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A Table f Th e o r e t i cal Je t V e lo ci t i es an d Th e
o
C o rr e ct i o n s o f M e r cu r y C o lu m n s
W I TH
F I FTY I L L U ST R AT I V E P R O B L E M S
F . O . E LLENWOOD
As sista t P
n s
ro fe so r o H at P w E gi i g C ll U iv ity
f e o er n n ee r n orn e n e rs
A m ica S ci y f M c ha ic l E gi s
,
M mb
e er o f th e er n o et o e n a n n ee r
I
F R ST E D T O I I N
F I R ST T H O US A N D
N E W YO R%
J O H N W I L E Y 85 S O N S, I NC .
19 14
C py ight 9 4 by
o r
,
1 1 ,
F O ELLEN W O O D
. .
C o p v ri g h t ed i n G rea t B it i
r a n
ENGI NEERI NG L I B R
ARY
P un xs a m a r m c C OMP A N Y
30 7 - 2 ” Wen t Tw e n t y -fi ft h S t t ree . N e w Y or k
P R E FACE
the same tim e conveni ent t o h andl e and easy to rea d An attempt
,
.
M231 09 9
iv P R E F A CE
conveni ent one for practi cal work Spec i al endeavor h as been .
the eye h as to tr ave l onl y a s h ort d i stance t o read the scales and ,
fo l de d s h eet .
prob l ems . F O E . . .
I TH A CA N ew York Au gu st 1 9 1 4
, , , .
C O N T E N TS
PAGE
I N TR ODU CTI ON
Fundam ental Prin ciples
Preparation and Us e of the S team Charts and Tabl es
Atmospheri c Press ure and B arom etri c C orr ecti ons
CHARTS
Index Chart
Plates 1 to 7 , the Total H eat -
Volum e Chart
Plat es 8a and 8b , th e E xt ern al Work -
Volum e Chart
Plate 9 a, C orr ection Of M ercury C olumn D ue to Temp erature
Plate 9b ,C orr ection of B ar om etri c R eadi n g s D ue to Chan g e
E levati on
TA B LE S
1 . C orr ection Of B arometri c R eading s to °
45 Latitude
2 . Corr ection Of th e B arom ete r for C apillari ty
3 D ens it y
. of M ercury
4 . Theoretical Velocities Of St eam
PROBLE MS
I N DE X
I N TR O D U C TI O N
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE S
temperat ure entropy di a gr ams are Of very great imp ort ance for t he
-
,
P re ss ureVolume-
Di a gram — Re f erring t o F ig
l a w h ere t h e
. .
,
k
Vb
Wor =
[ P dV = P [Vb Va] area abhg .
] : fV
°
Work = P dV area adchg .
substance in or d er to compress i t
a
or Work P dV
Temp e rature - —
E ntrop y Di agram I f, by the addit i on heat a of ,
Vo l ume
FI G . 1 .
con di t ion b in suc h a manner that its t emperature and pre s sure
,
H Heat a dd e d t o th e s ub st ance in B t u . . .
°
T Absolute tempera ture 4 60 t F ) .
qb E ntropy
then th e c h ange o f entropy from a t o b is d e fine d by th e e qu a tion
dH
do
T
Tf
a
fb
(15a
T d (b are a abn m
I t i s p a rt i c ula rl y i m p o r ta t
n n ot to c f s thi
on u e s wor d un i for m it
w h t h e wor d con st
ant .
F UND AMEN TAL PRI NC IP LE S
ar e a bfkn
f
I
?
15
or , of ¢b d i stance bf or ah .
For bot h of these cases the addi t i on Of h eat to the substance caused
an increase O f entropy Had the heat been abstracted the entropy
.
,
values .
—
Adi ab ati c s T h e t erm adi abati c means no t r an sf er of h eat
. .
classes into whi ch all adiabat i cs may be div i ded are call ed revers i ble ,
litt l e frict i on and wit h but very litt l e tr ans fer of h eat t o or from
,
“ ”
O n th e ot h er h an d sudden or free exp ansions are sure to
,
energy i nto veloc i ty is complete and may there f ore be cons i dered as
a revers ible adiabatic In actual steam turb i ne nozz l es the loss due
.
state 0 by expanding adiabat i call y along the line adc % but note
the d ifference in areas representing the work and h ea t .
F UN DAMEN TAL PRI NC IP LE S
’
paths suc h as ab be and ca so that i t is returned to its ini t i al
, , , ,
state t h e sub s tance wou l d then have comp l eted a cycle and the
, ,
r egar dless of the man ner i n whi ch thi s s u bs tan ce may h ave r eached
thi s s tate 0 .
