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Abstract
Many different control methods for ABS systems have been developed. These methods differ in their theo-
retical basis and performance under the changes of road conditions. The present review is a part of research
project entitled “Intelligent Antilock Brake System Design for Road-Surfaces of Saudi Arabia” In the present
paper we review the methods used in the design of ABS systems. We highlight the main difficulties and
summarize the more recent developments in their control techniques. Intelligent control systems like fuzzy
control can be used in ABS control to emulate the qualitative aspects of human knowledge with several ad-
vantages such as robustness, universal approximation theorem and rule-based algorithms.
number of consequences: a) braking distance increases, b) the stopping distance may be increased however, the
steering control is lost, and c) tire wear will be abnormal. directional control of the vehicle is substantially greater
The obvious consequence is that an accident is far more than if the wheels are locked up.
likely to occur. The application of brakes generates a The main difficulty in the design of ABS control arises
force that impedes a vehicles motion by applying a force from the strong nonlinearity and uncertainty of the prob-
in the opposite direction. lem. It is difficult and in many cases impossible to solve
During severe braking scenarios, a point is obtained in this problem by using classical linear, frequency domain
which the tangential velocity of the tire surface and the methods [17]. ABS systems are designed around system
velocity on road surface are not the same such that an hydraulics, sensors and control electronics. These sys-
optimal slip which corresponds to the maximum friction tems are dependent on each other and the different sys-
is obtained. The ABS controller must deal with the brake tem components are interchangeable with minor changes
dynamics and the wheel dynamics as a whole plant [15]. in the controller software. [18]
The wheel slip, S is defined as: The wheel sensor feeds the wheel spin velocity to the
V R electronic control unit, which based on some underlying
s (1)
V control approach would give an output signal to the
where ω, R, and V denote the wheel angular velocity, the brake actuator control unit. The brake actuator control
wheel rolling radius, and the vehicle forward velocity, unit then controls the brake actuator based on the output
respectively. In normal driving conditions, V = ω.R, from the electronic control unit. The control logic is
therefore S = 0. In severe braking, it is common to have based on the objective to keep the wheels from getting
ω = 0 while S = 1, which is called wheel lockup. Wheel locked up and to maintain the traction between the tire
lockup is undesirable since it prolongs the stopping dis- and road surface at an optimal maximum. The task of
tance and causes the loss of direction control [16,17]. keeping the wheels operating at maximum traction is
Figure 2. shows the relationship between braking co- complicated given that the friction-slip curve changes
efficient and wheel slip. It is shown that the slide values with vehicle, tire and road changes. The block diagram in
for stopping/traction force are proportionately higher Figure 3. shows the block representation of an antilock
than the slide values for cornering/steering force. A brake system. It shows the basic functionality of the
locked-up wheel provides low road handling force and various components in ABS systems and also shows the
minimal steering force. Consequently the main benefit data/information flow.
from ABS operation is to maintain directional control of The ABS (shown in Figure 4.) consists of a conven-
the vehicle during heavy braking. In rare circumstances tional hydraulic brake system plus antilock components.
Figure 2. Illustration of the relationship between braking coefficient and wheel slip [14].
Vehicle Velocity
Sensor
Tire Road
Interaction
The conventional brake system includes a vacuum wiring, the ABS indicator, and the rear drum brake.
booster, master cylinder, front disc brakes, rear drum Most ABS systems employ hydraulic valve control to
brakes, interconnecting hydraulic brake pipes and hoses, regulate the brake pressure during the anti-lock operation.
brake fluid level sensor and the brake indicator. The Brake pressure is increased, decreased or held. The
ABS components include a hydraulic unit, an electronic amount of time required to open, close or hold the hy-
brake control module (EBCM), two system fuses, four draulic valve is the key point affecting the brake effi-
wheel speed sensors (one at each wheel), interconnecting ciency and steering controllability.
Signal Wire
Wheel Speed
Sensor
Sensor Ring
Brake Cylinder
Pistons
Drum
Cable
To Emergency
Emergency
Brake Lever
Brake
Mechanism
Adjuster
Mechanism
Brake Shoes
3. ABS Control of soft computing and how they are employed in ABS
control are given below.
ABS brake controllers pose unique challenges to the de-
signer: a) For optimal performance, the controller must 3.1. Classical Control Methods Based on PID
operate at an unstable equilibrium point, b) Depending Control
on road conditions, the maximum braking torque may
vary over a wide range, c) The tire slippage measurement Out of all control types, the well known PID has been
signal, crucial for controller performance, is both highly
uncertain and noisy, d) On rough roads, the tire slip ratio Classical Control
varies widely and rapidly due to tire bouncing, e) brake
pad coefficient of friction changes, and f) The braking
system contains transportation delays which limit the Optimal Control
control system bandwidth [19].
