What is a computer network?

Computer network is a set of connected computers. Computers on a network are called nodes. The
connection between computers can be done via cabling, most commonly the Ethernet cable, or wirelessly
through radio waves. Connected computers can share resources, like access to the Internet, printers, file
servers, and others. A network is a multipurpose connection, which allows a single computer to do more.
What is a distributed system:-
Alternatively referred to as distributed computing, distributed systems are a collection of computers that act, work,
and appear as one large computer. There are several distributed computing projects on the Internet that help work
on complex problems by sharing the processing power of millions of different peoples computers. To participate and
help these programs, often you only need to download a small program that is run whenever your computer is not
being used. Below is a listing of some of these programs.
The key features of a distributed system are:
 Components in the system are concurrent. A distributed system allows resource sharing, including software
by systems connected to the network at the same time.
 The components could be multiple but will generally be autonomous in nature.
 A global clock is not required in a distributed system. The systems can be spread across different
geographies.
 Compared to other network models, there is greater fault tolerance in a distributed model.
 Price/performance ratio is much better.
What is a message:-
(1) Using e-mail , a message is an individual piece of mail.
(2) In computer systems in general, a message is an information unit that the system sends back to the user or
system operator with information about the status of an operation, an error, or other condition.
(3) Using some telecommunication or data access methods, a message can be the unit of information or data that is
transmitted from one program or user to another.
(4) In messaging , which is the formal exchange of event notification, requests, or replies between programs through
a messaging server, a message is data in a specified format that describes an event, a request, or a reply between
programs.
What is a packet:-
A packet is the unit of data that is routed between an origin and a destination on the Internet or any other packet-
switched network. When any file (e-mail message, HTML file, Graphics Interchange Format file, Uniform Resource
Locator request, and so forth) is sent from one place to another on the Internet, the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) layer of TCP/IP divides the file into "chunks" of an efficient size for routing. Each of these packets is separately
numbered and includes the Internet address of the destination. The individual packets for a given file may travel
different routes through the Internet. When they have all arrived, they are reassembled into the original file (by the
TCP layer at the receiving end).
A packet-switching scheme is an efficient way to handle transmissions on a connectionless network such as the
Internet. An alternative scheme, circuit-switched, is used for networks allocated for voice connections. In circuit-
switching, lines in the network are shared among many users as with packet-switching, but each connection requires
the dedication of a particular path for the duration of the connection.
What is a broadcast network:-
A broadcast network is a group of radio stations, television stations, or other electronic media outlets, that form an
agreement to air, or broadcast, content from a centralized source. For example, PBS (U.S.) and BBC (U.K.) are TV
networks that provide programming for local TV station affiliates to air using signals that can be picked up by the
home television sets of local viewers.
In broadcast topology there are further two categories
1) SATELLITE\RADIO
2) RING TOPOLOGY
In a satellite or radio topology all computers are connected to each other via satellite or radio wave as shown in the
figure.
In a ring topology each computer is connected to other thorough a ring as shown in the figure above.

What is a point-to-point channel:-

The Point-to-Point Channel EIP ensures that only a single receiver consumes a message (when there are multiple
receivers waiting to consume the message). For more information, see Point to Point Channel.
POINT-TO-POINT:
In Point-to-Point topology there are two topologies.
1) STAR topology
2) TREE topology
In star topology each computer is connected to a central hub. The communication takes place through the hub. It is
shown in the figure below.

