Food Chemistry 128 (2011) 748–753

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Chemical and functional properties of the native banana (Musa acuminata 

balbisiana Colla cv. Awak) pseudo-stem and pseudo-stem tender core flours
Noor Aziah Abdul Aziz a,⇑, Lee-Hoon Ho a, Baharin Azahari b, Rajeev Bhat a, Lai-Hoong Cheng a,
Mohamad Nasir Mohamad Ibrahim c
a
Food Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
b
Bioresource Paper & Coating Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
c
Industrial Chemistry Division, School of Chemical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This research was conducted to evaluate the differences in chemical composition and functional profiles
Received 12 November 2010 of native banana pseudo-stem flour (NBPF) and boiled tender core of the banana pseudo-stem flour
Received in revised form 24 January 2011 (TCBPF). Chemical analyses indicated that the proximate contents (moisture, fat, protein and ash), were
Accepted 23 March 2011
significantly higher in TCBPF than in NBPF. The levels of total dietary fibre, insoluble dietary fibre, lignin,
Available online 29 March 2011
hemicellulose and cellulose were all higher in NBPF than TCBPF, while there was no significant difference
in soluble dietary fibre. NBPF also had higher contents of polyphenols and flavonoids than TCBPF. Both
Keywords:
the antioxidant capacity and the free radical-scavenging capacity were higher in NBPF than in TCBPF.
Banana pseudo-stem
Tender core banana pseudo-stem
On the other hand, the TCBPF showed significantly higher swelling power, water holding capacity and
Musa acuminata  balbisiana Colla cv. Awak solubility, although its oil holding capacity was lower than NBPF. We conclude that banana pseudo-stem
Chemical composition flour is a potential functional food ingredient for products containing high dietary fibre.
Functional properties Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Musa sapientum species) have been reported, focusing on the

Banana, which belongs to the Musaceae family, is native to the
Indonesian–Malaysian region of Asia. Bananas are produced in
large quantities in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the
world. The crop is of major importance to the people living in
the areas in which it grows because it provides a major portion
of their annual income and is a primary source of food. Today, ba-
nanas are the fourth most widespread fruit crop in the world.
Annually, about 72.5 million tons of bananas are produced world-
wide (FAO, 2006).
The production of bananas has considerable economic impor-
tance. After harvesting, however, a large amount of pseudo-stem
residue is left behind in plantation soil to be used as organic mate-
rial. It has been estimated that a few tons per hectare of banana
pseudo-stem are produced annually (Cordeiro, Belgacem, Torres,
& Moura, 2004). These crops have been utilised as a source of fibre
in the pulping industry, and their decomposition generates energy
(Cordeiro et al., 2004; Oliveira, Evtuguin, Cordeiro, & Silvestre,
2009). Furthermore, according to Cordeiro et al. (2004) and Oli-
veira, Cordeiro, Evtuguin, Torres, and Silvestre (2007), banana
waste materials are rich in minerals and nutrients. Recently, some
studies on the banana pseudo-stem (Musa acuminata Colla and
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 194 705 254; fax: +60 4657 3678.
E-mail address: naziah@usm.my (N.A.A. Aziz).
chemical contents, such as monosaccharides, fibre composition
and mineral contents (Cordeiro et al., 2004; Mukhopadhyay, Fan-
gueiro, Arpac, & Senturk, 2008; Oliveira et al., 2007). However, to
our knowledge, there still is a lack of knowledge regarding the
proximate composition, dietary fibre contents and antioxidant
properties of the banana pseudo-stem. The tender core of the bana-
na pseudo-stem is located in the centre (core) of the banana stem
and is tube-like, with a diameter of approximately 5–6 cm. The
tender core is edible and is consumed in many parts of India and
Malaysia (Mohapatra, Mishra, & Sutar, 2010); in Malaysia, it is
commonly boiled before cooking so as to soften the texture of
the stem.
Functional ingredients have been widely developed and applied
in the food industry. Oat bran, rice husks and barley bran have
commercial significance because of their use as fibre sources in
bakery products. Dietary fibre is composed of edible parts of plants
or analogous carbohydrates that are resistant to digestion and
absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial
fermentation in the large intestine. Dietary fibre includes polysac-
charides, oligosaccharides, lignin, and associated plant substances.
