International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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A Feasibility Study on Production of Solid Fuel from Glycerol and Agricultural

Wastes
a* b
Channarong Asavatesanupap , and Malee Santikunaporn

a
Department of Mechanical engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Thammasat University, THAILAND
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Thammasat University, THAILAND

ARTICLEINFO A B S T RA C T
Article history: A main goal of the study is to produce solid fuel from glycerol and
Received 23 August 2010 agricultural wastes in order to find an alternative energy suitable for
Received in revised form
23 September 2010 household usage. In the study, durian shell and bagasse, which are leftover
Accepted 26 September 2010 raw materials, were selected to be mixed with by-product glycerol waste
Available online from biodiesel process. Durian shell and bagasse were dried and grinded
26 September 2010 before mixing process. Heating values of each raw material were
Keywords: measured using an adiabatic bomb calorimeter. In order to evaluate
solid fuel
glycerol feasibility of the production, the various mixing proportions of the mixture
agricultural waste were tested by several means, i.e. strength test, heating value measurement,
durian shell and exhaust gas analysis.
bagasse

2010 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied

Sciences & Technologies. Some Rights Reserved.

1. Introduction 
Fuels derived from petroleum are the majority of energy in the world. However, due to crude
oil price fluctuations and environmental concerns, alternative and renewable energy become more
preferable than conventional fuels. In past decades, the use of agricultural waste to produce
alternative fuel has drawn interest from several countries, especially from agricultural countries.
Thailand is an agricultural country where has a clear advantage over other industrial countries due
to high yield of agricultural products and huge leftover wastes that could turn to be alternative

*Corresponding author (M. Santikunaporn). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001 Ext.3101. E-mail addresses:

smalee@engr.tu.ac.th. 2010. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied
Sciences & Technologies. Volume 1 No.1. eISSN: 1906-9642
43
Online Available at http://tuengr.com/V01-01/01-01-043-051{Itjemast}_Malee.pdf
fuels, such as palm seed, jatropha, bagasse, etc. (Husain et al., 2002), (Sathitruangsak et al., 2004),
(Phethuayluk et al., 2006). Solid fuel is a solid material that has been used as fuel to provide
heating for a long time such as wood, charcoal, coal. In the past, solid fuels mostly obtain from the
raw materials not from wastes, especially from small piece of wood or charcoal. At present, the
production of solid fuels can be achieved from unwanted materials, especially agricultural wastes,
which have some advantages in terms of reducing garbage and adding value to agricultural waste.

A waste glycerol, a by-product from transesterification of triglycerides, becomes a major

problem for the commercial biodiesel industry due to high yield of glycerol to biodiesel of 1:10.
Even though, glycerol can turn into more value products, such as cosmetic product, but glycerol
from biodiesel industry requires purification process of which the cost is fairly high. As a result of
the high purification cost of glycerol, the alternative uses of glycerol have recently become
interesting subject. One of alternative uses is to use glycerol as one composition in fuel
production. In 2006, Kung-Hae and et al. studied on the feasibility of solid fuel production from
sawdust and raw glycerol. The result shows that the produced fuel has potential to be used as
alternative fuel, with the heat value of 4507.1 cal/g.
In this study, the production of solid fuel from wastes is studied. Durian shell and bagasse,
which come from agricultural wastes, are selected as aggregate to mix with glycerol in order to
produce a solid fuel. The thermal and physical properties of the product are examined. In
addition, exhaust gases produced from the combustion are analyzed.

2. Materials and Methods 
Agricultural waste, Durian shell and bagasse, and glycerol, a by product from biodiesel
production were chosen as raw materials in this study. Both durian shell and bagasse were first
chopped into small pieces and dried for 5 days. Dried durian shell and dried bagasse then were
grinded and screened to obtain fine grains as shown in Figure 1. Raw glycerol from bio-diesel
production process is used in this study. It is noticed that the raw glycerol is separated into 2
layers after sedimentation. The top layer is a residue of bio-diesel while the bottom layer is pure
glycerol. Prepared durian shell and bagasse were mixed with raw glycerol at various weight ratios.
The ratios of each agricultural waste to glycerol are 95:5, 90:10, 85:15, 80:20, 75:25, 70:30, 65:45,
60:40, 55:45 and 50:50. After mixing process, the mixture was compressed by a piston in order to
form a cylindrical-shape sample. Finally, the sample was dried for 5 days to obtain a solid fuel.
44 Boonsap Witchayangkoon, Paulo C.L. Segantine, Kurt B. Wurm, and M. SATOMURA
The properties of solid fuel sample such as calorific value, strength, and exhaust gas were
determined.

Dried Grinded
(a) Durian shell

Dried Grinded
(b) Bagasse

Biodiesel residue

Glycerol

(c) Glycerol
Figure 1: Selected agricultural waste and glycerol.

