MODULE 2 – GEOLOGY &

PETROPHYSICS
 OBJECTIVES

• Understand the relevance of geology in Petrophysics.

• Understanding frequently used terms such as facies,

pores, porosity, pore throat, permeability, flow units.

• Identification of rock types using different test methods

and criteria.
 IMPORTANT TO NOTE
• An in-depth appreciation of geology is necessary.

• The petrophysicist must understand the depositional

environment to relate it to core samples and further relate
it to reserves and production performance.

• Non-geologist petrophysicist are usually further trained in

geology to cover these bases.
 INTRODUCTION
The geologic material forming a reservoir for hydrocarbon
accumulation in the subsurface must contain a three-
dimensional interconnected pore network in order to store
the fluids and allow for their movement within the reservoir. Thus
the porosity of the reservoir rocks and their permeability are the
most fundamental physical properties with respect to the
storage and transmission of fluids.

Accurate knowledge of these two properties for any

hydrocarbon reservoir, together with the fluid properties, is
required for efficient development, management, and
prediction of future performance of the oilfield.
 MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF
ROCKS
• Minerals are the fundamental building blocks of rock materials in the earth.

• Definition: any of a class of substances occurring in nature, usually comprising

inorganic substances, as quartz or feldspar, of definite chemical composition
and usually of definite crystal structure, but sometimes also including rocks
formed by these substances as well as certain natural products of organic
origin, as asphalt or coal.

• Approximately 2000 minerals have been identified in the earth. There are over
100 elements in the crust, which consist almost entirely of eight elements
(Oxygen, silicone, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium and
potassium). The remaining elements accounts for less than 1% of the crust ,
which therefore has a simple composition.
• Minerals are defined by composition and by crystal
structure, these two parameters result in the predictability of
each mineral.

• Crystal structure is controlled by composition that directly

determines which atoms of which elements will be
distributed in which arrangement.

• Additionally, physical properties of minerals are often the

only guidelines for field identification of specimens that may
occur combined with other minerals.
• Since the physical properties of rocks are the consequence
of their mineral composition. The study of their composition is
important in identifying and understanding the rocks and its
properties

• The minerals found in the Earth's rocks are produced by a

variety of different arrangements of chemical elements.
Rocks are also composed of a few chemical elements. These
chemical elements can be identified and studied by using
emission spectrography and X-ray dispersive scanning
electron microscopy.

(The emission spectroscopy yields the matrix chemical

composition but the scanning electron microscope (SEM),
could only analyze microscopic spots on the broken surface of
the rock).
 ROCKS
A rock can be defined as a solid substance that occurs naturally because of
the effects of three basic geological processes: magma solidification;
sedimentation of weathered rock debris; and metamorphism. As a result of
these processes, three main types of rock occur:
 IGNEOUS ROCKS
Fine grained,
fast cooling, Coarse
glassy grained, slow
appearance cooling

Obsidian – Extrusive igneous

rock (riosuerte.com)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrN7jygu4cQ Granite – Intrusive igneous

rock ( http://itc.gsw.edu)
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Rocks that have changed form due to heat and pressure. Metamorphic comes
from the Greek words meta and morph. Meta means change and morph means
form. So we get metamorphic meaning to change form. (image from
bbc.co.uk)
 TYPES OF METAMORPHIC
Foliated
Gneiss
•Aligned mineral grains
•Alignment of elongated or platy grains
occurs under the influence of direct
pressure.
•Product of the interaction of lithospheric
plates and as such compose a significant
part of the Earth’s major mountain chains.
ROCKS
Non - Foliated
Amphibolite
•Lacks mineral alignment – random
arrangement.
•Random arrangement occurs during
metamorphism when temperatures are
high but the pressures are relatively low
and equal in all directions (confining
pressure on the rock).
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
All of the sedimentary rocks (about 66% of all rocks) are important to
the study of petrophysics and petroleum reservoir engineering. It is
possible to interpret them by considering the processes of rock degradation. The
principal sedimentary rocks may be organized according to their origin.