It promotes beneficial physiological processes, including laxation,
blood cholesterol and blood glucose attenuation (AACCI, 2001).
Several studies have been carried out to determine the chemical
and functional properties of banana flour, banana starches and
fibre-rich powder from unripe banana flour (Bello-Perez,

0308-8146/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.03.100
 N.A.A. Aziz et al. / Food Chemistry 128 (2011) 748–753
Agama-Acevedo, Sanchez-Hernandez, & Paredes-Lopez, 1999;
Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008; Rodriguez-Ambriz, Islas-Hernandez,
Agama-Acevedo, Tovar, & Bello-Perez, 2008).
Crude extracts of plant materials rich in phenolic compounds
are of increasing interest in the food industry because they retard
oxidative degradation of lipids and thereby improve the quality
and nutritional value of food. The importance of the antioxidant
constituents of plant materials in the maintenance of health, and
in protection from coronary heart disease and cancer, have re-
sulted in an increased interest among scientists, food manufactur-
ers, and consumers. The trend of the future is moving towards
functional foods with specific health effects (Kallay & Kerenyi,
1999).
The objective of this paper is to study the chemical composition
and functional properties of processed native banana pseudo-stem
and the tender core of banana pseudo-stem.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The banana (M. acuminata  balbisiana Colla cv. Awak) pseudo-
stem was collected from a local banana farm in Balik Pulau and
in Gelugor, Penang. The banana pseudo-stem and the tender core
of the pseudo-stem flour were then processed as described below.
2.2. Flour processing
NBPF was processed by peeling off the epidermis (skin) of the
stem manually with a sterile knife. Furthermore, to process the
TCBPF, several layers of stem cells were peeled off to reach the cen-
tral 4–5 cm core of the pith. The peeled pseudo-stem and the ten-
der core were rinsed with running tap water and cut into small
pieces. The tender core was then boiled for 15 min. to remove
the mucus content of the inner stem. Both samples were then
sliced using a mechanical slicer (Robot Coupe, France) before being
dried in a ventilated dryer (Afos, Model Mini, No. CK 80520, Eng-
land) at 60 °C for 24 h. The dried slices of both the pseudo-stem
and tender core were then ground in a blender (Panasonic Model:
PB-325, Malaysia) and further sieved through a 355-lm mesh
sieve. NBPF and TCBPF were then kept in airtight plastic containers
and stored in a refrigerator at 4 °C prior to use.
2.3. Proximate analysis
Moisture, ash, crude fat, crude fibre, crude protein and carbohy-
drate contents of NBPF and TCBPF were determined according to
the AACC method (2000). The moisture content of the samples
was determined by oven-drying (method 44-15A), while ash was
quantified by dry ashing (method 08-01). Crude fat was deter-
mined with the Soxhlet method using petroleum ether extraction,
followed by evaporation to constant weight (method 30-25). Crude
fibre was determined according to the gravimetric method (meth-
od 32-10). Crude protein was analysed by the Kjeldahl method
(method 46-13). Carbohydrate was determined as the remaining
percent weight according to the formula: [100 – (mois-
ture + ash + crude fat + crude fibre + crude protein)].
2.4. Total dietary fibre determination
An enzymatic–gravimetric method was used to determine the
total dietary fibre content (Method 985.29, AOAC (1997)). This
method involved gelatinisation of the defatted samples with
a-amylase and a stable heat source at 95 °C for 15 min. The sam-
ples were enzymatically digested with protease for 30 min at
749
60 °C, followed by amyloglucosidase for 30 min at 60 °C to remove
the protein and starch content in the sample. Four volumes of 95%
ethyl ethanol (pre-heated to 60 °C) were then added to precipitate
soluble dietary fibre overnight at room temperature. Precipitates
were filtered and washed successively with 78% ethyl ethanol,
95% ethyl ethanol and acetone. The residue was then oven-dried
(105 °C) overnight.