—
Intri ns i c H eat Ol In tri n si c En ergy E it h er o f these terms may
'
.
k
b
c
He a t G ai n i n intrinsi E xternal wor
ad ded a h eat a d one a
upon th e substance .
F UNDAMEN TAL PRI NC IP LE S
FI G . 2
.
Let h eat be app lie d to the cyli nder n ow and i t wil l be foun d that ,
change in volume means that very little work shown by the area ,
a bkk
’
Fig 2a has been d one on the piston and consequent ly all
,
.
, ,
Th e H eat of th e Li q ui d
is t h e term appli ed to thi s h eat whi c h ,
°
is use d to h eat a uni t wei ght Of water from 32 F to the temperature .
a bm m
l Fi g 2b Wi th furth er addition of h eat it will n ow be
,
. .
found that t h e vo lume is increased very much and that the temper
ature remains constant until some state 6 is reached T h e water .
has now all been evaporated and exists in t h e form Of dry saturated
,
i s cal l e d the laten t heat of vap ori zati on or l atent heat of steam ,
.
the two coord inate values of dry saturated steam for the entire
range o f scales on that d i agram Thus i n F i g 2a the specific volume . .
o f dry satur a ted steam may be determ i ned for any pressure by
F UND AMEN TAL P RI N CI P LE S
unit weight of substance through out the extreme range of qua lity
in order t o analyze a cyc l e or t o un d erstan d many imp ortant
th ermodynamic rel ations .
the state d F i g 2b D
,
Td . Tc , If the sp eci fic heat of sup er
.
Total H eat may now most conveni ent l y be defined in the manner
-
Thus referring to F i g 2b .
F i g 2a
. .
in pounds per square foot by P the work done duri ng vapori zat i on ,
is
C
Work j
b
P
[ VG Vb
] ft .
-
lbs . are a b a h /c ,
or AP (Vc V b) B t u . . .
1 1
heat or A
575
,
777 5
or AP (V d V 0) B . If . 11 .
°
F orth e en tire process start ing wit h water at 32 w h en i ts
spec i fic v o l ume woul d accord i ngly be 01 6 cub i c fee t per pound .
,
wou l d be
E
c
Work
] P VJ — Va
j ft lbs = AP
[ Vc 01 6
J B t u
’
-
. . . . . .
Work
l [
P v d Va ft 1bs
.
-
.
[
AP y d 01 6
] B . t u . .
the p i ston and its weigh ts h as come from the h eat w hich was n eces
sary t o form t h e pound of ste a m a l ong t h e constant pressure pat h
abcd . N ow i f from t h e to t al a mount of h ea t whi c h h as been
,
E ntrop i e s .
— For conven i ence entropy o f water at 32° is taken as
,
Fig . 2b is
,
b dH 0, dT
T T
Where cp the spec i fic heat of water at const ant pres sure T hi s .
c dH L L atent h eat
i n: ¢b b T Tb [
a bs Temp . .
d dH 0, dT
Pd
( P
( C
T T
where cp represents t h e constant pressure specific heat of super
heated steam .
Superheat
Thi s cyc l e is some times known as the C laus ius Cycle and some
times as the R ankine C yc l e bu t S ince t h e an alysis O f this cyc l e w a s
,
F UND AMEN TAL PRI NC IP LE S
and the other the C laus ius thus making a convenien t di st i nct i on
,
.
“
They are also spo ken of as the complete expans i on and the
“ ”
incomplete expans i on cycles These latter terms wi ll be used in
.
the prob lems Of t hi s book i n order that there may be no poss ible
confusi on o f th e two cyc l es by us ing the terms Ranki ne and
C l aus ius .
in us ing Table IV the engineer would cons i der the term to represent
,
the net area of the complete expansion cycle by assumi ng that all ,
ideal nozzle Then with an i deal turb i ne all of thi s veloc i ty energy
.
1 to 6 i nclus ive may be rea di l y obta i ned from the index chart
, , .
I t is seen to be divi ded into twelve equal parts the top and b ottom
,
respect ively These two halves wi ll be found fac ing each other S O
.
,
The same total heat scale i s used throughout but the volume
,
H aving establi shed the scale of volumes and total heats con ,
s tant pressur e l ines were then plotted from the values given by the
s team tables of M arks and D avi s I n the superheated regi on these
.
li nes are sli ghtly curved but i n t h e wet regi on they are strai ght
, .