*Corresponding author (M. Santikunaporn). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001 Ext.3101. E-mail addresses:

smalee@engr.tu.ac.th. 2010. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied
Sciences & Technologies. Volume 1 No.1. eISSN: 1906-9642
45
Online Available at http://tuengr.com/V01-01/01-01-043-051{Itjemast}_Malee.pdf
2.1 The calorific value 
The heating value of each solid fuel sample was obtained by use of a bomb calorimeter (Model
1261). The calorimeter was initially calibrated with a known amount of benzoic acid having a
known amount of heat of combustion. A 0.5 gram sample of solid fuel was used to test in the
calorimeter for each examination. The combustion reaction of the sample and oxygen took place
inside the combustion chamber at pressure of 450 lb/in2. The heat of combustion therefore was
measured. In this study, each fuel sample was examined to determine the heating value for 3
examinations and then the average heating value was obtained.

2.2 Strength test 
At this point, strength of solid fuel sample was examined. Of course, the testing method
used in this study is not conventional. The purpose of this test is to know that solid fuels have
adequate strength rather to obtain a certain value of the strength. Here, samples with various
compositions and drying durations were tested by dropping at height of 0.5 m and then the results
were observed.

Air
A

Combustion
chamber

Sample bag

Sample

Figure 2: Exhaust gas collecting process.

2.3 Exhaust gas analysis 
After strength test, the sample of best suitable composition was tested for toxic exhaust gases.
The schematic diagram of exhaust gas collecting process is shown in Figure 2. The sample was
grinded and contained in a combustion chamber. Air was introduced to the chamber for
46 Boonsap Witchayangkoon, Paulo C.L. Segantine, Kurt B. Wurm, and M. SATOMURA
combustion reaction. During combustion process, exhaust gas was collected by use of 5 litre gas
sample bag and then was analyzed by a gas chromatography.

3. Results and Discussion 

3.1 Characterization of durian shell, bagasse and waste glycerol 
Table 1 shows physical properties of dried durian shell, dried bagasse and waste glycerol.
The results show that bagasse contains more water content than durian shell. The energy contents
of durian shell and bagasse after drying process are 16.69±0.15 MJ/kg and 16.58±0.07 MJ/kg,
respectively. In case of glycerol, the upper layer is less viscous and contains higher energy
content due to bio-diesel contaminant. The energy contents of the upper and the lower are
38.84±0.15 MJ/kg and 18.63±0.12 MJ/kg, respectively. The energy content of the mixture
between the upper and the lower is 20.73±0.26 MJ/kg.

Table 1: Properties of durian shell, bagasse and waste glycerol.

Moisture content Energy content
(%) (MJ/kg)

Durian shell 10.7 16.69±0.15

Bagasse 35.8 16.58±0.07
Waste glycerol
Upper layer - 38.84±0.15
Lower layer - 18.63±0.12
Mixed - 20.73±0.26

3.2 Caloric value of prepared solid fuel at different compositions 
There are 2 sets of prepared solid fuel, which are the mixture between either dried durian shell
or dried bagasse and waste glycerol at 95:5, 90:10, 85:15, 80:20, 75:25, 70:30, 65:35, 60:40, 55:45
and 50:50 weight ratios. It is found that the weight ratio of agricultural waste to waste glycerol at
95:5, 60:40, 55:45 and 50:50 were not able to form a solid fuel. Thus, the mixtures with suitable
weight ratio were examined by a bomb calorimeter. From Table 2, the results shows that energy
*Corresponding author (M. Santikunaporn). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001 Ext.3101. E-mail addresses:
smalee@engr.tu.ac.th. 2010. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied
Sciences & Technologies. Volume 1 No.1. eISSN: 1906-9642
47
Online Available at http://tuengr.com/V01-01/01-01-043-051{Itjemast}_Malee.pdf
contents of dried durian shell mixtures are fairly proportional to the composition. The highest
energy content is observed at weight ratio of 70:30.

Table 2: Energy contents of a mixture between dried durian shell and glycerol at various weight
ratios.
Dried durian and glycerol Energy content (MJ/kg)
Weight ratio 1 2 3 average

90:10 16.91 16.65 16.97 16.84

85:15 18.24 17.29 17.21 17.58
80:20 17.18 17.31 17.51 17.33
75:25 17.88 17.77 17.83 17.83
70:30 18.00 17.96 18.08 18.01
65:35 17.95 17.97 17.88 17.93

The results of dried bagasse mixtures are presented in Table 3. It is evident that the highest
energy content is observed at weight ratio of 65:35.

