System Tracts

Lecture 18-20
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

System Tracts

System Tracts
A linkage of contemporaneous
depositional systems, forming the
subdivision of a sequence.
Definition of systems tracts was gradually

refined from the earlier work of Exxon
scientists.

System Tracts
Systems Tracts are interpreted on the
basis of:
• Stratal Stacking Patterns

• Position within the sequence
• Types of bounding surfaces
ST’s are assigned particular positions along

the curve of BL changes, at the shoreline.
System Tracts
• Early Exxon Sequence Model accounts
for subdivision of depositional sequences
into 4 systems tracts, first presented by
Vail (1987) and subsequently elaborated
by Posamentier & Vail (1988).
• These are Lowstand, Transgressive,
Highstand and Shelf-Margin Systems
Tracts.

System Tracts
Systems Tracts were 1st defined as
a curve of Eustatic fluctuations
(Posamentier et al., 1988;
Posamentier and Vail, 1988), which
was subsequently replaced by a
curve of Relative Sea-Level (BL)
Changes.

System Tracts
• A sequence composed of LST, TST
and HST was defined as a Type 1
Sequence
• A sequence composed of SMST,

TST & HST was defined as a Type 2
Sequence

System Tracts
Differentiation between LST & SMST and
between Types 1 & 2 Sequences
depends on
• Recognition of Types 1 & Type 2

bounding unconformities.

System Tracts
• LST & SMST are similar concepts, both
being related to the same portion of the
reference sea-level curve (stage of fall-
Early rise).

System Tracts
• According to Vail & Posamentier
Type 1 Sequence Boundary forms during a stage
of rapid Eustatic sea-level fall, when the rates of
fall > rate of subsidence at the shelf edge.
As the Subsidence rates decrease in landward

direction across a continental shelf, the rates of
sea-level fall exceed even more than the rates of
subsidence at the shoreline, leading to a Fast
retreat (FR) of the shoreline & significant erosion
of the exposed shelf.
System Tracts
• Type 2 Sequence boundary forms during
stages of slow Eustatic sea-level fall, when
the rates of fall ˂ rate of subsidence at the
shelf edge.
Type 2 unconformities are associated with

very slow rates of Relative sea-level fall
resulting in, only minor subaerial exposure &
erosion of the continental shelf (Vail et al.,
1984).
System Tracts
• Type 1 Sequence • Type 2 Sequence
boundary boundary
Includes a major Includes a minor
subaerial unconformity, subaerial unconformity,
characterized by characterized by
significant erosion/areal minimal erosion and
extent across the limited areal extent.
continental shelf.

System Tracts
• Practically, assessment of magnitude/extent
of erosion is difficult, (especially when dealing
with low-resolution seismic data/outcrops
where age data, differential incision/angular
relationships are missing.
• After almost a decade of controversy,

Posamentier & Allen (1999) advocated
elimination of Types 1 & Type 2 in favor of a
single type of depositional sequence.
System Tracts
• With fall of the Type 2 unconformity, SMST
concept exited the Sequence Stratigraphic
arena.
• As a result, Exxon depositional sequence
model is now a scheme including
LST(FSST+LST),TST & HST as the basic
subdivisions of a Sequence (Posamentier
and Allen,1999).

Clastic Depositional Systems

Exxon Model

System Tracts
Primary drawback of early Exxon
sequence model was (initial controversy
still ongoing)
• Limited recognition of sediments deposited
on the shelf during Relative sea-level fall
(based on seismic geometries)
• Led to early hypothesis of Instantaneous
BL Fall, reflected by the Saw Tooth Sea-
level curve of Vail et al. (1977).

Global Cycle
Chart of Sea-
Level changes
based on the
interpretation of
Coastal Onlap
on seismic lines
(Vail,1977)

Contrast in Coastal Onlap
Curves constructed
with/without the recognition
of offlapping FR deposits
(modified by Christie-Blick,
1991).
A— Coastal Onlap Curve
using methods of Vail et al.
(1977);
B—Modified Coastal
Onlap Curve, based on
recognition of offlapping FR
deposits.
CS- Interval of sediment
starvation in marine
environment.

Modified Coastal Onlap Curve, based on the recognition of
offlapping FR deposits. CS, condensed sections.