Values obtained by the enzymatic method were then corrected
by determining nitrogen content with the Kjeldahl method and
ashing at 525 °C.
2.5. Lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose content determination
Acid detergent fibre (ADF) and lignin, as well as neutral deter-
gent fibre (NDF), were measured according to method 973.18
and method 2002.04, respectively (AOAC, 2005).
Reflux extraction was conducted on the samples in separate
solutions, a neutral detergent solution and acid detergent solution,
for 65 min each. Neutral detergent solution consisted of sodium
hydroxide, EDTA, disodium hydrogen phosphate, sodium borate
decahydrate and sodium lauryl sulfate, all of which were dissolved
in distilled water. Triethylene glycol was then added into the solu-
tion to suppress the formation of foam, and the pH (6.95–7.05) of
the solution was determined (pH meter Model: ORION 410A,
UK). The acid detergent solution was prepared by dissolving 20 g
cetyl trimethylammonium bromide (technical grade) in l l 0.5 M
H2SO4 (previously standardised).
The filtration residue was washed with hot distilled water and
ethanol (3 times or until no change in colour was observed) and
then oven-dried to constant weight. The difference in weight be-
tween the starting material and the oven-dried sample was used
to calculate NDF and ADF content. The samples were then stirred
at 20 °C for 3 h after sulphuric acid (72%) was added to the sam-
ples. After washing with hot distilled water and filtering, the resi-
dues were oven-dried to determine the amount of lignin. Finally,
the content of cellulose and hemicellulose was calculated from
the contents of NDF, ADF and lignin, as follows:
Hemicellulose ¼ NDF  ADF
Cellulose ¼ ADF  lignin:
2.6. Antioxidant properties
2.6.1. Preparation of flour extract
NBPF and TCBPF samples were extracted using methanol, [1:10
(w/v)] at room temperature for 24 h in an orbital shaker at
170 rpm. Supernatants were filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter
paper, and the filtrate was then collected. The extracts were con-
centrated using a rotary evaporator under reduced pressure at
40 °C for 5 h. The concentrated solutions were freeze–dried and
stored at 20 °C for further use.
2.6.2. Determination of total phenolic compounds
Total phenolic content of the NBPF and TCBPC were determined
using a Folin–Ciocalteu (FC) assay based on the method described
by Alothman, Bhat, and Karim (2009), with some modifications. In
brief, freeze–dried extracts (1 mg) of NBPF and TCBPF were dis-
solved in 4 ml of methanol. Furthermore, 400 ll of the resulting
solution were mixed with 2 ml of FC phenol reagent. The reagent
was pre-diluted, 10 times, with distilled water. After standing for
5 min at room temperature, 1.6 ml of (7.5% w/v) sodium carbonate
solution was added. The solutions were mixed and allowed to
stand for 1 h at room temperature. The absorbance was measured
at 765 nm, using a UV–visible spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-
1601PC, Japan). A calibration curve was prepared, using a standard
750 N.A.A. Aziz et al. / Food Chemistry 128 (2011) 748–753
solution of gallic acid. Results were expressed as milligrams of gal-
lic acid equivalents per hundred grams of freeze–dried extract (mg
GAE/100 g of dry weight).
2.6.3. Total flavonoid assay
Total flavonoid content was measured by the aluminium chlo-
ride colorimetric assay (Alothman et al., 2009). One ml of properly
diluted freeze dried extract of NBPF and TCBPF was mixed with
4 ml of distilled water. Initially 0.3 ml of (5% w/v) NaNO2 was
added. After 5 min, 0.3 ml of (10% w/v) AlCl3 was added. At
6 min, 2 ml of 1 M solution of NaOH were added. After that, the
volume was made up to 10 ml, immediately, by the addition of
2.4 ml of distilled water. The mixture was shaken vigorously and
the absorbance of the mixture was read at 510 nm. A suitable cal-
ibration curve was prepared using a standard solution of catechin
and the results were also expressed on a dry weight basis as mg
catechin equivalents (CEQ)/100 g of sample.
