Flow in Pipes, Hydraulic and Energy grade

lines, Energy Equation for real fluids & its

applications, losses in pipes
By: Engr. Waseem Shah
CED, UET-P
Lecture-02
CE-212 Fluid Mechanics-II
Contents
• Introduction
• Fluid flow in pipes
• HGL & EL
• General Energy equation for real fluid steady flow
• Losses in pipes
• Major losses
• Minor losses

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Introduction
• Fluid flow in circular and noncircular pipes is commonly encountered in
practice e.g. in water distribution system in a city or town or home, natural
gas supply system, highly workable concrete pumping through hoses.
• Any factory involving fluids like that producing admixtures or
superplasticizers.
• HVAC system of a building employ conduits where fluids (e.g. air)
circulate.
• HVAC at plinth level in single storey buildings may involve liquids like
water for heating the building
• Blood is carried throughout our bodies by arteries and veins.
• The cooling water in an engine is transported by hoses to the pipes in the
radiator where it is cooled as it flows.
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
Introduction
• Fluid flow may also be classified as external or internal, depending on
whether the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a conduit.
• Internal and external flows exhibit very different characteristics.
• In this lecture we shall consider internal flow where the conduit is
completely filled with the fluid, and flow is driven primarily by a
pressure difference.
• This should not be confused with open-channel flow where the conduit
is partially filled by the fluid and thus the flow is partially bounded by
solid surfaces, as in an irrigation ditch, and flow is driven by gravity
alone.

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Introduction
• The fluid in conduits or ducts is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump
through a flow section.
• We pay particular attention to friction, which is directly related to the
pressure drop and head loss during flow through pipes and ducts.
• The pressure drop is then used to determine the pumping
power requirement.
• A typical piping system involves pipes of different diameters connected
to each other by various fittings or elbows to route the fluid, valves to
control the flow rate, and pumps to pressurize the fluid.

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Introduction
• The terms pipe, duct, and conduit are usually used interchangeably for
flow sections.
• In general, flow sections of circular cross section are referred to as
pipes(especially when the fluid is a liquid), and flow sections of non-
circular cross section as ducts(especially when the fluid is
a gas).
• Small-diameter pipes are usually referred to as tubes.
• Pipes with a circular cross section can withstand large
pressure differences between the inside and the
outside without undergoing significant distortion.

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Fluid Flow in Pipes
• The fluid velocity in a pipe changes from zero at the
surface because of the no-slip condition to a maximum
at the pipe center.
• For fully developed laminar pipe flow, Vavg is half of
maximum velocity.
• Vavg remains constant in incompressible flow when the cross-sectional
area of the pipe is constant.
• The average velocity in heating and cooling applications may change
somewhat because of changes in density with temperature.
• But, in practice, we evaluate the fluid properties at some average
temperature and treat them as constants.
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
Fluid Flow in Pipes
• A careful inspection of flow in a pipe reveals that the fluid flow is streamlined
at low velocities but turns chaotic as the velocity is increased above a critical
value.
• The flow regime in the first case (fig-a) is said to be laminar, characterized by
smooth streamlines and highly ordered motion.
• While turbulent in the second case (fig-b), where it is characterized by
velocity fluctuations and highly disordered motion.
• Transition between the two occurs
over some region in which the flow
fluctuates between laminar and
turbulent flows before it becomes
fully turbulent.
• Is the flow of a gas through a duct
laminar or turbulent?
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
Fluid Flow in Pipes
• Reynolds number is used to distinguish amongst laminar, transition and
turbulent flow regimes. The flow in a circular pipe is laminar for Re
≤2000, turbulent for Re ≥4000, and transitional in between.

• The Reynolds number at which the flow is no more laminar is called the
critical Reynolds number, Recr.
• The value of the critical Reynolds number is different for different
geometries and flow conditions.
• For internal flow in a circular pipe, the generally accepted value of the
critical Reynolds number is Recr = 2000.

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Fluid Flow in Pipes
• By definition Dh=D for a circular pipe flowing full.
• Hydraulic diameter (Dh) is used in calculation of
Reynolds number, and the hydraulic radius is;
Rh=A/P ; A=Fluid Flow area, P=Wetted Perimeter
• Wetted perimeter is the length on a cross section at
which boundary layer exists and thus resistance is
exerted on the flowing fluid.
𝜋𝐷2 𝐷
• 𝑅ℎ = =
4(𝜋𝐷) 4
• Thus, from above; Dh=4Rh
• Once you know Rh for a section its Dh can be
calculated & used in Reynolds number calculation
or any pipe flow equation.