Condensed Section
• Authigenic mineral accumulation-rates are
often less than 1 mm/1000 years, resulting
sediments are common only where
terrigenous & biogenic accumulation rates
are nearly zero.
• Generally, authigenic minerals form where
bottom currents prevent the accumulation of
other sediments e.g; Glauconite forms from
micaceous minerals of high iron content
where sedimentation rates are relatively low.
This coal-seam
(Scotland) was originally
a layer of sediment, rich
in organic carbon. The
sedimentary layer was
eventually buried deep
underground, heat &
pressure transformed it
into coal.
ORIGIN AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF CRETACEOUS DEEP-SEA BLACK SHALES &

MULTICOLORED CLAYSTONES, WITH EMPHASIS ON DEEP SEA DRILLING PROJECT
SITE 530, SOUTHERN ANGOLA BASIN1
Walter E. Dean, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado,Michael A. Arthur,2 Department of Geology, University of South Carolina,
Columbia, South Carolina and Dorrik A. V. Stow, Grant Institute of Geology, University of Edinburgh,Edinburgh, Scotland, EH9 3JW,
United Kingdom
Minerals that make up sedimentary rocks are of two principal types:

-Detrital minerals, such as grains of quartz, survive weathering & are
transported to depositional site as clasts.
-Authigenic minerals, like calcite/gypsum, form insitu within the
depositional site in response to geochemical processes.
System Tracts
• Global Curve, is constructed by mapping
reflection terminations onlapping the basin
margins (Coastal Onlap on seismic lines).
• Latest research indicated this Coastal onlap
to be a combination of fluvial & coastal onlap
reflecting accumulation during both LST &
HST Normal Regressions &
Transgressions (during entire stage of BL
Rise).
Exceptions from these general trends are
possible, e.g. fluvial incision (truncation) may
take place during BL rise & transgression.

System Tracts
Apparent absence of FR deposits on the
shelf (concluded in 1977),simplified the issue
of the SB position in a succession of non-
marine to shallow-marine strata, as no choice
had to be made to place the boundary if
falling-stage shelf deposits were present.
• In this view, SB was simply separating strata

packages, characterized by continuous
landward migration of Coastal Onlap on sea-
level charts of Vail,1977.
System Tracts
• Subsequent work by the Exxon Group led
to the recognition of the possibility of shelf
deposition during BL fall, (Posamentier &
Vail, 1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1990).
• Recognition of FR shelf deposits opened

a new debate.

System Tracts
• Inconsistency of terminology started from
Exxon Group was highlighted by Hunt &
Tucker (1992), who proposed a solution by
redefining the LST fan deposits as the
Forced Regressive Wedge Systems
Tract.

System Tracts
• In doing so, SB was placed at top of newly
defined systems tract (at the end of BL
fall),& the base of all falling-stage deposits
(Correlative Conformity of Posamentier
1988)became the Basal Surface of FR
(depositional sequence model IV).

Regional Architecture of
Depositional Systems, System
Tracts & Stratigraphic Surfaces

Lecture 19

High-Stand System Tract

High Stand System Tract
Fluvial, deltaic units & turbidities within the
HST are important to consider.
In deltas we focus on clastics brought out into
a shallow-marine setting by meandering
fluvial systems that originate in distant
mountains.

High-Stand Deltas

A common theme is the inter-fingering of
the continuous delta-facies with the
discontinuous fluvial facies both on
outcrop & seismic.

• HST, forms during the Late stage of BL
rise, when the rates of rise drop below the
sedimentation rates, generating NR.
• Depositional trends & stacking patterns

are dominated by aggradation &
progradation.

• HST is bounded by MFS at the base and
by a composite surface at the top that
includes a portion of the Subaerial
unconformity, Basal Surface of FR, and
the oldest portion of the Regressive
Surface of Marine Erosion.


Regional- Architecture of depositional systems &
stratigraphic surfaces during HST
Depositional processes/products of the HST (Late Rise NR). The deposits
overlie & downlap the MFS. HST prism includes fluvial, coastal, and
shoreface deposits. Shelf & deep-marine environments receive mainly fine-
grained hemipelagic & pelagic sediments.
• As accommodation is made available by the
rising, (though decelerating BL,HST prism
consists of fluvial, coastal and shoreface deposits,
located relatively close to the basin margin.
• HST deltas are usually far from the shelf edge,

being form subsequent to the maximum
transgression of the continental shelf & develop
diagnostic topset packages of aggrading &
prograding delta plain and alluvial plain strata .

