tank 262
Figure 6.13 Settling of different types of particles in water 266
Figure 6.14 Schematic of rapid sand operational controls 273
Figure 6.15 A slow sand filtration unit 278
Figure 6.16 Equipment for making mud ball volume measurements 281
Figure 6.17 Mud balls on filter surface 282
Figure 6.18 Cracks in filter beds 283
Figure 6.19 Relation between the loss of head and settlement of sand in filters 283
Figure 6.20 Cracks along sidewalls of filters 284
Figure 6.21 Sketch showing typical surface cracks in top 3 in of filter beds 285
Figure 6.22 Clogged areas in a filter bed 286
Figure 6.23 Sand ridged by clogged places in the filter bed 287
Figure 6.24 Cross section of typical pressure filter 288
Figure 6.25(a) Dissociation of HOCl 290
Figure 6.25(b) Generalized curve of chlorine 293
Figure 6.26 Fluoride Levels 307
Figure 6.27 Schematic of a groundwater treatment plant 311
Figure 6.28 Schematic of the particle size 327
Figure 6.29 Schematic of reverse osmosis 328
Figure 6.30 Flow diagram of removal of arsenic from groundwater 329

Figure 7.1 North-south cut through Bangladesh delta 343

Figure 7.2 Typical community arsenic and iron removal plant 353
Figure 7.3 18-DTP arsenic and iron removal plant 355
Figure 7.4 Double bucket household unit 355
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Figure 7.5 Stevens institute technology 356
Figure 7.6 Three-pitcher filter 357
Figure 7.7 Granular ferric hydroxide unit 359
Figure 7.8 Tetrahedron unit 360
Figure 7.9 DPHE–danida fill and draw unit 360

Figure 8.1 Types of tubewell technologies 369

Figure 8.2 A no. 6 handpump tubewell 371
Figure 8.3 A rower pump 373
Figure 8.4 Disco handpump technology 374
Figure 8.5 Tara handpump tubewell 375
Figure 8.6 Moon handpump tubewell 378
Figure 8.7 Mark II handpump tubewell 379
Figure 8.8 Fabrication of a continuous slot type of well screen 383
Figure 8.9 Section of continuous slot type screen showing v-shaped openings 384
Figure 8.10 The V-shaped openings of the continuous-slot type of screen 384
Figure 8.11 Louver or shutter type well screen, best used in artificially gravel 386
packed wells
Figure 8.12 Continuous right angled slot of well axis 388
Figure 8.13 Slotted plastic pipe 389
Figure 8.14 Recommended positioning of well screens in various stratified, water 392
bearing sand formations
Figure 8.15 Recommended sets of standard sieves for analyzing samples of water 394
bearing sand or gravel
Figure 8.16 Typical sieve-analysis curve shows distribution of grain sizes in 395
percent by weight
Figure 8.17 Typical sieve analysis curves for water-bearing sands and gravels 396
Figure 8.18 Sequence illustrates possibility of fine sand entering lip per part of 398
lower section of screen
Figure 8.19 Sanitary protection of upper terminal of well 406
Figure 8.20 Sanitary well seals 407
Figure 8.21 Hand augers 408
Figure 8.22 Spiral auger 409
Figure 8.23 Simple tool for driving well points to depths of 15 to 30 ft 410
Figure 8.24 Drive-block assemblies for driving well points 411
Figure 8.25 Bits for jet drilling 412
Figure 8.26 Simple equipment for jet or rotary drilling 413

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Figure 8.27 Bamboo scaffolding, pivot and lever used in drilling by the sludger 414
method
Figure 8.28 Man on scaffolding of drill at lowing drill fluid and cutiings to escape 415
Figure.8.29 Rotary drill bits 416
Figure 8.30 Roller-type rotary drill bit 417
Figure 8.31 Rotary drilling rig 418
Figure 8.32 Some other type of drilling bit available in market 419
Figure.8.33 Balance for determining mud weight stop watch marsh funnel 420
Figure 8.34 Star 91 cable-tool drilling rig 422
Figure 8.35 Components of a string of drill tools for cable-tool precession method 423
Figure 8.36 Casing drive shoe, rotary table or other support placed 425
Figure 8.37 Driving casing with drive clamps as hammer and drive head as anvil 426
Figure 8.38 Hoisting plug 427
Figure 8.39 Casing elevator 428
Figure 8.40 A gravity placement method of cement grouting well casing 430
Figure 8.41 Inside-tubing method of cement grouting well casing 431
Figure 8.42 Outside tubing method of cement grouting well casing 432
Figure 8.43 A plumb bob 433
Figure 8.44 Screen hook installation method 435
Figure 8.45 Pull-back method of setting well screens 436
Figure 8.46 Swedge block 437
Figure 8.47 Closed bottom plug in open hole screen casing 438
Figure 8.48 Wash-Down method 439
Figure 8.49 Jetting well screen 440
Figure 8.50 Double-Casing method 442
Figure 8.51 Elements of sand-joint method 444
Figure 8.52 Impression block 449
Figure 8.53 Tapered tap and overshots 451
Figure 8.54 Wall hook 452
Figure 8.55 Center spear 453
Figure 8.56 One directional flow can cause sand bridging during well 456
development
Figure 8.57 Typical solid type surger plunger 457
Figure 8.58 Solid-type surge plunge ready for use in developing a well 457
Figure 8.59 Typical valve-type surge plunger with valve leather raised to show one 458
port holes