Table 3: Energy contents of a mixture between dried bagasse and glycerol at various weight ratios.
Dried bagasse and glycerol Energy content (MJ/kg)

Weight ratio 1 2 3 average

90:10 17.87 18.00 17.74 17.87

85:15 18.30 17.99 17.99 18.09
80:20 18.20 18.37 18.20 18.26
75:25 18.25 18.45 18.26 18.32
70:30 18.37 18.46 18.31 18.38
65:35 18.55 18.31 18.39 18.42

For the sake of comparison, the following equation is used to calculate an approximate energy
content of the mixture:
n
Heating value = ∑ (x H )
i
i i (1)

48 Boonsap Witchayangkoon, Paulo C.L. Segantine, Kurt B. Wurm, and M. SATOMURA

 where xi is the weight fraction of component i
Hi is the heating value of component i.
The comparisons of the measured and calculated energy contents at different compositions are
presented in Figure 3a and 3b.
18.20
18.00
Energy content (MJ/kg)

17.80
17.60
17.40
17.20
17.00 measured
16.80 calculated
16.60
0 10 20 30 40
Glycerol (wt%)

(a) Solid fuel obtained from dried durian shell and glycerol

19.00

18.50
Energy content (MJ/kg)

18.00

17.50

17.00

16.50
measured
16.00
calculated
15.50
0 10 20 30 40
Glycerol (wt%)

(b) Solid fuel obtained from dried bagasse and glycerol

Figure 3: Comparison between measured and calculated energy contents.

3.3 Strength test 
Strength is one of important property for solid fuels. Due to the transportation, solid fuels
may be broken or damaged during transported from one to another place. In this study, the
samples of solid fuels were prepared at different compositions and different time setting. The
*Corresponding author (M. Santikunaporn). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001 Ext.3101. E-mail addresses:
smalee@engr.tu.ac.th. 2010. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied
Sciences & Technologies. Volume 1 No.1. eISSN: 1906-9642
49
Online Available at http://tuengr.com/V01-01/01-01-043-051{Itjemast}_Malee.pdf
weight ratio of each agricultural waste to glycerol are 90:10, 85:15, 80:20, 75:25, 70:30 and 65:35.
While each composition was also varied the time settings which are 12 h, 24 h and 48 h. It is found
that both solid fuel with 65:35 weight ratio shows the highest strength for all time settings. In
addition, the solid fuel obtained from dried durian shell has more strength than that from dried
bagasse at all compositions and time settings.

3.4 Exhaust gas analysis 
The major concern of glycerol combustion is the production of toxic gases, especially acrolein.
Acrolein, an unsaturated aldehyde, is produced from the heating decomposition of glycerol. In
particular, combustion reaction in this study took place in the close system as shown above. The
exhaust gases were collect directly from the combustion chamber and then were analyzed by a GC.
Table 4 shows the analysis of exhaust gases from the combustion of each solid fuel in the system.

4. CONCLUSION 
Solid fuel derived from either dried durian shell or bagasse and glycerol can be used as a
alternative ful according to their energy contents. The optimum weight ratio for the mixture is
roughly 65:35 for both durian shell and bagasse. Even though amount of acrolein which is a
toxic gas from combustion is fairly excessive, but this may be due to gas-collecting process. The
more dilute exhaust gases are expected if the combustion takes place in an open environment. In
addition, the strength of solid fuel may be improved by use of binding material. The further studies
therefore need to be done in order to obtain usable and environmental-friendly alternative fuel.

Table 4: Analysis of exhaust gases from combustions.

50 Boonsap Witchayangkoon, Paulo C.L. Segantine, Kurt B. Wurm, and M. SATOMURA

5. Acknowledgements 
The partial funding from the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, Thammasat University is gratefully acknowledged.

6. References 
Husain, Z., Z. Zainac, and Z.Adullah (2002) Briquetting of palm fibre and shell from the
processing of palm nuts to palm oil, Biomass and Bioenergy, 22; pp.505-509

Sathitruangsak, P., T. Madhiyanon, and S.Soponronnarit (2004) Briquette fuel producing from
coconut shell by extrusion technique using molass as binder, The 18th Conference on
Mechnical Engineering Network of Thailand, Khon Khean University, Kon Khean.

Phethuayluk, S., C. Polnak, , T. Incharein, , and P. Plaoleh. (2006) Physical property of fuel
briquette from oil palm residual. Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Energy Network of
Thailand, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakornratchasrima.

Kung-Hae, P. and V. Lekpetch. (2006) A feasibility study of solid fuel production from sawdust
and raw glycerol. Prince of Songkhla University, Songkhla.

Dr. Charnnarong Assavatesanupap is an Assistant Professor of Department of Mechanical Engineering at

Thammasat University. He earned his PhD (Mechanical Engineering) from University of Southern California,
USA. His research work is focusing on heat transfer, fluid dynamics, and energy conservation

Dr. Malee Santikunaporn is now with the Department of Chemical Engineering, Thammasat University. She
obtained B.S.(Chemical Engineering, Honors) and M.S.(Petrochemical Technology) from Chulalongkorn
University, Thailand. In 2006, she received PhD (Chemical Engineering) from the Oklahoma University Norman,
USA. During years 1999 and 2000, she was a visiting researcher at Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan. She is
currently interested in catalysis and membrane filtration.

*Corresponding author (M. Santikunaporn). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001 Ext.3101. E-mail addresses:

smalee@engr.tu.ac.th. 2010. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied
Sciences & Technologies. Volume 1 No.1. eISSN: 1906-9642
51
Online Available at http://tuengr.com/V01-01/01-01-043-051{Itjemast}_Malee.pdf