• Shelf-edge stability, coupled with the lack
of sediment supply to the outer shelf-
upper slope area, results in a scarcity of
gravity-flows into the deep-water
environment.

Economic Potential

Petroleum Plays
• The best potential reservoirs of the HST tend
to be associated with the shoreline to
shoreface depositional systems, which
concentrate the largest amounts of sand, with
the highest sand/mud ratio (Table).These
reservoirs are usually m to 10’s of m’s thick.
Both open shorelines/deltas, prograde &
downlap the MFS, which marks the lower
boundary of the HST NR package .
• At the top, the HST reservoirs may be
truncated by the subaerial unconformity.
Petroleum Plays

Petroleum Plays
• Sealing potential of these reservoir facies
is low due to presence of the overlying
subaerial unconformity.
• In case of incised valleys, by the presence

of sand-prone valley-fill deposits above the
subaerial unconformity.

Petroleum Plays
Petroleum play significance of the HST
consists in the accumulation of:
• Reservoir facies within proximal regions

(fluvial to coastal & shoreface)
• Source/seal facies within the distal areas

of the basin (shallow to deep-water
environments).
Petroleum Plays
• Primary exploration risk of HST reservoirs
is, due to insufficient development of seal
facies
• Where present, HST fluvial floodplain
shales may provide a seal for the early-
HST isolated channel fills

Petroleum Plays
• Overlying LST fluvial floodplain
shales/fluvial/marine transgressive shales
may seal the Late-HST reservoirs.
• Exploration potential of each individual

reservoir needs to be assessed on a
case-by-case basis.

Coal Resources
• Coal Exploration is restricted to non-marine part of
the basin, where the thickest/most regionally
extensive coal seams are related to the episodes
of highest water table.
• Favorable conditions for peat accumulation involve
the interplay of subsidence, vegetation growth and
sediment supply
*If above conditions are met, significant coal seams

can be associated with MFS.

Coal Resources
• Time of End Transgression, is the most
favorable for peat accumulation &
subsequent coal development.
During HST NR, balance between

accommodation & sedimentation gradually
changes in the favor of the latter.
This, along with, decelerating rates of BL rise,
diminishes the chance for significant peat
accumulations.
Coal Resources
• Upper portion of the HST, lacks coal

deposits due to insufficient
accommodation and the relatively high
sediment input.


Falling-Stage System Tract
• FSST corresponds to the Low-stand fan
of Posamentier (1988), and it was kept as
a distinct systems tract in the early 1990s,
as a result of independent work by
Ainsworth (1991,1992, 1994), Hunt and
Tucker (1992) and Nummedal (1992).

• FSST includes all strata, accumulated in a
basin during Forced Regression.
• FR deposits consists of shallow & deep-water
facies, with formation of Subaerial
unconformity in the non-marine portion.
• FSST is bounded at the top by a composite
surface including Subaerial unconformity,
its Correlative Conformity & the youngest
portion of Regressive Surface of Marine
Erosion(B).
A
B
Regional architecture of depositional systems & stratigraphic surfaces
during FSST

• At the base, FSST is bounded by the
Basal surface of FR (Correlative
Conformity of Posamentier) and by the
oldest portion of the Regressive Surface
of Marine Erosion.

• Formation of subaerial unconformities in
the non-marine part involves a
combination of fluvial incision & fluvial
bypass
• Fluvial incision caused by BL fall occurs

only when BL is lowered below major
topographic breaks (fault scarps/shelf
edge)

Processes of fluvial down-cutting on continental shelves may
also be triggered by structural features such as Fault Scarps
or Shelf-edge.
Time 1 shows the sea level at Onset of BL fall (End of HST)
Time 2 shows the sea level at End of BL fall.
A—Early stage of BL fall, when FR shoreline is still inboard of the shelf
edge.HST prism is subjected to fluvial incision, but the rest of the subaerially
exposed continental shelf may be bypassed only by un-incised fluvial systems.
B—When FR shoreline falls below the elevation of the shelf edge, fluvial incision
starts affecting the continental shelf.
C—Late stage of BL fall, when the entire fluvial system is incised.

Resulting incised valleys are characterized
by V-shaped cross-sectional profiles &
incised tributaries.

• Irrespective of the nature of topographic
break, river incision is caused by abrupt
increases in fluvial energy.