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Example: Fluid Flow in Pipes
• In a refinery oil with s=0.85, v=1.8x10-5m2/s, flows through a 100mm
diameter pipe at 0.50 litre/sec. Determine whether the flow is laminar,
transition or turbulent.
• Solution:

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

EL & HGL
• The total (kinetic, potential and flow (pressure)) energy plotted along the
flow to some specified scale gives the energy line. Energy line is the plot of
P/γ+ Z + V2/2g along the flow.
• When losses (frictional) are negligible,
the energy line will be horizontal or
parallel to the flow direction.
• The plot of P/γ + Z along the flow is
called the hydraulic gradient line.
• HGL is also called piezometric line
since it is traced by connecting the Datum
levels in piezometers at different
HGL & EGL For Ideal
points along the flow. Fluids
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
EL & HGL
• A pitot tube will capture both pressure and velocity heads because it is
heading upstream and inside the flow. A pitot tube gives the total energy.
• The level at which pitot tube is held inside the flow, does matter in real
fluids, i.e. different levels will be indicated.
• The level at which pitot tube is to be held
is generally unknown for true EL.
• In real fluids the EL slopes downward
because of energy loss (head loss) due
to frictional or other minor losses.
• For ideal fluids EL is always horizontal.
• EL is obtained by connecting top levels
of pitot tube along the flow at different
points.
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
EL & HGL
• When velocity increases HGL will dip down and when velocity decreases it
will rise. An example of plot of these lines for flow from a tank through a
venturimeter is shown.
• The hydraulic gradient line provides useful information about pressure
variations (static head) in a flow.
• The difference between the energy line and hydraulic gradient line gives the
value of dynamic head (velocity head).

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Basic laws
• The basic laws involved in the study of incompressible flow are:
• Law of conservation of mass: Continuity Equation
• Newton’s laws of motion: Momentum Equation
• Law of Conservation of Energy: Bernoulli equation (note that its application is very restrictive, i.e. for
ideal fluid, incompressible and steady flow and no energy is added or removed, however, we shall
present a much more generic energy equation today).
• Continuity and energy equations are used in couple to solve most of the civil engineering
problems.
• Momentum equations are mostly used for rotating machines like fans, propellers,
windmills, sprinklers, pumps and turbines.

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Real Fluids’ General Energy Equation for stead flow
• Using control volume & control system approach we have;

I1 or 2=internal energies, QH=Heat transfer to (+) or from (-) the fluid, hM=Energy changes due
to machines (+ve for pump & -ve for turbine), V= Average Velocity, P=Piezometric Pressure,
Z= Elevation w.r.t a datum, α1 or 2=kinetic energy correction factor (usually 1), ϒ=unit weight
of the fluid.
• This energy equation applies to liquids, gases and vapors and ideal fluids as well as real
fluids with friction (i.e. viscosity), both compressible and incompressible fluids. The only
restriction is that flow should be steady flow.
• Notice that the same equation can be applied to both open channel as well as pipe flows.
• The compressibility of fluid is undertaken by using two different ,ϒ, at section 1 and 2.
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
Real Fluids’ General Energy Equation for stead flow
• (I2-I1)=c(T2-T1)/g ; where c= specific heat and (I2-I1) is the change in internal
energy per unit weight (Joule/N = m).
• You know that the kinetic energy (dynamic head) does transform into
pressure and elevation heads but in reality it also transforms into increasing
internal energy of the control system, whereby it increases its temperature
from T1 to T2.
• This increase in internal energy is more dominant in turbulent flow where
eddies and turbulent fluctuations transform into thermal energy.
• The rise in internal energy is also due to frictional (major+minor) losses in
pipes.
• QH is the energy added or removed per unit weight by external source along
the way from section 1 to 2 during steady flow (Joule/N = m or lb-ft/lb = ft,
so consistent with other energy heads in the equation).
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
Real Fluids’ General Energy Equation for stead flow
• Providing better insulation to the pipe from surrounding gives QH = 0, otherwise QH exists.
• Each term in the energy equation is energy per unit weight resulting in a specific head, like
pressure head, velocity head etc.
• Since the thermal energy produced is of no direct practical significance or usefulness we
consider
hL=(I2-I1)-QH ; which is when positive, indicates that frictions have generated
thermal energy of (I2-I1) and heat has been lost as QH.
• Thus when a machine is present along the way;

• Thus when a machine is not present along the way;

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Example: Head loss & temperature change
• Water flows at 10 cumecs in a 1500mm diameter aqueduct, the head loss in
a 1km length of this pipe is 20m. Find increase in water temperature
assuming no heat enters or leaves the pipe (QH=0). Also what is temperature
of water after head loss if it is now 15⁰C?
• Solution: Refer to table A.4 of appendix A for specific hear, c of water in
Franzini’s book.