As stated in the previous section of this paper, the
ABS consists of a conventional hydraulic brake system
plus antilock components which affect the control char- Nonlinear Control
acteristics of the ABS. ABS control is a highly a nonlin- Antilock Brake control
ear control problem due to the complicated relationship systems Research
between friction and slip. Another impediment in this
Robust control
control problem is that the linear velocity of the wheel is
not directly measurable and it has to be estimated. Fric-
tion between the road and tire is also not readily meas- Adaptive control
urable or might need complicated sensors. Researchers
have employed various control approaches to tackle this
problem. A sampling of the research done for different
control approaches is shown in Figure 5. One of the Intelligent control
technologies that has been applied in the various aspects
of ABS control is soft computing. Brief review of ideas Figure 5. Sampling of ABS control.
used to improve the performance of the ABS. Song, et al. tion in combination with gain scheduling is suggested by
[20] presented a mathematical model that is designed to Liu and Sun [27]. PID-type approaches to wheel slip
analyze and improve the dynamic performance of a ve- control are considered in [28-32]. A gain scheduled LQ
hicle. A PID controller for rear wheel steering is de- control design approach with associated analysis, and,
signed to enhance the stability, steerability, and drive- except [26] and [32], is the only one that contains de-
ability of the vehicle during transient maneuvers. The tailed experimental evaluation using a test vehicle. In
braking and steering performances of controllers are [33], an optimum seeking approach is taken to determine
evaluated for various driving conditions, such as straight the maximum friction, using sliding modes. Sliding
and J-turn maneuvers. The simulation results show that mode control is also considered in [34,35].
the proposed full car model is sufficient to predict vehi- Another nonlinear modification was suggested by Ün-
cle responses accurately. The developed ABS reduces sal and Kachroo [36] for observer-based design to con-
the stopping distance and increases the longitudinal and trol a vehicle traction that is important in providing
lateral stability of both two- and four-wheel steering ve- safety and obtaining desired longitudinal vehicle motion.
hicles. The results also demonstrate that the use of a rear The direct state feedback is then replaced with nonlinear
wheel controller as a yaw motion controller can increase observers to estimate the vehicle velocity from the output
its lateral stability and reduce the slip angle at high of the system (i.e., wheel velocity). The nonlinear model
speeds. of the system is shown locally observable. The effects
The PID controller is simple in design but there is a and drawbacks of the extended Kalman filters and slid-
clear limitation of its performance. It does not posses ing observers are shown via simulations. The sliding
enough robustness for practical implementation. For observer is found promising while the extended Kalman
solving this problem, Jiang [21] applied a new Nonlinear filter is unsatisfactory due to unpredictable changes in
PID (NPID) control algorithm to a class of truck ABS the road conditions.
problems. The NPID algorithm combines the advantages
of robust control and easy tuning. Simulation results at 3.3 Nonlinear Control Based on Backstepping
various situations using TruckSim show that Control Design
NPID controller has shorter stopping distance and
better velocity performance than the conventional PID The complex nature of ABS requiring feedback control
controller and a loop-shaping controller. to obtain a desired system behavior also gives rise to
dynamical systems. Ting and Lin [37] developed the
3.2. Optimal Control Methods Based on anti-lock braking control system integrated with active
Lyapunov approach suspensions applied to a quarter car model by employing
the nonlinear backstepping design schemes. In emer-
The optimal control of nonlinear system such as ABS is gency, although the braking distance can be reduced by
one of the most challenging and difficult subjects in con- the control torque from disk/drum brakes, the braking
trol theory. Tanelli et al. [22] proposed a nonlinear out- time and distance can be further improved if the normal
put feedback control law for active braking control sys- force generated from active suspension systems is con-
tems. The control law guarantees bounded control action sidered simultaneously. Individual controller is designed
and can cope also with input constraints. Moreover, the for each subsystem and an integrated algorithm is con-
closed-loop system properties are such that the control structed to coordinate these two subsystems. As a result,
algorithm allows detecting without the need of a friction the integration of anti-lock braking and active suspension
estimator, if the closed-loop system is operating in the systems indeed enhances the system performance be-
unstable region of the friction curve, thereby allowing cause of reduction of braking time and distance.
enhancing both braking performance and safety. The Wang, et al. [38] compared the design process of
design is performed via Lyapunov-based methods and its backstepping approach ABS via multiple model adaptive
effectiveness is assessed via simulations on a multibody control (MMAC) controllers. The high adhesion fixed
vehicle simulator. The change in the road conditions im- model, medium adhesion fixed model, low adhesion
plies continuous adaptation in controller parameter. fixed model and adaptive model were four models used
In order to resolve this issue, an adaptive control- in MMAC. The switching rules of different model con-
Lyapunov approach is suggested by R. R. Freeman [23] trollers were also presented. Simulation was conducted
and similar ideas are pursued in [24,25]. The use of Son- for ABS control system using MMAC method basing on
tag’s formula is applied in the adaptive control Lyapunov quarter vehicle model. Results show that this method can
approach in [26], which includes gain scheduling on ve- control wheel slip ratio more accurately, and has higher
hicle speed and experimental testing. Feedback lineariza- robustness, therefore it improves ABS performance ef-
electric vehicle. Fuzzy logic techniques are applied for duced the idea of using the fuzzy model reference learn-
integral control of two subsystems. Control algorithm is ing control (FMRLC) technique for maintaining ade-
implemented and tested in a prototype electric vehicle in quate performance even under adverse road conditions.