FSST
• Unincised fluvial-systems of the falling
stage are formed, in shallow-marine
basins with gently sloping ramp-margins,
where FR shoreline does not fall below
the shelf-edge (Posamentier, 2001).

Un-incised (bypass) fluvial system on a continental shelf
that is not fully exposed by BL fall (offshore Java,
Indonesia). The seismic amplitude horizon slice shows a
high-sinuosity un-incised channel flowing to the right.

FSST
• Distinction between incised & unincised
channels in FSST is fundamental for the
design of successful petroleum E&P
strategies, as they are inherently different
play types.

Criteria used to differentiate between incised valley
fills & unincised/distributary channel fills. Inadequate
data (lack of high-resolution 3D seismic data, well logs,
cores) may lead to confusions between these two play
types.
- Full subaerial exposure of shelf is very
important for the development of deep-water
reservoirs & for the design of deep-water
exploration strategies.
- Stages of incomplete exposure of shelf,
(assessed from presence of unincised fluvial
systems), result in deposition of mud-rich
sediments in deep-water environment,
reducing exploration potential.
• All incised valleys, regardless of origin
(climate Vs BL controlled) share similar
features so we need additional criteria to
distinguish them.

Diagnostic for FSST are:
• Shallow-marine deposits with rapidly
prograding & offlapping stacking patterns,
age equivalent with deep-water submarine
Fans.
• FSST was described by Hunt & Tucker
(1992) who referred it specifically to, slope
and basin-floor settings.

Additional criteria for the recognition of
shallow-marine FR deposits:
• Presence of zones of separation between
successive shoreface deposits (1)
• Occurrence of long-distance regression (2)
• Absence of alluvial plain, coastal plain, or
delta plain deposits at the top of shoreface
deposits
Depositional processes/products of the Early FSST.
Most of the sand during this stage, is captured within detached & offlapping shoreline to
upper shoreface systems. A significant amount of fine-grained sediment starts to
deposit in deep-water environment as mudflow deposits. Two sequence stratigraphic
surfaces form during BL fall:
Subaerial Unconformity, which gradually expands basinward as shoreline regresses
Regressive Surface of Marine Erosion (RSME) cut by waves in the lower shoreface.
Depositional processes/products of Late FSST
Deep submarine fans, capture most sand. Subaerial unconformity keeps forming/expanding
basinward until end of BL fall. Shoreline falls below the shelf edge and Fluvial systems incise into the
HST prism. As the shoreline approaches the shelf edge during FR, shelf-edge deltas will form,
suppling coarser sediment to the deepwater environment.
• Presence of a seaward-dipping subaerial
unconformity on top (Fig.2)
• Presence of progressively lower-relief

clinoforms basinwards (Fig.3)
• Potential increase in average grain size in

a seaward direction, as the gradient of
fluvial systems may steepen during BL fall.
Seawards dipping U/N. Termination of the subaerial unconformity
(red) indicates the shoreline position at the End of Forced
Regression.

• For higher-magnitude falls, when BL falls
below the elevation of the shelf edge, a
shelf-edge delta with offlapping
geometries will prograde & downlap on the
continental slope.

Decreasing shallow-water clinoform height in a
seaward direction in a shelf-type setting, in response
to BL Fall. This trend is representative of river-
dominated deltaic settings, with progressively lower
relief clinoforms seaward.

• At the same time, significant gravity-flows
are deposited in the deep-water
environment which consists mainly of
high-density turbidity currents, potentially
rich in sandy river-borne sediment,
supplied by distributary channels directly
to the deep-water environment.

• Formation/distribution of reservoir facies
may be markedly different between the
stratigraphically early (lower) & late
(upper) portions of FSST.

Petroleum Plays
• Early FR corresponds to the Early stage of BL fall, when a significant

portion of continental shelf is still submerged.
• Shoreline trajectory is defined by progradation & offlap, accompanied
by fluvial erosion/bypass upstream.
Petroleum Plays
• During Early fall, shoreline is still far from
the shelf edge, so no river-borne sand is
delivered directly to the continental slope.
• Reservoirs of Early FR stage are
represented by offlapping & downstepping
paleoshoreline and shoreface sands,
abandoned on the shelf during BL fall.
These sand bodies, though thin & detached,
may have very good lateral extent along
strike.
Petroleum Plays
• No fluvial reservoirs are expected to
develop during this stage as, non-marine
portion of the basin is susceptible to
bypass/down-cutting processes.