2.6.4. Ferric reducing/antioxidant power assay (FRAP assay)
The ability of NBPF and TCBPF to reduce ferric ions was mea-
sured according to the method described by Benzie and Strain
(1996). The FRAP reagent was prepared using 300 mM sodium ace-
tate buffer at pH 3.6, 20 mM iron chloride and 10 mM 2,4,6-tripyr-
idyl-s-triazine dissolved in 40 mM hydrochloric acid at a ratio of
10:1:1 (v/v). The reagent was incubated in a water bath at 37 °C
for 5 min prior to use. Freeze–dried extracts (1 mg) of NBPF and
TCBPF were dissolved in 4 ml of methanol. Following this, 0.1 ml
of the resulting solution was then added to 2.9 ml of FRAP reagent.
The solution was mixed well and kept in the dark for 30 min. The
absorbance was measured against the FRAP reagent at 593 nm. Re-
sults were expressed as micromoles of trolox equivalents per hun-
dred grams of freeze–dried extract (lmole TEACFRAP/100 g; dry
weight).
2.6.5. DPPH free radical-scavenging assay
The determination of DPPH free radical-scavenging by NBPF and
TCBPF were based on the method proposed by Mosquera, Correa,
Buitrago, and Nino (2007), with sight modifications. Freeze–dried
extracts (1 mg) of NBPF and TCBPF were dissolved in 4 ml of meth-
anol. Afterwards, 0.1 ml of the resulting solution was mixed with
3.9 ml of DPPH solution (0.025 g/l methanol). The mixture was
incubated at room temperature for 30 min. The DPPH solution
without extracts was prepared as a control. The absorbance was
measured at 517 nm using a spectrophotometer and against a
blank of methanol without DPPH. Results were expressed as milli-
grams of trolox equivalents per hundred grams of freeze–dried ex-
tract (mg TEAC/100 g dry weight).
2.7. Swelling power, solubility profiles, and water and oil holding
capacities
Swelling power and solubility were measured using the method
of Adebowale, Adeniyi Afolabi, and Lawal (2002), with slight mod-
ifications. NBPF and TCBPF (0.5 g) were accurately weighed into
previously tared 50 ml dry centrifuge tubes. Next, 20 ml of distilled
water was pipetted into the centrifuge tubes containing the sam-
ples. The suspensions were then stirred with a magnetic stir bar
for 30 min at room temperature and centrifuged (3500 rpm,
30 min). The residues obtained after centrifugation were weighed
as swollen granules (g of swollen granules per g of dry sample).
Meanwhile, aliquots of the supernatants were dried to a constant
weight at 110 °C. The residue obtained represented the amount
of flour granules solubilised in water (g of dry weight at 110 °C
per g of dry sample).
The water holding and oil holding capacities were determined
based on the standard methods (Heywood, Myers, Bailey, & John-
son, 2002; Traynham, Myers, Carriquiry, & Johnson, 2007). First,
25 ml of distilled water (for water holding capacity, WHC) or com-
mercial olive oil (for oil holding capacity, OHC) was added to
250 mg of dry flour samples, stirred with a magnetic stir bar for
30 min and left at room temperature for 30 min. After centrifuga-
tion at 3500 rpm for 30 min, the supernatants were decanted, each
centrifuge tube was weighed then the WHC and OHC was calcu-
lated as g water or oil per g of dry sample, respectively.
2.8. Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were conducted by using SPSS 14.0 software
(SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The results obtained in the present
study are represented as the mean values of three individual
replicates ± standard deviation (SD). The significant differences be-
tween mean values were determined by the t-test at a significance
level of p < 0.05.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Proximate analysis
Results from Table 1 indicated that the proximate compositions
of the two samples were significantly (p < 0.05) different, with the
exception of carbohydrate content. TCBPF had a significantly high-
er (p < 0.05) content of moisture, fat, protein, and ash (8.82%, 1.18%,
3.52% and 10.08%, respectively), than NBPF, but a lower level of
crude fibre (19.51%). However, by comparison, the moisture con-
tent of both NBPF and TCBPF were lower than commercial wheat
flour, which had a value of 12.36% (Traynham et al., 2007). The
moisture of the dried product has a critical influence on storage
stability. In addition, textural quality, chemical and biochemical
reactions, as well as microbial growth rates are greatly affected
by the moisture content of food products (Ovando-Martinez, Say-
ago-Ayerdi, Agama-Acevedo, Goni, & Bello-Perez, 2009).