In Tree topology all computers are connected to each other in such a way that they make a tree as shown in the
figure above
What are signal and signaling:-
In telecommunication, signaling (signaling in Commonwealth English) has the following meanings:
the use of signals for controlling communications. Sending of a signal from the transmitting end of a
telecommunication circuit to inform a user at the receiving end that a message is to be sent.
For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous voltage of the signal varies continuously with the pressure
of the sound waves. It differs from a digital signal, in which the continuous quantity is a representation of a sequence
of discrete values which can only take on one of a finite number of values.
What do you mean by transmission:-
With guided transmission media, the waves are guided along a physical path.
Examples of guided media include phone lines, twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and optical fibers.
Unguided transmission media are methods that allow the transmission of data without the use of physical means to
define the path it takes.
What is service access points (SAPs):-
A Service Access Point (SAP) is an identifying label for network endpoints used in Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) networking. The SAP is a conceptual location at which one OSI layer can request the services of another OSI
layer. Service access points are also used in IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control in Ethernet and similar Data Link
Layer protocols.
What is spread spectrum:-
Spread spectrum is a form of wireless communications in which the frequency of the transmitted signal is
deliberately varied. This result in a much greater bandwidth than the signal would have if its frequency were not
varied. A conventional wireless signal has a frequency, usually specified in megahertz (MHz) or
gigahertz gigahertz), that does not change with time (except for small, rapid fluctuations that occur as a result of
modulation). When you listen to a signal at 103.1 MHz on an FM stereo receiver, for example, the signal stays at
103.1 MHz. It does not go up to 105.1 MHz or down to 99.1 MHz. The digits on the radio's frequency dial stay the
same at all times. The frequency of a conventional wireless signal is kept as constant as the state of the art will
permit, so the bandwidth can be kept within certain limits, and so the signal can be easily located by someone who
wants to retrieve the information.
QUESTION # 2:
Explain TCP/IP in detail. What do you meant by DOD Model:-
TCP/IP, Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is a suite of communications protocols used to
interconnect network devices on the Internet. TCP/IP implements layers of protocol stacks, and each layer provides a
well-defined network services to the upper layer protocol. TCP and IP are the two protocols used by TCP/IP, as well
as the (higher) application, (lower) data link and (lower) physical layer protocols.

Layer Protocols

5. Application DNS, FTP, HTTP, IMAP, POP3, SMTP, SSH, Telnet, SSL, ...

4. Transport TCP, UDP, ...

3. Network IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP, ARP, ...

2. Data Link 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.11 (Wi-Fi), PPP, ...

1. Physical Ethernet (NIC), Wireless (NIC), Cat 5/RJ-45, ...

The TCPIIP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do
not exactly match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-
to-network, internet, transport, and application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
host-to-network layer is equivalent to the combination of the physical and data link layers. The internet layer is
equivalent to the network layer, and the application layer is roughly doing the job of the session, presentation, and
application layers with the transport layer in TCPIIP taking care of part of the duties of the session layer. So in this
book, we assume that the TCPIIP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and
application. The first four layers provide physical standards, network interfaces, internetworking, and transport
functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model. The three topmost layers in the OSI model,
however, are represented in TCP/IP by a single layer called the application layer.

TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a specific functionality;
however, the modules are not necessarily interdependent. Whereas the OSI model specifies which functions belong
to each of its layers, the layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent protocols that can be
mixed and matched depending on the needs of the system. The term hierarchical means that each upper-level
protocol is supported by one or more lower-level Protocols. At the transport layer, TCP/IP defines three protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP). At the network layer, the main protocol defined by TCP/IP is the Internetworking Protocol (IP); there are also
some other protocols that support data movement in this layer.
What do you meant by DOD Model:-
Corresponding Layers
DoD Model OSI Model
Application
Process Application Layer Presentation
Session
Host-to-Host Layer Transport
Internet Layer Network
Data Link
Network Access Layer
Physical
What is LLC (layer)? Explain LLC and CSMA/CA, CSMA/CD.
The Logical Link Control (LCL) layer is one of two sub layers of the Data-Link layer in the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model of communication. The LCL layer is concerned with managing traffic (flow and error
control) over the physical medium. The LCL layer also identifies a line protocol, such as SDLC, NetBIOS, or NetWare,
and may also assign sequence numbers to frames and track acknowledgements.
The other Data-Link sub layer is the Media Access Control layer.
CSMA/CA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a network protocol that listens to or senses network signals on
the carrier/medium before transmitting any data. CSMA is implemented in Ethernet networks with more
than one computer or network device attached to it. CSMA is part of the Media Access Control (MAC)
protocol.
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) is a protocol for carrier transmission
in 802.11 networks. Unlike CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detect) which deals with transmissions
after a collision has occurred, CSMA/CA acts to prevent collisions before they happen.
In CSMA/CA, as soon as a node receives a packet that is to be sent, it checks to be sure the channel is clear (no other
node is transmitting at the time). If the channel is clear, then the packet is sent. If the channel is not clear, the node
waits for a randomly chosen period of time, and then checks again to see if the channel is clear. This period of time is
called the back off factor, and is counted down by a back off counter. If the channel is clear when the back off
counter reaches zero, the node transmits the packet. If the channel is not clear when the back off counter reaches
zero, the back off factor is set again, and the process is repeated.
CSMA/CD
Simplified algorithm of CSMA/CD. Station checks whether another station is transmitting. If not, it sends the first bit
of information. If no collision is detected, it continues to send the other bits of information while continuously
checking whether a collision has been detected. If a collision is detected, it calculates a random amount of time to
wait and start the process again. If the maximal amount of attempts is reached, then no transmission is possible and
it is aborted.
Short for Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection, a set of rules determining how network devices respond when two
devices attempt to use a data channel simultaneously (called a collision). Standard Ethernet networks use CSMA/CD to
physically monitor the traffic on the line at participating stations. If no transmission is taking place at the time, the
particular station can transmit. If two stations attempt to transmit simultaneously, this causes a collision, which is
detected by all participating stations. After a random time interval, the stations that collided attempt to transmit
again. If another collision occurs, the time intervals from which the random waiting time is selected are increased
step by step. This is known as exponential back off.
CSMA/CD is a type of contention protocol. Networks using the CSMA/CD procedure are simple to implement but do
not have deterministic transmission characteristics. The CSMA/CD method is internationally standardized
in IEEE 802.3 and ISO 8802.3
QUESTION # 3:
Explain OSI Reference model.
He Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to implement protocols in seven
layers. Use this handy guide to compare the different layers of the OSI model and understand how they interact with
each other. The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to implement protocols in seven
layers. There is really nothing to the OSI model. In fact, it's not even tangible. The OSI model doesn't perform any
functions in the networking process. It is a conceptual framework so we can better understand complex interactions
that are happening.
Who Developed the OSI?
The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It divides
network communication into seven layers. Layers 1-4 are considered the lower layers, and mostly concern
themselves with moving data around. Layers 5-7, the upper layers, contain application-level data. Networks operate
on one basic principle: "pass it on." Each layer takes care of a very specific job, and then passes the data onto the
next layer.
The 7 Layers of the OSI
In the OSI model, control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer (Layer 7) in one
station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy. The OSI
model takes the task of inter-networking and divides that up into what is referred to as a vertical stack that consists of
the following 7 layers. Click each link in the list below to read detailed information and examples of each layer:
Layer 7 - Application
Layer 6 - Presentation
Layer 5 - Session
Layer 4 - Transport
Layer 3 - Network
Layer 2 - Data Link
Layer 1 - Physical
Did You Know...? Most of the functionality in the OSI model exists in all communications systems, although two or three OSI layers
may be incorporated into one. OSI is also referred to as the OSI Reference Model or just the OSI Model.
Application (Layer 7)
OSI Model, Layer 7, supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality of
service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are
identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-
mail, and other network software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the application level.
Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.
Layer 7 Application examples include WWW browsers, NFS, SNMP, Telnet, HTTP, FTP

Presentation (Layer 6)
This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from
application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the
application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom
from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.
Layer 6 Presentation examples include encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.

Session (Layer 5)
This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session layer sets up,
coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals
with session and connection coordination.
Layer 5 Session examples include NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL.

Transport (Layer 4)
OSI Model, Layer 4, provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-
to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.
Layer 4 Transport examples include SPX, TCP, UDP.

Network (Layer 3)
Layer 3 provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting
data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error
handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.
Layer 3 Network examples include AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.

Data Link (Layer 2)

At OSI Model, Layer 2, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocolknowledge and
management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is
divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control(LLC) layer. The MAC
sub layer controls how a computer on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC
layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.
Layer 2 Data Link examples include PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2, IEEE 802.3/802.2, HDLC, Frame Relay.