=0.047 K

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Problem 5.6.4 (Franzini): Head loss & temperature
change

• With QH=0, hL=(I2-I1) –QH= (I2-I1)=52m = 52 N.m/N

• (I2-I1) = 52 N.m/N = (c/g) (T2-T1)
• (T2-T1) = [(52 N.m/N)(9.81 m/s2)]/(4187 m2/s2.K) = 0.1218 Kelvin = 0.1218⁰C

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Problem 5.2.3: Energy equation on frictionless fluid
under steady flow
• Assume a=1m, b=4m, and the flow to be frictionless in the siphon. Find the rate of
discharge in m3/s and the pressure head at B if the pipe has a uniform diameter of
150mm.
• Solution: Let the datum is at N. Then applying energy equation from point M to N we
have;
0 + 0 + 4 = 0 + V2N/2g + 0  VN=VB= 8.86 m/s

Q=AV=3.14x(0.15x0.5)2x8.86  Q = 0.1565 m3/s

= 156.5 litres/sec

For pressure head at B, applying energy equation between M

and B;
0 + 0 + 4 = PB/ ϒ + V2B/2g + (4+1)  PB/ ϒ = -5 m

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Problem 5.22 (Franzini): Energy equation on Real
fluid
• A pump lifting water at 3.5 cfs adds 35 ft-lb/lb to the flow. The suction line diameter is 8 in. and at
intake (elevation 350 ft) the water pressure is 5.2psi. The discharge line (i.e. pipe) diameter is 6 in.
and at outlet (elevation 370ft) the pressure is 3.5psi. Due to cold weather 7 ft-lb/lb of thermal
energy (heat) are lost to the environment. Find the change (rise or fall?) in water temperature
between intake and outlet. Assume the specific weight of the water remains at 62.4 lb/ft3.
P2=3.5psi
20 ft Q=3.5cfs
P1=5.2psi P
Solution: Continuity equ gives, V1=4Q/pi.D21= 4x3.5/(3.14x(8/12)2= 10.03 fps. Similarly,
V2=4x3.5/(3.14x(6/12)2= 17.83 fps.
Using energy equation:
𝟓.𝟐 𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝟏𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟐 𝟑.𝟓 𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝟏𝟕.𝟖𝟑𝟐
+ 𝟑𝟓𝟎 + + 𝟑𝟓 − 𝒉𝑳 = + 𝟑𝟕𝟎 +  hL=15.55 ft.
𝟔𝟐.𝟒 𝟐 𝟑𝟐.𝟐 𝟔𝟐.𝟒 𝟐 𝟑𝟐.𝟐
From table A.4, appendix A in franzini book; c= 25000 ft2/sec2.R, also QH= -7 ft-lb/lb
c
So; 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑄𝐻 + ℎ𝐿  T2-T1= 0.01101 ⁰F (rise)
𝑔

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Example: Energy Equation
•

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

 Example: Energy Equation
•

A similar
water tank
can be
found near
star hostel
agriculture
university,
Peshawar.

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Example: Energy Equation

ϒ𝑄ℎ
𝑃= (P in horsepower,
550
Q in ft3/sec, h in ft,
in lb/ft3)

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Example: Actual application of Energy Equation
• The water is to be uplifted to the overhead water tank for further
distribution in a town. The pump FNP-80-500 (can be purchased from Office#
TF-276, Dean trade centre, Islamia road, Peshawar cantt.) lifting water at
1232 USgpm and adds 148 ft-lb/lb to the flow. Pipe diameter 2
is 6 inches.
Determine head loss and time required to fill tank if its volume
is 350 cubic meters. T2 =? if T1 is 20⁰C.
Solution: Q= 1232 USgpm= 2.745 cfs,
V2=4x 2.745 /(3.14x(6/12)2)= 13.98 fps Z2-Z1= 40ft
P1/ ϒ + V21/2g + Z1 + hM-hL= P2/ ϒ + V22/2g + Z2 P

0+0+148-hL=0+(13.98)2/(2x32.2) + 40
1
hL=148-3.0348-40 = 104.96 ft
T=V/Q= (350x3.2833)/2.745 = 4511.7sec = 75.2 min
= 1.253 hours
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
Example: Actual application of Energy Equation
• If the pump is changed to FNP-50-200 for lifting water and set at operating
point of 44 USgpm and thereby adding 49 ft-lb/lb to the flow. Pipe diameter
is 6 inches.
Determine head loss and time required to fill tank if its volume 2

is 350 cubic meters.