The fat contents of NBPF and TCBPF were found to be 0.24% and
1.18%, respectively. These values were lower than those reported
by others for banana flour prepared from the whole fruit (pulp
and peel) of unripe banana, which had a fat content of 2.7% (Juar-
ez-Garcia, Agama-Acevedo, Sayago-Ayerdi, Rodriguez-Ambriz, &
Bello-Perez, 2006). Others report fat content varying from 2.2% to
10.9% at different stages of ripeness in banana and plantain peels
(Happi Emaga, Herinavalona Andrianaivo, Wathelet, Tchango-Tch-
ango, & Paquot, 2007). Based on the results, it was evident that the
fat composition of NBPF and TCBPF is lower than the pulp and peel
of the banana.
Protein content of NBPF and TCBPF was also lower (0.89% and
3.52%, respectively), compared to wheat flour (13.31%) as reported
by Traynham et al. (2007). The higher protein content in TCBPF
compared with NBPF may be attributed to the boiling step applied
during the processing of TCBPF, which dissolves certain water-sol-
uble proteins (Rodriguez-Ambriz et al., 2008).
Table 1
Proximate composition of NBPF and TCBPF (n = 3 ± SD).
Composition (%) NBPF TCBPF
Moisture 8.34a ± 0.02 8.82b ± 0.21
Fat 0.24a ± 0.08 1.18b ± 0.50
Protein 0.89a ± 0.17 3.52b ± 0.37
Ash 3.03a ± 0.04 10.08b ± 0.04
Crude fibre 29.92b ± 0.63 19.51a±0.79
Total carbohydrate 57.58a 56.89a
Values in the same row with the same superscript letter are not statistically sig-
nificant from each other (p > 0.05). All the result reported on the dry weight basis.
NBPF, native banana pseudo-stem; TCBPF, tender core of banana pseudo-stem flour.
 N.A.A. Aziz et al. / Food Chemistry 128 (2011) 748–753
Ash content determination indicated that TCBPF (10.08%) con-
tained significantly higher mineral levels than NBPF (3.03%). The
ash content in banana and plantain peels (6.4–12.8% dry matter)
was composed of high levels of potassium, magnesium and cal-
cium (Happi Emaga et al., 2007).
NBPF and TCBPF were composed of 29.92% and 19.51% crude fi-
bre, respectively. The lower content of crude fibre in TCBPF com-
pared with NBPF might be attributed to the solubilisation of
polysaccharides during the thermal treatment on processing
TCBPF, which results in a decrease of the content of total fibre
(Tatjana, Terezija, Milica, & Plestenjak, 2002).
3.2. Dietary fibre contents
The results of dietary fibre content are shown in Table 2. Dietary
fibre is composed of total dietary fibre (TDF), which includes both
soluble (SDF) and insoluble dietary fibre (IDF).
The TDF content of NBPF and TCBPF (67.07% and 47.98%, respec-
tively), indicated that NBPF contained higher levels of fibre than
TCBPF. Both pseudo-stem samples contained much higher levels
of fibre than rice bran and oat bran (27.04% and 26.40%, respec-
tively), (Abdul-Hamid & Luan, 2000; Chen, Rubenthaler, Leung, &
Baranowski, 1988, respectively). This result is important, especially
when considering the application of the banana pseudo-stem flour
as a high-fibre substitute in food products. The dominant portion of
fibre was insoluble in both NBPF (64.49% and 67.07%, for IDF and
TDF, respectively), and TCBPF (46.09% and 47.98%, for IDF and
TDF, respectively). Hence, these banana pseudo-stem fibres may
promote intestinal regulation by providing bulk, a healthful conse-
quence of consuming insoluble fibres. Similarly, IDF was found to
be the major fibre fraction in the dietary fibre composition of bana-
na and plantain peels (Happi Emaga et al., 2007). The dietary fibre
analysis in this study indicates that banana pseudo-stem flour
shows promise as a food fibre replacement for oats and sorghum
in the development of new food products.