Physical (Layer 1)
OSI Model, Layer 1 conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal — through the network at the
electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including
defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer
components.
Define Digital and Analog transmission. What is the complexity of network
system?
Define Digital and Analog transmission:-
Analog and Digital Transmission
There are a number of differences between analog and digital transmission, and it is important to understand how
conversions between analog and digital occur. Let's look first at the older form of transmission, analog.
Analog Transmission
An analog wave form (or signal) is characterized by being continuously variable along amplitude and frequency. In the case
of telephony, for instance, when you speak into a handset, there are changes in the air pressure around your mouth. Those
changes in air pressure fall onto the handset, where they are amplified and then converted into current, or voltage
fluctuations. Those fluctuations in current are an analog of the actual voice pattern—hence the use of the term analog to
describe these signals
Analog transmission
When it comes to an analog circuit—what we also refer to as a voice-grade line—we need to also define the frequency band
in which it operates. The human voice, for example, can typically generate frequencies from 100Hz to 10,000Hz, for a
bandwidth of 9,900Hz. But the ear does not require a vast range of frequencies to elicit meaning from ordinary speech; the
vast majority of sounds we make that constitute intelligible speech fall between 250Hz and 3,400Hz. So, the phone company
typically allotted a total bandwidth of 4,000Hz for voice transmission. Remember that the total frequency spectrum of
twisted-pair is 1MHz. To provision a voice-grade analog circuit, bandwidth-limiting filters are put on that circuit to filter out all
frequencies above 4,000Hz. That's why analog circuits can conduct only fairly low-speed data communications. The
maximum data rate over an analog facility is 33.6Kbps when there are analog loops at either end.
elicit meaning from ordinary speech; the vast majority of sounds we make that constitute intelligible speech fall between
250Hz and 3,400Hz. So, the phone company typically allotted a total bandwidth of 4,000Hz for voice transmission.
Remember that the total frequency spectrum of twisted-pair is 1MHz. To provision a voice-grade analog circuit, bandwidth-
limiting filters are put on that circuit to filter out all frequencies above 4,000Hz. That's why analog circuits can conduct only
fairly low-speed data communications. The maximum data rate over an analog facility is 33.6Kbps when there are analog
loops at either end.
How 56Kbps Modems Break the 33.6Kbps Barrier
With 56Kbps modems, only one end of the loop can be analog. The other end of the connection has to be digital. So, in
other words, if you're using a 56Kbps modem to access your Internet service provider (ISP), you have an analog connection
from your home to the local exchange. But the ISP has a digital subscriber line (DSL) or a digital termination facility from its
location to its exchange.
Analog facilities have limited bandwidth, which means they cannot support high-speed data. Another characteristic of analog
is that noise is accumulated as the signal traverses the network. As the signal moves across the distance, it loses power and
becomes impaired by factors such as moisture in the cable, dirt on a contact, and critters chewing on the cable somewhere
in the network. By the time the signal arrives at the amplifier, it is not only attenuated, it is also impaired and noisy. One of
the problems with a basic amplifier is that it is a dumb device. All it knows how to do is to add power, so it takes a weak and
impaired signal, adds power to it, and brings it back up to its original power level. But along with an increased signal, the
amplifier passes along an increased noise level. So in an analog network, each time a signal goes through an amplifier, it
accumulates noise. After you mix together coffee and cream, you can no longer separate them. The same concept applies in
analog networks: After you mix the signal and the noise, you can no longer separate the two, and, as a result, you end up
with very high error rates.
Digital Transmission
Digital transmission is quite different from analog transmission. For one thing, the signal is much simpler. Rather than being
a continuously variable wave form, it is a series of discrete pulses, representing one bits and zero bits (see Figure 2.10).
Each computer uses a coding scheme that defines what combinations of ones and zeros constitute all the characters in a
character set (that is, lowercase letters, uppercase letters, punctuation marks, digits, keyboard control functions).
Digital transmission
How the ones and zeros are physically carried through the network depends on whether the network is electrical or optical.
In electrical networks, one bits are represented as high voltage, and zero bits are represented as null, or low voltage. In
optical networks, one bits are represented by the presence of light, and zero bits are represented by the absence of light.
The ones and zeros—the on/off conditions—are carried through the network, and the receiving device repackages the ones
and zeros to determine what character is being represented. Because a digital signal is easier to reproduce than an analog
signal, we can treat it with a little less care in the network. Rather than use dumb amplifiers, digital networks
use regenerative repeaters, also referred to as signal regenerators. As a strong, clean, digital pulse travels over a distance,
it loses power, similar to an analog signal. The digital pulse, like an analog signal, is eroded by impairments in the network.
But the weakened and impaired signal enters the regenerative repeater, where the repeater examines the signal to
determine what was supposed to be a one and what was supposed to be a zero. The repeater regenerates a new signal to
pass on to the next point in the network, in essence eliminating noise and thus vastly improving the error rate.
What is the complexity of network system?
This article, prompted by a panel discussion at the RIPE 61 Meeting, describes the most significant implications of
network complexity and suggests ways to deal with it. This is a topic that requires more work and a lot of input from
network operators. We hope you’ll work with us to advance this subject.
What is complexity?
Many aspects of networking are continuously growing: the number of features, the length of routing table
configurations, firewall configurations, etc. The entire system is growing which makes it difficult for network
operators to understand and manage the entire network they are responsible for. Many operators only fully
understand the parts of the network that they specialise in.
Increasing complexity makes network behaviour unpredictable, which is a bad thing in networking (and other
systems). Look, for example, at filtering lists: the more complex the lists, rules and exceptions, the more difficult it is
to understand all the filtering rules. That makes it hard to predict the effects of changes.
How to classify complexity?
Complexity can be defined as a function of state and rate of change of all network components. The most
obvious element of a network is the physical network itself. But often there is also a network management
system in place. And the human operator is another element that influences network complexity and
needs to be considered.
Network management systems have their own complexity, but they typically
reduce human intervention and therefore human error and
unpredictability. Therefore the overall complexity may shift from the
human operator to the network management system, potentially reducing
overall complexity. The following diagram illustrates the main component
of system complexity. You can shift complexity from one component to
others; this may have an impact on the overall system complexity.