Detrital (clastic)
- rocks produced from rock fragments
- most common sedimentary rock type
- formed from cement sediment grains that composed
pre-existing rocks

Chemical
- rocks produced by precipitation of dissolved ions in
water
- have crystalline textures
- formed by precipitation of minerals from solution

Organic
- rocks produced by the accumulation of biological
debris e.g. swamps and bogs
- accumulation of organism remains
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
•The sedimentary
deposits that comprise
the large variety of rocks
are continually altered
by tectonic activity,
resulting in deep burial of
sediments in zones that
are undergoing
subsidence. Uplift of
other areas forms
mountains.

•The continual
movement and collisions
of continental plates
cause folding and
faulting of large blocks
of sedimentary deposits.
This activity forms natural
traps that in many cases
have accumulated
hydrocarbons migrating
from the source rocks in
which they were formed.
 PROPERTIES OF
SEDIMENTARY PARTICLES

• There are a large number of tests that can be made to

obtain quantitative and qualitative data for characterization
of sedimentary rocks. All of the methods are listed in the
table below.

• The loose particle analyses are made on disaggregated rock

particles that are obtained using a crushing apparatus, or by
carefully breaking the rock with a hammer. The other
analyses are obtained from core samples of rock which are
oriented parallel to the bedding planes.

• Tests of the vertical fluid flow properties can be useful for

analyses of gravity drainage of oil, vertical diffusion of gas
released from solution, and transport properties using
mathematical simulation.
LITHOLOGY SUMMARY
ROCK IDENTIFICATION
 TOOLS USED TO DEFINE
ROCK TYPES
• Winland plots – porosity – permeability
• Pittman R20-R50 plots
• Pittman apex plots
• P-P plots w/lines of equal K/phi ratio
• HPMI intrusion plots
• Thomeer derivative plots
• Washburn pore radius equation
• Katz-thompson pore radius equation
• Cumulative pore size plots
• RFT- gradients and contacts
• Production logs, injection well profiles
• Convention logs
• Image logs
• Seismic responses
 THE PORE SYSTEM
The pores of a rock occur
between grains or crystals, in
fractures, or in vugs. A rock's
storage capacity is controlled
by the size and number of
pores.

A rock's permeability (flow

capacity) is controlled by the
size, shape, and number of the
pore throats (connections) per
pore.

Four critical elements of the

geometry of a rock's pore
system are
•Pore system shapes
•Pore and pore throat sizes
•Pore connectivity
•Ratio of pore throats to pores
PORE THROAT
 PORE SYSTEM DEFINITION
A pore system is an aggregate of pores and pore throats that shares a similar
morphology. These elements play a role in determining reservoir and seal
petrophysics (the characteristic way that oil, gas, and water move through
rocks).

CONNECTIVITY OF PORES
Even very large pores contribute nothing to fluid flow unless they connect to
other pores. Connectivity increases with the size of pore throats and with
increasing number of pore throats surrounding each pore.
 PORE SHAPE, THROAT SIZE,
AND THROAT ABUNDANCE
• How does pore shape, pore throat size, and pore throat
abundance affect the flow dynamics of a reservoir?
• Visualize a room with a door in each wall. The number of
people who can fit into the room is a product of the size and
shape of the room. The movement of people into or out of
that room is a product of the size, shape, and number of
doors. A large cube shaped room with many small doors
allows the people to leave the room at a given rate relative
to a smaller tubular-shaped room with a few large doors.
• A particular pore type has similar entrance/exit dynamics.
Pore throats are the doors (ports) to the pore. Along with Sw,
pore throats control permeability to hydrocarbons in
reservoir rocks.
 THE STUDY OF PORE
SYSTEMS
• Rocks can be classified on the basis of their pore
geometry into four major pore categories that can
be divided into ten subcategories.