3.3. Hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin contents
The chemical composition of the banana pseudo-stem and its
tender core are shown in Table 3. Cellulose, hemicellulose and lig-
nin are components of plant fibres that are classified as insoluble.
Among these, lignin is resistant to digestion.
Within the dietary fibre fraction, cellulose was the most abun-
dant component, followed by hemicellulose and then lignin in both
NBPF and TCBPF (42.09%, 18.56%, 5.13% and 27.42%, 11.87%, 4.60%,
respectively). Thus, banana pseudo-stem has higher amounts of
cellulose than both banana (7.5–9.6%) and plantain (6.4–7.8%) at
various stages of maturation (Happi Emaga, Robert, Ronkart, Wath-
elet, & Paquot, 2008). The high content of cellulose in banana pseu-
do-stem can be explained by the fact that cellulose is the main
substance that forms the primary and secondary walls of plant
cells. The cellulose content of NBPF reported in this study is similar
to the cellulose content in the outer bark material of pseudo-stems
of M. acuminata Colla (40.2%), as reported by Cordeiro et al. (2004).
The high content of cellulose in NBPF may also correspond to the
Table 2
Total dietary fibre content in NBPF and TCBPF (n = 3 ± SD).
Composition (%) NBPF TCBPF
Insoluble dietary fibre 64.49b ± 0.22 46.09a ± 0.16
Soluble dietary fibre 2.58a ± 0.35 1.89a ± 0.19
Total dietary fibre 67.07b ± 0.13 47.98a ± 0.03
Values in the same row with the same superscript letter are not statistically sig-
nificant from each other (p > 0.05). All the result reported on the dry weight basis.
NBPF, native banana pseudo-stem; TCBPF, tender core of banana pseudo-stem flour.
751
Table 3
Hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin content in NBPF and TCBPF (n = 3 ± SD).
Composition (%) NBPF TCBPF
Acid detergent fibre b
47.22 ± 0.91 32.02a ± 1.21
Neutral detergent fibre 5.78b ± 1.17 43.89a ± 0.68
Lignin 5.13b ± 0.08 4.60a ± 0.06
Hemicellulose 18.56b ± 0.80 11.87a ± 0.55
Cellulose 42.09b ± 0.85 27.42a ± 0.37
Values in the same row with the same superscript letter are not statistically sig-
nificant from each other (p > 0.05). All the result reported on the dry weight basis.
NBPF, native banana pseudo-stem flour and TCBPF, tender core of banana pseudo-
stem flour.
high acid detergent fibre content (47.22%). Interestingly, Rose, Ing-
lett, and Liu (2010) reported that the major constituent of corn
bran fibre was hemicellulose (70%), followed by cellulose (28%),
whereas the results from our present study showed the reverse.
Both NBPF and TCBPF have higher lignin content than wheat
and soy meal, which contain only 0.88% and 0.58% lignin, respec-
tively, as reported by Moller (2009). On the other hand, lignin lev-
els are considerably lower in NBPF and TCBPF as compared with
other wood-based materials such as sawdust (20.33%) (Moller,
2009). In addition, both NBPF and TCBPF contained less lignin than
banana (pulp) (6.0–12.1%) and plantain (green banana) (14.3–
16.8%) (Happi Emaga et al., 2008). Moreover, Mukhopadhyay
et al. (2008) have reported the lignin content in banana pseudo-
stem fibres of Musa sapientum species (15.07%) to be much higher
than the results obtained in our present study.
Unlike lignin, the higher hemicellulose content in NBPF corre-
sponded with the higher content of neutral detergent fibre
(65.78%). The relative amounts of hemicellulose and cellulose in
our study are in accordance with those published by Mukhopadhy-
ay et al. (2008), who also reported lower hemicellulose content as
compared to cellulose in banana pseudo-stem. However, the fibre
data obtained in the present study are different from those re-
ported by Mukhopadhyay et al. (2008) (14.98% hemicellulose and
31.27% cellulose). This discrepancy may be due to the differences
in the banana species used in these two studies.