Figure 2: Complexity cube illustrating how single components influence overall complexity
So far, we’ve only described a high-level model of network complexity. In order to provide useful
quantitative guidance on how to deal with complexity, we would have to look at the details and break
down each of the elements that influence complexity. The physical network, for instance, consists of a
number of elements that are highly inter-linked and dependent.
How to deal with complexity?
There are a number of mechanisms how to deal with complexity:
Divide and Conquer: The most common technique. In this context this means that you break up the system into
smaller, more manageable parts.
Shift complexity or hide complexity: A good user interface can hide the complexity from the operator and can
therefore reduce human error.
Defining Meta-Languages: Another way to reduce human error, is to provide simplified meta languages, hiding
complexity in simplified commands. Examples of such meta languages are the Common Information Model (CIM),
NetConf and the Routing Policy Specification Language (RPDSL).
Structural Approaches: This is a mechanism to search analytically for dependencies and try to find ways to reduce
them. This has been research primarily for software. More work is needed before this can be applied to real-life
networks.

Security considerations
It is commonly stated that “complexity is the enemy of security". In a complex network, security rules are derived
from many different inputs. For example, an organisation is likely to have a corporate security policy, each
department may have specific security rules and human resources may apply certain access rules for classes of users.
In the overall network, all these rules have to be combined which can lead to inconsistencies and conflicts.
Predictability is important to ensure security. The more complex a
network is, the less predictable it becomes, and the more likely it is that an
oversight leads to security vulnerability. While a certain level of complexity
is inevitable to reach a reasonably secure state, too much complexity
can result in the opposite: A less secure network.
QUESTION # 4:
What is guided media? Explain its types in detail with the help of example and figure.
RANSMISSION MEDIA
The means through which data is transformed from one place to another is called transmission or
communication media. There are two categories of transmission media used in computer communications.
 BOUNDED/GUIDED MEDIA
 UNBOUNDED/UNGUIDED MEDIA
1. BOUNDED MEDIA:
Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. These are also called
guide media. Bounded media are made up o a external conductor (Usually Copper) bounded by jacket material.
Bounded media are great for LABS because they offer high speed, good security and low cast. However, some
time they cannot be used due distance communication. Three common types of bounded media are used of the
data transmission. These are
 Coaxial Cable
 Twisted Pairs Cable
 Fiber Optics Cable
COAXIAL CABLE:
Coaxial cable is very common & widely used commutation media. For example TV wire is usually coaxial.
Coaxial cable gets its name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other. The center
conductor in the cable is usually copper. The copper can be either a solid wire or stranded martial.
Outside this central Conductor is a non-conductive material. It is usually white, plastic material used to separate
the inner Conductor form the outer Conductor. The other Conductor is a fine mesh made from Copper. It is used
to help shield the cable form EMI.
Outside the copper mesh is the final protective cover. (as shown in Fig)
The actual data travels through the center conductor in the cable. EMI interference is caught by outer copper
mesh. There are different types of coaxial cable vary by gauge & impedance.
Gauge is the measure of the cable thickness. It is measured by the Radio grade measurement, or RG number.
The high the RG number, the thinner the central conductor core, the lower the number the thicker the core.
Here the most common coaxial standards.
 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.
 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COAXIAL CABLE
 Low cost
 Easy to install
 Up to 10Mbps capacity
 Medium immunity form EMI
 Medium of attenuation
 Single cable failure can take down an entire network