laboratory environment using free scale HCS12 micro- This controller utilizes a learning mechanism which ob-
controller. A high level network protocol CAN is applied serves the plant outputs and adjusts the rules in a direct
to integrate all sensors, ABS and CAS. The results show fuzzy controller so that the overall system behaves like a
that integrated control of ABS and CAS maintains the “reference model” which characterizes the desired be-
safe distance from obstacle without sacrificing the per- havior. The performance of the FMRLC-based ABS is
formance of either system. Different researcher [57-59] demonstrated by simulation for various road conditions
developed an adaptive PID-type fuzzy controller for the (wet asphalt, icy) and “split road conditions” (the condi-
ABS system. A platform is built to accomplish a series of tion where, e.g., emergency braking occurs and the road
experiments to control the ABS. A commercial ABS switches from wet to icy or vice versa). Precup et al. [70]
module controlled by a controller is installed and tested developed a Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy controller and an in-
on the platform. The vehicle and tire models are deduced terpolative fuzzy controller for tire slip control in ABS
and simulated by a personal computer for real time con- systems. By employing local linearized models of the
trol. Road surface conditions, vehicle weight and control controlled plant, the local controllers are developed in
schemes are varied in the experiments to study braking the frequency domain. Development methods for the two
properties. fuzzy controllers are also offered. Simulation results
Lin and Hsu [60] proposed a self-learning fuzzy slid- show that the control system performance enhancement
ing-mode control (SLFSMC) design method for ABS. In ensured by the fuzzy controllers in comparison with the
the proposed SLFSMC system, a fuzzy controller is the conventional PI ones.
main tracking controller, which is used to mimic an ideal Stan, et al. [71] performed a critical analysis of five
controller; and a robust controller is derived to compen- fuzzy control solutions dedicated to ABS systems. The
sate for the difference between the ideal controller and detailed mathematical model of controlled plant is de-
the fuzzy controller. The SLFSMC has the advantages rived and simplified for control design with focus on tire
that it can automatically adjust the fuzzy rules, similar to slip control. A new fuzzy control solution based on a
the AFC, and can reduce the fuzzy rules, similar to the class of Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy controllers is proposed.
FSMC. Moreover, an error estimation mechanism is in- This class of fuzzy controllers combines separately de-
vestigated to observe the bound of approximation error. signed PI and PID controllers corresponding to a set of
All parameters in SLFSMC are tuned in the Lyapunov simplified models of controlled plant linearized in the
sense, thus, the stability of the system can be guaranteed. vicinity of important operating points. Simulation results
Finally, two simulation scenarios are examined and a validate the suggested fuzzy control solution in control-
comparison between a SMC, an FSMC, and the proposed ling the relative slip of a single wheel.
SLFSMC is made. R. Keshmiri and A.M. Shahri [72] designed an intelli-
The ABS system performance is examined on a quar- gent fuzzy ABS controller to adjust slipping performance
ter vehicle model with nonlinear elastic suspension. The for variety of roads. There are two major features in the
parallelism of the fuzzy logic evaluation process ensures proposed control system: the first is a fuzzy logic con-
rapid computation of the controller output signal, requir- troller providing optimal brake torque for both front and
ing less time and fewer computation steps than control- rear wheels; and the second is also a FLC provides re-
lers with adaptive identification. The robustness of the quired amount of slip and torque references properties
braking system is investigated on rough roads and in the for different kinds of roads. Simulation results show
presence of large measurement noise. The simulation more reliable and better performance compared with
results present the system performance on various road other brake systems. While Karakose and Akin [73]
types and under rapidly changing road conditions. While proposed a different fuzzy control algorithm, which used
conventional control approaches and even direct dynamical fuzzy logic system and block based neural
fuzzy/knowledge based approaches [61-67] have been network, for dynamical control problems. The effective-
successfully implemented, their performance will still ness of the proposed method is illustrated by simulation
degrade when adverse road conditions are encountered. results for dc motor position control problem. In the
The basic reason for this performance degradation is that same direction Ayman A. Aly [74] designed an intelli-
the control algorithms have limited ability to learn how gent fuzzy ABS controller to adjust slipping performance
to compensate for the wide variety of road conditions for variety of roads. The fuzzy optimizer finds immedi-
that exist. ately the optimal wheel slips for the new surface and
Laynet et al. [68] and Laynet and Passino [69] intro- forces the actual wheel slips to track the optimal refer-
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