Solution: Q= 44 USgpm= 0.098 cfs,
V2=4x 0.098 /(3.14x(6/12)2)= 0.499fps
2 2
P1/ ϒ + V 1/2g + Z1 + hM-hL= P2/ ϒ + V 2/2g + Z2 Z2-Z1= 40ft
0+0+49-hL=0+(0.0499)2/(2x32.2) + 40 P

hL=49-0.0039-40 = 8.996 ft 1

T=V/Q= (350x3.2833)/0.098 = 126373.1sec

= 2106.2 min = 35.1 hours (1day and 11.1 hours)
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
Losses in Pipes
• We observed that energy loss occurs for real fluid flows in pipes whether laminar
or turbulent.
• How much this energy loss does happen is a million dollar question.
• Once you obtain such a loss the energy is balanced for you, and the economy of
the project thus gets balanced too.
• Therefore, searching for energy losses will be a topic onward (in next week as well).
• Losses in pipes:
• Major losses: Due to frictions to flow of the fluid in pipes.
• Minor losses: Due to various components like fittings etc. along the flow in pipes.
• Mind that the relative magnitude of minor losses may be much higher than the
frictional losses in a congested piping network of an industry or commercial or
residential building, and thus definitions are to be flipped over.
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
Major Losses in Pipes
• After experimentations the head loss due to friction increases as the length
of the pipe and velocity head (dynamic head) are increased but decreases as
the diameter of the pipe is increased. Thus;
𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2
hf= ; where f is called the friction coefficient
𝐷 2𝑔
• The above equation is called Darcy-weisbach equation or pipe-friction
equation.
• The friction coefficient represents the physical friction available to a certain
flow regime (laminar, turbulent etc).
• It depends on the surface roughness of the pipe and the flow regime (and
thus on Reynolds number).
• Many empirical correlations have been developed for it and are addressed in
next lecture. Note that here D is hydraulic diameter.
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
Example: Major Losses in Pipes
• What are the major pressure losses in pressure flow through a 6inches main supply
pipe of length 300ft while carrying water from a water tank in tribal hostel UET-P,
to the first connection, if the pipe friction is decided to be 0.15 and average
velocity of water is predicted to be 6fps. There is no bend or other things along the
way but a straight pipe.
• Solution: We can employ Darcy-weisbach equation because the given and required
parameters are engulfed in it, namely, the formula is;
𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 0.15𝑥300𝑥 6 2
hf= = = 50.3 𝑓𝑡
𝐷 2𝑔 0.5𝑥2𝑥32.2
Now the pressure in the pipe is lost by;
dP=62.4x50.3=3139.37 psf= 21.8 psi (can you imagine 1psi?)
If at the upstream the total pressure is 100psi at the first connection as specified in
the problem the total pressure will be 100-21.8=78.2psi. This lost is because of
friction due the pipe along 300ft.
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
Minor Losses in Pipes
• Minor Losses: The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various
fittings, valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits, enlargements, and
contractions in addition to the pipes.
• In a typical system with long pipes, these losses are minor compared to the
total major head loss in the pipes and are called minor losses.
• The minor losses are usually expressed in terms of the loss coefficient KL. The
𝑉2
head loss for a component is determined from; ℎ𝐿, 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = 𝐾𝐿
2𝑔
• Although this is generally true, in some cases the minor losses may be
greater than the major losses. This is the case, for example, in systems with
several turns and valves in a short distance.

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Minor Losses in Pipes
• Minor Losses
• Losses in Fittings
• Loss in Bends and Elbows
• Loss in Gradual expansion
• Loss in gradual contraction
• Loss in Sudden expansion
• Loss in sudden contraction
• Loss in discharge into still
water
• Loss at entrance
• Solve problem 8.24.2 from franzini book as a practice problem.

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Minor Losses in Pipes

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Minor Losses in Pipes

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Minor Losses in Pipes
• The head loss introduced by a completely open valve, for example, may be
negligible. But a partially closed valve may cause
the largest head loss in the system, as evidenced
by the drop in the flow rate.
• Flow through valves and fittings is very complex,
and a theoretical analysis is generally not plausible.
Therefore, minor losses are determined
experimentally, usually by the manufacturers of
the components.
• For a constant-diameter section of a pipe with a
minor loss component, the loss coefficient of the
component is determined by measuring the additional
pressure loss it causes and dividing it by the dynamic
pressure in the pipe;

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P

Total Head Loss in Pipes
• When all the loss coefficients are available, the total head loss in a piping
system is determined from;

• If the entire piping system has a constant diameter, the total head loss
reduces to;

• Once the total head is known, you can decide how much minimum height of
water level in a water tank you must maintain to atleast overcome the
resistance to flow.
• However, above such minimum level of water in the water tank, the flow of
water will be available to the end user.
Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P
 Q/A-Session

Knowledge subsides knowledge driven by

Questioning

Engr. Waseem Shah; CED, UET-P