3.4. Antioxidant properties
The total phenolic content in the methanolic extracts of NBPF
and TCBPF, is shown in Table 4. The phenolic content of NBPF
(6532 mg GAE/100 g of dry weight) was significantly higher than
the phenolic content of TCBPF (1245 mg GAE/100 g of dry weight).
This difference might be attributed to the fact that different plants
contain different phenolic compounds and hence show variation in
their total phenolic content (Zhang & Wang, 2001). In addition, this
observation may also indicate that the outer layers of the banana
pseudo-stem have greater concentrations of phenolic compounds
than the pith. We conclude that phenolic compounds are more
abundant in banana pseudo-stem than in the pulp and peel
(232 mg/100 g weight and 907 mg/100 g dry weight, respectively)
(Someya, Yoshiki, & Okubo, 2002). However, further studies are
warranted to identify individual phenolic compounds present in
NBPF and TCBPF, which might provide more details.
With regard to the total flavonoid content, NBPF had a higher
total flavonoids (4500 mg CEQ/100 g of dry weight) than the TCBPF
(1042 mg CEQ/100 g of dry weight) (Table 4). The correlations per-
formed between total phenolics and total flavonoid assays showed
it to be 0.901 and 0.929 for NBPF and TCBPF, respectively.
In general, phenolic compounds are widely distributed in the
plant kingdom and they have been reported to possess strong anti-
oxidant properties (Mosquera et al., 2007). The antioxidant activity
of banana pseudo-stem flours is expressed as mg TEAC/100 g, and
inhibition of DPPH radicals corresponds to the antioxidant activity.
752 N.A.A. Aziz et al. / Food Chemistry 128 (2011) 748–753

Table 4
Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity in NBPF and TCBPF (n = 3 ± SD).

NBPF TCBPF
b
Total phenolics (mg GAE/100 g of dry weight) 6532 ± 272.22 1245a ± 92.34
Total flavonoids (mg CEQ/100 g of dry weight) 4500b ± 235.71 1042a ± 176.78
DPPH value (mg TEAC/100 g of dry weight) 2422b ± 104.5 842a ± 20.70
FRAP value (lmol TEACFRAP/100 g of dry weight) 16667b ± 628.54 2222a ± 314.27

Values in the same row with the same superscript letter are not statistically significant from each other
(p > 0.05). NBPF, native banana pseudo-stem flour; TCBPF, tender core of banana pseudo-stem flour.

The antioxidant activity of NBPF extracts was found to be signifi-
cantly (p < 0.05) higher (2422 mg TEAC/100 g of dry weight) than
that of TCBPF extracts (842 mg TEAC/100 g of dry weight). The find-
ing that NBPF was enriched in antioxidant activity was attributed to
the relative abundance of phenolic compounds and the more robust
proton-donating activity present in NBPF (Mosquera et al., 2007). A
correlation between the DPPH value and total phenolics (r2 = 0.772
and r2 = 0.879, respectively), indicated phenolic as the major com-
ponent responsible for the antioxidant effects on the NBPF and
TCBPF. These results are consistent with the general observations
that the phenolic fraction contains the bulk of the antioxidant activ-
ity in plants and that the distribution of phenolic compounds varies
among different structures within the same plant.
Another method was adopted for the evaluation of the total
antioxidant activity, FRAP assay is commonly used to study the
antioxidant capacity of plant materials. In the present study, the
total antioxidant power of NBPF (16667 lmol TEACFRAP/100 g of
dry sample) was found to be significantly higher (p < 0.05) than
that of the TCBPF (2222 lmol TEACFRAP/100 g of dry sample). A
high correlation was found between the FRAP value and DPPH va-
lue for NBPF and TCBPF (r2 = 0.805 and r2 = 0.878, respectively).
This correlation could be due to the same mechanism that DPPH
and FRAP methods rely on (Alothman et al., 2009). Another corre-
lation analysis was performed on the phenolic content and FRAP
value for the two flours. The correlation values were 0.719 and
0.947 for NBPF and TCBPF, respectively. These correlations re-con-
firm that the phenolic compounds are the main components
responsible for the antioxidant activities in these flours.