STP=
UTP
Twisted Pair Cable
The most popular network cabling is Twisted pair. It is light weight, easy to install, inexpensive and support many
different types of network. It also supports the speed of 100 mps. Twisted pair cabling is made of pairs of solid
or stranded copper twisted along each other. The twists are done to reduce vulnerably to EMI and cross talk.
The number of pairs in the cable depends on the type. The copper core is usually 22-AWG or 24-AWG, as
measured on the American wire gauge standard. There are two types of twisted pairs cabling
1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)
1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
UTP is more common. It can be either voice grade or data grade depending on the condition. UTP cable
normally has an impedance of 100 ohm. UTP cost less than STP and easily available due to its many use. There
are five levels of data cabling
Category 1
These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.
Category 2
These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.
Category 3
These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps.
Category 4
These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.
Category 5
This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable use
RJ-45 connector.
2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)
It is similar to UTP but has a mesh shielding that’s protects it from EMI which allows for higher transmission rate.
IBM has defined category for STP cable.
Type 1
STP features two pairs of 22-AWG
Type 2
This type include type 1 with 4 telephone pairs
Type 6
This type feature two pairs of standard shielded 26-AWG
Type 7
This type of STP consist of 1 pair of standard shielded 26-AWG
Type 9
This type consist of shielded 26-AWG wire
Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to transmit data. It uses light. In fiber optic cable light only moves in one
direction for two way communication to take place a second connection must be made between the two devices.
It is actually two stands of cable. Each stand is responsible for one direction of communication. A laser at one
device sends pulse of light through this cable to other device. These pulses translated into “1’s” and “0’s” at the
other end.
In the center of fiber cable is a glass stand or core. The light from the laser moves through this glass to the other
device around the internal core is a reflective material known as CLADDING. No light escapes the glass core
because of this reflective cladding.
Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second)
What is unguided media? Explain its types in detail with the help of example
and figure.

Unbounded/Unguided Transmission Media

Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through
free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
The below figure shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz,
used for wireless communication.
Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several ways: Gound
propagation, Sky propagation and Line-of-sight propagation as shown in below figure.

Propagation Modes
 Ground Propagation: In this, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere,
hugging the Earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting
antenna and follow the curvature of the planet.
 Sky Propagation: In this, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere where
they are reflected back to Earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower
output power.
 Line-of-sight Propagation: in this type, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight
lines directly from antenna to antenna.
We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups:
1. Radio waves
2. Micro waves
3. Infrared waves

Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio
waves.
Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending
antenna send waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The omnidirectional property has
disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by
another antenna that may send signal suing the same frequency or band.
Radio waves, particularly with those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage because, an AM radio
can receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication
to just inside or outside a building.
Omnidirectional Antenna
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions.
Applications
 The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting in which there
is one sender but many receivers.
 AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of
multicasting.

Micro Waves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called micro waves. Micro
waves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an
obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned
antennas.
The following describes some characteristics of microwaves propagation:
 Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas need to be in
direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall.
 Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a disadvantage
if receivers are inside the buildings.
 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore, wider sub-bands can be
assigned and a high date rate is possible.
 Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction. Two types of antennas
are used for microwave communications: Parabolic Dish and Horn.
A parabolic antenna works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and directing them to a
common point. In this way, more of the signal is recovered than would be possible with a single-point
receiver.
A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a stem and
deflected outward in a series of narrow parallel beams by the curved head. Received transmissions
are collected by the scooped shape of the horn, in a manner similar to the parabolic dish, and are
deflected down into the stem.
QUESTION # 5:
(A)Explain Emerging Network Technologies AMPS and GSM Cellular
Revolution (CDPD & CDMA) in detail with the help of diagrams.
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) is a standard system for analog signal cellular telephone service in
the United States and is also used in other countries. It is based on the initial electromagnetic radiation
spectrum allocation for cellular service by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in 1970.
Introduced by AT&T in 1983, AMPS became one of the most widely deployed cellular system in the United
States.