xxvii
Figure 8.60 Arrangement for introducing acid inside well screen from bottom 466
upwards
Figure 8.61 Dug well 470
Figure 8.62 Grain size distribution curve 471

Figure 9.1 Mass curve for determining required reservoir capacity 486
Figure 9.2 Frequency analysis of reservoir capacity 488
Figure 9.3 Typical reservoir intake 490
Figure 9.4 Typical lake intake 491
Figure 9.5 Typical submerged crib intake 492
Figure 9.6 Screened pipe intake 493
Figure 9.7 Typical intake, conduit, and pumping station 494
Figure 9.8 Elevated steel tank 502
Figure 9.9 Effect of elevated storage on pressure 502
Figure 9.10 Diurnal variation in water consumption 503
Figure 9.11 Water distribution system patterns 512
Figure 9.12 Double disc gate valve 518
Figure 9.13 (a) typical butterfly valve and (b) typical small-diameter ball valve 519
Figure 9.14 Schematic of typical dry- barrel fire hydrant 522
Figure 9.15 How water hammer can develop in a pipe line 534
Figure 9.16 How air chambers cushion the initial shock wave generated by water 536
hammer
Figure 9.17 Construction conditions of pipes 539
Figure 9.18 Load production forces 539
Figure 9.19 Concentrated superimposed load vertically centered over the pipe 542
Figure 9.20 Distributed superimposed load vertically centered over pipe 543
Figure 9.21 Some methods of laying pipes 546
Figure 9.22 Steady and uniform flow 553
Figure 9.23 The continuity equation validity in tanks 555
Figure 9.24 The continuity equation validity in pipe junctions 555
Figure 9.25 The momentum equation 556
Figure 9.26 The bernoulli equation 560
Figure 9.27a Hydraulic grade line 562
Figure 9.27 b The hydraulic gradient 562
Figure 9.28 Moody diagram 565
Figure 9.29 Typical plan and profile drawings 568

xxviii
Figure 9.30 (a) Nomograph for Hazen-Williams formula in which c = 150 571
Figure 9.30 (b) Nomograph for Hazen-Williams formula in which c = 100 572
Figure 9.31 Illustration of pipe line pressure 574
Figure 9.32 Comparison of the friction loss equations: mid range diameters, v = 1 579
m/s, l = 200 m
Figure 9.33 Comparison of the friction loss equations: large diameters, v = 1 m/s, l 579
= 2000 m
Figure 9.34 Comparison of the friction loss equations for various PVC roughness 582
factors
Figure 9.35 Minor loss caused by valve operation 585
Figure 9.36 Example of minor loss diagram from valve operation 587
Figure 9.37 Example of a pipe chart 595
Figure 9.38 Equivalent diameters 597
Figure 9.39 Branched network with a single supply point 599
Figure 9.40 Branched network with two supply points 600
Figure 9.41 Branched network with two supply points, showing an increase of 601
nodal flow q1
Figure 9.42 Looped network 604
Figure 9.43 Linear theory 611
Figure 9.44 Pressure-related leakage 614
Figure 9.45 Discharge through an orifice 615
Figure 9.46 Pressure-related demand relation 616
Figure 9.47 Negative pressures - as a result of a calculation without pressure- 616
related demand
Figure 9.48 Pressures as the result of the calculation with pressure-related demand 616
Figure 9.49 Typical thrust blocking 619
Figure 9.50 Pipe characteristics 622
Figure 9.51 Capacity reduction of the system 623
Figure 9.52 Gravity system: regular supply 624
Figure 9.53 System characteristics: regular operation 625
Figure 9.54 Gravity system: network extension 625
Figure 9.55 System characteristics: network extension 626
Figure 9.56 Gravity system: supply from two sides 627
Figure 9.57 Gravity system (for example 9.24) 627
Figure 9.58 Pumping head 628
Figure 9.59 Pumping characteristics 630
Figure 9.60 Typical pump characteristics curve 630

