Designing with glass – strength and loadbearing behaviour
Durability
Glass, owing to its silicate-rich composition,
exhibits a very good chemical resistance to
various substances. The soda-lime-silica glass
customarily used in construction is therefore
highly resistant to the majority of acids and
alkalis. However, it is slightly soluble in water,
which, in unfavourable circumstances, e.g. on
horizontal panes on which rainwater can col-
lect, may lead to “fogging” as a result of the
leaching of alkalis. In the case of standing
water or permanent dampness it is primarily the
sodium ions that are leached out of the glass
microstructure. An alkaline environment exac-
erbates this process.
Hydrochloric acid attacks glass very severely
and this is why it is often used to create a matt
effect (acid etching).
During the installation of glazing elements, con-
tact with fresh concrete and mortar must be
avoided because of the high alkalinity of these
materials. Welding work in the vicinity of glass
should also be avoided because the glass can
be damaged by flying sparks.
Recyclability
Glass is a material that can be melted down
without any loss of quality and so it is ideal for
recycling. The broken glass (cullet) inevitable
during the production process is returned to
the glass melt. In order to maintain the high
purity and quality standards, not all scrap glass
is returned to the glass life cycle. However,
scrap glass is used in the production of glass
products such as cellular glass or glass wool to
save energy and raw materials.
Construction details
Like most building materials, glass elements
can only be manufactured, delivered to site in
prefabricated form and installed in situ in limit-
ed sizes. On site the glass elements are either
individually fixed to a loadbearing construction
or they are joined together to form a coherent,
self-supporting structure. In doing so, the glass
elements must be connected in such a way
that the filtering or sealing functions are also
properly fulfilled. Owing to the transparency of
glass, the discontinuity at joints is particularly
noticeable; all construction details therefore
call for the utmost care.
Transfer of stress
Fixings for glass and load-carrying connections
between glass elements introduce forces into
either the edge or the body of the glass. In
order to avoid excessive stress peaks, a cer-
tain minimum size of stress transfer zone is
always essential.
Local stress peaks, e.g. due to unintentional
contact with other components with a hard sur-
face (steel, glass) or twisting at the supports,
must be avoided at all costs in glass construc-
tion.
The mechanisms for transferring stresses in
glass elements and the associated typical fail-
ure modes are explained below.
Contact
Only compressive forces acting perpendicular
to the mating faces may be transmitted via con-
tact (fig. 2.2.9). A precompressed contact face
accommodates external tensile forces up to the
point of neutralisation of the prestress.
The contact faces must be of such a size that
the stresses occurring in the zone of stress
transfer remain sufficiently low. With hard bear-
ings (glass-steel or glass-glass contact) or
when movements and constructional or geo-
metric imperfections have to be absorbed, an a b
intervening elastic pad is necessary.
A contact fixing can fail only if the materials in
contact themselves fail as a result of the com-
pressive load or if the contact faces are dis-
placed in relation to each other as a result of
vibrations or severe deformation, e.g. if a bent
pane slips out of its glazing bead.
Friction
Forces in a glass element can be transferred
by way of friction, i.e. the mechanical interlock-
ing of the microscopic surface imperfections of
both mating faces (fig. 2.2.10). The relationship
between the axial force present and the thrust/
shear force, which may be transmitted to the
glass element by way of friction is approximate-
ly linear. As glass cannot be placed directly on c d
steel, the elasticity and fatigue strength of the 2.2.9
intervening pad are crucial to the quality of the
friction joint. Intervening buffers may be made
from soft metals (pure aluminium, soft-
annealed), plastics (silicone, EPDM) or prod-
ucts made from natural materials (cork, leather,
cardboard). All these materials must remain
permanently within the elastic zone of the 2.2.9 Transferring stresses by direct contact
a clamping bar
stress-strain curve when in use. b clamping plate
Friction joints can fail for various reasons: it is c individual screw fixing
possible for the glass to slide out of the fixing d setting blocks and spacers
due to changes in the friction characteristics of 2.2.10 Transferring stresses by friction with a clamping
plate
the mating faces, or the friction can be reduced
a with drilled hole
by moisture infiltration or fading of the clamping b without drilled hole
forces, e.g. due to creep of the interlayer in
laminated safety glass, or relaxation of the pre-
stress in the clamping plate or clamping bar.
An external tensile force is another factor that
can cause the glass to slide out of its fixing.
Fracture of the glass can be caused by thermal
expansion in conjunction with fixings that are
too rigid, or by a clamping force that is too high
for clamping plates that are too soft, too stiff or
wrongly shaped.
a b
2.2.10
93