AMPS allocate frequency ranges within the 800 and 900 Megahertz (MHz) spectrum to cellular telephone. Each
service provider can use half of the 824-849 MHz range for receiving signals from cellular phones and half the 869-
894 MHz range for transmitting to cellular phones. The bands are divided into 30 kHz sub-bands, called channels.
The receiving channels are called reverse channels and the sending channels are called forward channels. The
division of the spectrum into sub-band channels is achieved by using frequency division multiple accesses (FDMA).

The signals received from a transmitter cover an area called a cell. As a user moves out of the cell's area into an
adjacent cell, the user begins to pick up the new cell's signals without any noticeable transition. The signals in the
adjacent cell are sent and received on different channels than the previous cell's signals to so that the signals don't
interfere with each other

GSM Cellular Revolution

GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) is a digital mobile telephony system that is widely used in Europe
and other parts of the world. GSM uses a variation of time division multiple access (TDMA) and is the most widely
used of the three digital wireless telephony technologies (TDMA, GSM, and CDMA). GSM digitizes and compresses
data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data, each in its own time slot. It operates at
either the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz frequency band.
Mobile services based on GSM technology were first launched in Finland in 1991. Today, more than 690 mobile
networks provide GSM services across 213 countries and GSM represents 82.4% of all global mobile connections.
According to GSM World, there are now more than 2 billion GSM mobile phone users worldwide. GSM World
references China as "the largest single GSM market, with more than 370 million users, followed by Russia with 145
million, India with 83 million and the USA with 78 million users."
Since many GSM network operators have roaming agreements with foreign operators, users can often continue to
use their mobile phones when they travel to other countries. SIM cards (Subscriber Identity Module) holding home
network access configurations may be switched to those will metered local access, significantly
reducing roaming costs while experiencing no reductions in service.
GSM, together with other technologies, is part of the evolution of wireless mobile telemmunications that includes
High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), General Packet Radio System (GPRS), Enhanced Data GSM Environment
(EDGE), and Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS).
(B) What is the Global Cellular Network system? Explain it in detail
Definition - What does Cellular Network mean?
A cellular network is a radio network distributed over land through cells where each cell includes a fixed location
transceiver known as base station. These cells together provide radio coverage over larger geographical areas. User
equipment (UE), such as mobile phones, is therefore able to communicate even if the equipment is moving through
cells during transmission.
Cellular networks give subscribers advanced features over alternative solutions, including increased capacity, small
battery power usage, a larger geographical coverage area and reduced interference from other signals. Popular
cellular technologies include the Global System for Mobile Communication, general packet radio service, 3GSM and
code division multiple access.
Techopedia explains Cellular Network
Cellular network technology supports a hierarchical structure formed by the base transceiver station (BTS),
mobile switching center (MSC), location registers and public switched telephone network (PSTN). The BTS
enables cellular devices to make direct communication with mobile phones. The unit acts as a base station
to route calls to the destination base center controller. The base station controller (BSC) coordinates with
the MSC to interface with the landline-based PSTN, visitor location register (VLR), and home location
register (HLR) to route the calls toward different base center controllers.
Cellular networks maintain information for tracking the location of their subscribers' mobile devices. In
response, cellular devices are also equipped with the details of appropriate channels for signals from the
cellular network systems. These channels are categorized into two fields:
Strong Dedicated Control Channel: Used to transmit digital information to a cellular mobile phone from the
base station and vice versa.
Strong Paging Channel: Used for tracking the mobile phone by MSC when a call is routed to it.
A typical cell site offers geographical coverage of between nine and 21 miles. The base station is
responsible for monitoring the level of the signals when a call is made from a mobile phone. When the user
moves away from the geographical coverage area of the base station, the signal level may fall. This can
cause a base station to make a request to the MSC to transfer the control to another base station that is
receiving the strongest signals without notifying the subscriber; this phenomenon is called handover.
Cellular networks often encounter environmental interruptions like a moving tower crane, overhead power
cables, or the frequencies of other devices
(C)Explain Antennas Propagation Modes and Line of sight transmission.
Let us go through different interesting topics such as the properties of radio waves, the propagation of radio waves
and their types.