xxix
Figure 9.61 Operation of one pump 631
Figure 9.62 Operation of one pump: day- and night time flows 631
Figure 9.63 Operation of one pump: flow reduction 632
Figure 9.64 Equal pumps in parallel arrangement 633
Figure 9.65 Various pump sizes in a parallel arrangement 633
Figure 9.66 Operation of variable speed pumps 634
Figure 9.67 Combined operation of variable and fixed speed pumps 634
Figure 9.68 Pumps in series 635
Figure 9.69 Pumping from two sources 635
Figure 9.70 Pumped system (for the example 9.25) 636
Figure 9.71 Combined supply by gravity and pumping: day time flows 638
Figure 9.72 Combined supply by gravity and pumping: night time flows 639
Figure 9.73 Booster stations 639
Figure 9.74 Gravity supply supported by pumping 640
Figure 9.75 Pump operation in combination with water tower 641
Figure 9.76 Effects of pump throttling on system characteristics 641
Figure 9.77 Counter tank: daytime flows 642
Figure 9.78 Counter tank: night time flows 642

Figure 10.1 Location of service pipe, boundary stop valve and supply pipe 648
Figure 10.2 Storage tank 649
Figure 10.3 Schematic diagram of typical household plumbing system 650
Figure 10.4 Gas fired heater 652
Figure 10.5 Electric heater 653
Figure 10.6 Schematic diagram of an indirect heating system 654
Figure 10.7 Up feed hot water circulation system 655
Figure 10.8 Down feed hot water circulation system 656
Figure 10.9 Combined circulation system 656
Figure 10.10 Inverted down feed circulation system 657
Figure 10.11 Inverted upfeed circulation system 657
Figure 10.12 Inverted combined circulation system 658
Figure 10.13 Various lavatories 659
Figure 10.14 Various sinks 660
Figure 10.15 Typical bathtub 660
Figure 10.16 Different types of water closets 660

xxx
Figure 10.17 Floor and wall mounted water closets 661
Figure 10.18 Siphon jet action of water closet 661
Figure 10.19 Reverse trap water closet 662
Figure 10.20 Siphon vortex water closet 662
Figure 10.21 Wash down water close 663
Figure 10.22 Blow-out water closet 663
Figure 10.23 Two pipe system 665
Figure 10.24 One pipe system 666
Figure 10.25 Sump pump on sump pit 667

Figure 11.1 Supply and demand with different price structures 680
Figure 11.2 Showing how elasticity changes at different points along the water 680
demand curve
Figure 11.3 Short-run average costs of water supply 681
Figure 11.4 Water metering 682
Figure 11.5 Demand curves with and without metering 683
Figure 11.6 Short term and long term trends in water cost 688
Figure 11.7 Effect of tariff on consumption 688
Figure 11.8 Effect of restrictions on cost of water supply 389
Figure 11.9 Components of water loss in reticulation systems 698
Figure 11.10 Location of losses in a water supply system 700
Figure 11.11 Water leakage reported in England and Wales during the period 701
Figure 11.12 The IWA/AWWA water balance model used to determine leaks and 703
loss
Figure 11.13 Comparison of traditional forecasting using both supply and demand- 708
side management

Figure 12.1 Backfill sand contaminating a new pipe at a water main construction 729
site
Figure 12.2 Preparing to sample stored drinking water from the access hatch of a 732
floating cover
Figure 12.3 Valves should be inspected and operated on a regular basis to prevent 750
rust and encrustation

Figure 13.1 Overview of water safety plan framework 775

Figure 14.1 Shallow shrouded tubewell 794

xxxi
Figure 14.2 Dug well 796
Figure 14.3 Conventional dug well and dug well with sanitary protection 797
Figure 14.4 Ponds and sand filter 798
Figure 14.5 Rainwater harvesting 800
Figure 14.6 Variation of annual rainfall in Bangladesh 802
Figure 14.7 Rainfall intensity, cumulative rainwater availability and demand 804

Figure 15.1 Elements of SuWM 810

Figure 15.2 Domestic water consumption (Ipcd) to the time required for water 816
collection

xxxii