• Extensive experience and laboratory analysis show

that these pore type categories have a particular
behavior when interacting with fluids that can be
used to predict the behavior of reservoir systems
over time.
 PORE GEOMETRY
Intergranular Intercrystalline

Vuggy / Moldic Fracture

 PORE THROAT
CLASSIFICATION
• Pore throat sizes are categorized into:
mega,
macro, Decreasing order
of magnitude
meso and
micro-pore types.

• Combining both pore geometry and pore type into a

classification scheme is an effective method of describing
pore systems. For example, a very fine-grained sandstone
might be classified as having intergranular mesoporosity or
a limestone as having vuggy macroporosity.
 PORE SYSTEM USES
• Nature of the pore system
• Diagenetic controls on reservoir quality
• Effects of diagenesis on petrophysical properties
• Understanding depositional and diagenetic controls
on porosity and permeability distribution is crucial for:
• Predicting and modeling reservoir quality
• Determining hydraulic flow units
• Maximizing hydrocarbon recovery
 PORE-SYSTEM EVOLUTION
(FROM DEPOSITION TO
RESERVOIR)
• At the time of deposition sediment has high porosity.
• After burial to reservoir conditions, the porosity is significantly
reduced.
• The distribution of porosity in reservoir is heterogeneous.
• The nature of the pore system is controlled by:
1. Depositional environment
2. Original mineral composition
3. Post-depositional physical rearrangement
4. Post-depositional chemical reaction
 PETROGRAPHIC AND GEOCHEMICAL
TECHNIQUES USED IN ASSESMENT OF
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:
• Cathodoluminiscence Microscopy: helps in the recognition
of subtle or hidden features, as well as diagenetic
sequences.

• Isotope Geochemistry: helps in the interpretation of palaeo-

salinity and palaeo-temperature.

• Fluorescence Microscopy: helps in the recognition of

deposition and diagenetic components in dolomitized or
recrystallized limestone, as well as porosity estimation.

• Images Analysis: helps in the pore network characterization.

Observation of grain size and morphology. It is also used in
the determination of mineral types and abundance.
 PETROGRAPHIC AND GEOCHEMICAL
TECHNIQUES USED IN ASSESMENT OF
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: (SECONDARY
TECHNIQUES)
• Electron probe microanalysis: quantitative chemical
analysis of small areas (µm size)

• Fluid Inclusion: Temperature and pressure of formation of

surrounding crystal composition of diagenetic fluid.

• Chemostratigraphy: Correlation of apparently

homogeneous sequences.

• Fission Track Thermometry: thermal history and analysis

• Radiometric dating: Age dating of diagenetic events

 GEO – REVIEW: DEFINITION
OF FACIES
• Facies – from the latin word faci implying the external
appearance or look of something. A body of rock with
specified characteristics.
• Some distinguishing physical aspect of a rock. Typically used
as a building block to interpret a depositional system
includes:
1. Lithofacies – based on lithology (sandstone, siltstone)
2. Microfacies – based on micro fabric
3. Ichnofacies – based on burrow forms
4. Electrofacies – based on electric log responses
5. Seismic facies – based on velocity response
 OTHER KEY TERMS TO
CONSIDER:
• Porosity: fraction of a rock bulk volume occupied by
pore space.

• Pore throat: small openings between grain contacts

that connects the pores.

• Permeability: the capacity of a rock to transmit a fluid

when a pressure drop is applied.

• Flow unit: can be defined as the inter relationship of

flow capacity to storage capacity of the unit that
relates directly to reservoir flow.
 ASSIGNMENT 1

DUE DATE: 2ND OCTOBER 2017

ASSIGNMENT
Due on the: 2nd October 2017
1.What are the main natural processes that affect the
petrophysical properties of principal sedimentary rocks?
2.Since all rocks have a single source (molten magma from
below the crust), what general processes produce the
different types of rocks?
3.Which type of rock is important to the hydrocarbon
industry and why? Explain your answer.
4.Explain how pore throat may be related to efficient
hydrocarbon recovery, making emphasis on its properties.
5.Explain the possibility of igneous and metamorphic rocks
as a reservoir if any?