Petroleum Plays
• Early fall portion of deep-water submarine
fans displays poor reservoir quality, due to
the low sand/mud ratio
• Usually represented on seismic data by
transparent/chaotic seismic facies (A).

Petroleum Plays
• Plastic behavior of these mud-rich
cohesive debris flows (mudflows) assign
them additional characteristics, observed
on 2D/3D seismic data, like thrust
faults/associated compressional ridges
and grooves.
• Such diagnostic features of mud-rich deep
water deposits can be quite critical to
recognise on seismic before drilling.

Petroleum Plays
• Formation of thrust faults/compressional
ridges is caused by mudflows’ tendency to
freeze on deceleration, due to cohesiveness
of mud.
• This plastic rheological behavior, compared
to the fluidal behavior of turbidity currents,
explains why mudflow deposits tend to
accumulate in more proximal areas of deep-
water setting relative to turbidites.
Late FR corresponds to Late stage of BL fall when most, of the continental shelf
becomes subaerially exposed. During which, Early FR paleoshoreline sand-bodies
may loose their original linear geometry due to prolonged fluvial/wind degradation
(Fig).
-As shoreline approaches the shelf edge, fluvial sediment starts to be delivered
directly to the continental slope, causing major gravity-flow events.
-Additional sediment supply is generated by processes of fluvial incision
upstream. The lack of accommodation for fluvial & shoreline systems, explains the
large volume of turbidites which accumulates in the deep-water environment
during this time.
Petroleum Plays
• The best petroleum plays, form in relation to
late stage of FR, are the sandy turbidites
associated with the deep-water submarine
fans.
• These reservoirs form the coarsest part of the
basin-floor fans, are topped by the correlative
conformity and their position on 2D seismic
lines may be inferred by mapping the
youngest clinoform with an offlap type of
stratal termination up dip.
Seismic line showing location of the best deep-water
reservoirs.The offlap type of stratal termination is very
significant for deep-water exploration because the youngest
clinoform associated with offlap (correlative conformity—
dashed line in the figure) leads to the top of the coarsest
deep-water facies. RS—transgressive ravinement surface;
MRS—maximum regressive & MFS.

Petroleum Plays
• Turbidity currents triggered during the late
stage of FR have high sand/mud and
sediment/water ratios because of the large
amounts of terrigenous sediment supplied
by fluvial systems at the shelf edge .

Petroleum Plays
• Due to their high-density nature, turbidity
currents tend to be overloaded, favouring
channel aggradation & construction of
levees on the continental slope.
• Both the channel fills on slope & frontal
splay on the basin-floor fan are sand-
prone so are good reservoirs.

Petroleum Plays
• Additional exploration potential is provided
by the offlapping shelf-edge deltaic lobes
that prograde the upper part of continental
slope.
• As in the case of the Early FR, no fluvial

reservoirs are expected.

Petroleum Plays
• Deepwater reservoirs of the FSST, form
some of the best petroleum plays of an
entire stratigraphic sequence, involving
fewer risks than their coastal-shallow-
marine counterparts
• Because deep portion of the basin is
generally more conducive for
accumulation of source/ seal facies.

Petroleum Plays
• All underlying and overlying systems tracts
(LST, TST & HST) may provide source &
seal facies, respectively, for falling stage
turbidity reservoirs.

Coal Resources
• Stage of BL fall is unfavorable for peat
accumulation & subsequent coal
development because accommodation is
negative, and the non-marine environment
is generally prone to fluvial valley incision.

System Tracts

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Lecture 18-20

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

Definition of systems tracts was gradually

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• Stratal Stacking Patterns

ST’s are assigned particular positions along

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• A sequence composed of SMST,

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• Recognition of Types 1 & Type 2

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As the Subsidence rates decrease in landward

Type 2 unconformities are associated with

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• After almost a decade of controversy,

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

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ORIGIN AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF CRETACEOUS DEEP-SEA BLACK SHALES &

Minerals that make up sedimentary rocks are of two principal types:

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• In this view, SB was simply separating strata

• Recognition of FR shelf deposits opened

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• Depositional trends & stacking patterns

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• HST deltas are usually far from the shelf edge,

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• In case of incised valleys, by the presence

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• Reservoir facies within proximal regions

• Source/seal facies within the distal areas

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• Exploration potential of each individual

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*If above conditions are met, significant coal seams

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During HST NR, balance between

• Upper portion of the HST, lacks coal

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