3.5. Swelling power, solubility profiles, and water and oil holding
capacity
Swelling power, solubility, water and oil holding capacities of
NBPF and TCPBF are presented in Fig. 1. The TCBPF swelling power
(13.82 g swollen granules/g of dry matter) exceeded that of NBPF
(9.48 g of swollen granules/g of dry matter). This result was due
to the boiling (100 °C) process applied in preparation of the banana
tender core flour. According to Bello-Perez et al. (1999), high tem-
peratures lead to the solubilisation of amylase during starch gela-
tinisation. It is also possible that the high swelling power is due to
a high amylopectin content; the latter possibility could be explored
using structural studies. The extent of water retained in the swol-
len granules of TCBPF was significantly (p < 0.05) greater than
NBPF and paralleled a higher percent solubility of TCBPF (33.28%)
vs. NBPF (3.44%).
Both WHC and OHC are important functional properties that
have been widely studied in food, as they are associated with food
quality. NBPF and TCBPF had WHCs of 10.66 and 18.28 g of water/g
of dry matter, respectively. These values far exceed those from the
dietary fibres of oat bran, rice bran, soy flour and wheat bran,
namely 2.10, 4.89, 4.79–6.75, and 5.03 g of water/g of dry matter,
respectively (Abdul-Hamid & Luan, 2000; Chen et al., 1988; Hey-
wood et al., 2002). Thus, NBPF and TCBPF are able to bind or entrap
more water than oat bran, rice bran and soy flour. In contrast, NBPF
has a WHC value on par with apple fibre (9.36 g of water/g of dry
matter) as reported by Chen et al. (1988). This small difference may
be due to the structural differences in cell wall components be-
tween the stem and fruit fibres (Chen et al., 1988). The lower
WHC value of NBPF as compared with TCBPF may be due to boiling
TCBPF during processing. Starch granules present in NBPF are not
affected at high temperatures and have a low WHC, whereas the
preparation of TCBPF may have released amylose, which effectively
binds water molecules (Rodriguez-Ambriz et al., 2008).
Another important functional property of the fibre ingredients
is the OHC which, in NBPF and TCBPF, was 5.48 and 3.88 g of oil/
g of dry matter, respectively. The results showed that NBPF and
TCBPF have higher OHC values than dietary fibre obtained from
commercial preparations (1.29 g of oil/g of dry matter) as reported

Fig. 1. Swelling power (SP), water holding capacity (WHC), oil holding capacity (OHC) and solubility of NBPF and TCBPF (n = 3 ± s.d.). Values with the same superscript letter
and font types are not statistically significant from each other (p > 0.05). NBPF: Native banana pseudo-stem flour; TCBPF: Tender core of banana pseudo-stem flour.
 N.A.A. Aziz et al. / Food Chemistry 128 (2011) 748–753
earlier by Abdul-Hamid and Luan (2000). The differences in OHC
between NBPF and TCBPF might be attributed to their differences
in chemical and physical structure, as well as their differences in
preparation. NBPF may be potentially suitable for use in food prod-
ucts as an aid in stabilising emulsions and as a rich source of die-
tary fibre.
4. Conclusions
NBPF has a higher amount of fibre (crude fibre, insoluble dietary
fibre, total dietary fibre, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) than
TCBPF. The phenol content, flavonoid content, antioxidant capacity
and free radical-scavenging capacity were all higher in NBPF than
in TCBPF. Boiling process increased the TCBPF functional profile
in terms of swelling power, water holding capacity and solubility.
Results from this research clearly showed that the high fibre, WHC
and OHC of NBPF and TCBPF are potentially suitable for use in food
applications as a new low-calorie, high-fibre ingredient.
Acknowledgements
One of the author (Ho Lee-Hoon) thank USM for financial sup-
port; fellowship (RU: 1001/441/29301/CIPS/AUPE001) and RU
Grant (1001/PTEKIND/815055).
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