Radio Waves
Radio waves are easy to generate and are widely used for both indoor and outdoor communications because of their
ability to pass through buildings and travel long distances.
The key features are −
Since radio transmission is Omni directional in nature, the need to physically align the transmitter and receiver does not
arise.
The frequency of the radio wave determines many of the characteristics of the transmission.
At low frequencies, the waves can pass through obstacles easily. However, their power falls with an inverse-squared
relation with respect to the distance.
The higher frequency waves are more prone to absorption by rain drops and they get reflected by obstacles.
Due to the long transmission range of the radio waves, interference between transmissions is a problem that needs to be
addressed.
In the VLF, LF and MF bands the propagation of waves, also called as ground waves follow the curvature of the
earth. The maximum transmission ranges of these waves are of the order of a few hundred kilometers. They are
used for low bandwidth transmissions such as Amplitude Modulation (AM) radio broadcasting.
The HF and VHF band transmissions are absorbed by the atmosphere, near the Earth's surface. However, a portion of
the radiation, called the sky wave, is radiated outward and upward to the ionosphere in the upper atmosphere. The
ionosphere contains ionized particles formed due to the Sun's radiation. These ionized particles reflect the sky waves
back to the Earth. A powerful sky wave may be reflected several times between the Earth and the ionosphere. Sky
waves are used by amateur ham radio operators and for military communication.

Radio Wave Propagation

In Radio communication systems, we use wireless electromagnetic waves as the channel. The antennas of different
specifications can be used for these purposes. The sizes of these antennas depend upon the bandwidth and
frequency of the signal to be transmitted.
The mode of propagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere and in free space may be divided in to the
following three categories −
Line of sight (LOS) propagation
Ground wave propagation
Sky wave propagation
In ELF (Extremely low frequency) and VLF (Very low frequency) frequency bands, the Earth, and the ionosphere act
as a wave guide for electromagnetic wave propagation.
In these frequency ranges, communication signals practically propagate around the world. The channel band widths
are small. Therefore, the information is transmitted through these channels has slow speed and confined to digital
transmission.

Line of Sight (LOS) Propagation

Among the modes of propagation, this line-of-sight propagation is the one, which we commonly notice. In the line-
of-sight communication, as the name implies, the wave travels a minimum distance of sight. Which means it travels
to the distance up to which a naked eye can see. Now what happens after that? We need to employ an amplifier
cum transmitter here to amplify the signal and transmit again.
This is better understood with the help of the following diagram.

The figure depicts this mode of propagation very clearly. The line-of-sight propagation will not be smooth if there
occurs any obstacle in its transmission path. As the signal can travel only to lesser distances in this mode, this
transmission is used for infrared or microwave transmissions.

Ground Wave Propagation

Ground wave propagation of the wave follows the contour of earth. Such a wave is called as direct wave. The wave
sometimes bends due to the Earth’s magnetic field and gets reflected to the receiver. Such a wave can be termed
as reflected wave.
The above figure depicts ground wave propagation. The wave when propagates through the Earth’s atmosphere is
known as ground wave. The direct wave and reflected wave together contribute the signal at the receiver station.
When the wave finally reaches the receiver, the lags are cancelled out. In addition, the signal is filtered to avoid
distortion and amplified for clear output.

Sky Wave Propagation

Sky wave propagation is preferred when the wave has to travel a longer distance. Here the wave is projected onto
the sky and it is again reflected back onto the earth.

The sky wave propagation is well depicted in the above picture. Here the waves are shown to be transmitted from
one place and where it is received by many receivers. Hence, it is an example of broadcasting.
The waves, which are transmitted from the transmitter antenna, are reflected from the ionosphere. It consists of
several layers of charged particles ranging in altitude from 30- 250 miles above the surface of the earth. Such a travel
of the wave from transmitter to the ionosphere and from there to the receiver on Earth is known as Sky Wave
Propagation. Ionosphere is the ionized layer around the Earth’s atmosphere, which is suitable for sky wave
propagation.