—
F or those pressures not given i n the steam tables all fract i onal
ressures and those g i ven i n inches of mercury — the volumes and
p
t o t al heats were determined i n two ways F or t h e wet regi on ,
.
s pec i al auxi li ary curves were drawn by comput ing for certai n
quali ti es the total h eats and volumes for those pressures given by
th e steam tables From such auxi li ary curves the des ired values
.
relat ive posi t i ons In the same manner the corresponding values
.
w ere f ound for all fract i onal pressures above on e pound i n the
s uperheated region F or t hose pressures less th an one pound the
.
v olumes i n the superh eated field were f ound from Linde s equat i on ’
P l ate 6a could be dr awn s o that they would all conti nue as smooth
Entrop i e s — To
dr aw accurately the lin es of constant entropy
i t was necessary to construct a large total heat entropy di agram -
from whi ch could be obtai ned the values of total heat for the vari ous
pressur e lines and any entropy li ne In the superheated regi on .
t hi s was done for each entropy li ne but for the wet regi on only ,
—
Quali ti e sThe li nes of cons t ant qua lity were obtai ned by com
puti ng the total heats for such quali t i es as 70 80 and 9 0 per cent , , .
,
by divi ders .
Th e H eat of th e Li q ui d Cur ve — It
was desired to h ave t h e hea t
.
feri n g wi th the other li nes of the chart The lower left hand port i on
.
-
of each sect i on was the only space avai lable and i t was found by ,
tri al that thi s curve would fit there very conveni ently S ince it .
scale .
16 S TE AM C HA RTS AN D T ABLE OF V ELOC IT I E S
the constant pressure li nes i n the wet regi on S O that such a scale ,
heat Of the li qui d i s Often des ired for some defini te temperature i t ,
heat of the li qui d curve already drawn so that i t woul d also giv e
, ,
there are two volume scales and for 8b four are used The small .
For pressur es below one pound absolute there i s a regi on for whi ch ,
no values are given but it will seldom if ever h appen that such
, , ,
—
Tabl e of Veloci tie s Any body hav ing a wei ght Of on e pound
and a veloc i ty of v feet per second wi ll have kineti c energy due to
,
whi ch i s equal to
B t u
. . .
S TE AM C HARTS AN D T ABLE O F V ELO C ITI E S
VE
Then for a nozzle whi ch transforms the avai lable heat energ y i nto
,
usu ally far too s m all to be cons i dered i n actual cases Thus taking .
,
per pound .
on the chart from whi ch all Of t h e other values may be determi ned
at once Thi s i s also true for wet steam except for the case i n whi ch
.
,
the two values given are pressure and temperature These two .
alone are not suffici ent to determi ne the state po i nt s ince the tem ,
will supply many i llustrat i ons of the use of the charts and tables .
ATM O S P HERI C PRE SS URE AND B AR O METRIC
C O RRECTI O N S
concerned wit h any readi ngs of pressure c l oser than the thousandth
of an inch o f mercury and ve ry often only to the nearest hundre d th , ,
32 F
°
.
—
Th e Thi rty In ch B arometer Wh en measuring t h e pressure in
-
.
M asu s is tha t f a c l m
e re f m c y 7 6 0 m ill im t s h i gh th m c y b i g a t a t m p
o o u n o t
er ur f e re e er ur e n e era ure o
d th a c l a ti f g a vity b i g ti m t s p s d d
,
0 C
°
an e ce er c on o c p c
r S V l XII e n en e re er e on er se on ee o
p 6 6 f th T a au t Mem i s d B I t a ti al d P ids t M s s “
.
. . ,
“ ”
o e r v x e or u ureau n ern on es o e e ure
St m P w P l t E gi i g p 4 63 4 th diti Al s S t m Tablés f
. , .
”
1 S G h dt
’ '
ee en ar s ea o er an n n ee r n e on o ea or
d E gi i g C mp y p g 5
. .
, .
C d
on enser W k by th Wh l C d or e ee er on enser an n n eer n o an . a e .
18
20 ATM O S P H E RI C P RE S S U R E AN D BAR OME TRI C CO RREC TI ON S
for those cases i n whi ch a non expans ive scale i s used and may also -
, ,
Wh en a Full Len gth B rass S cale i s used to measure the hei ght
-
i nches high Hence for any other co l umn say h it is onl y necessary
.
, , ,
1
to mul t ip ly by (3
)
—
3
CO ON IN INCH ES p F CO ON IN INCH ES
i c h s) i ch s)
R R ECTI R R EC TI
Tem p 0
F Tem
(F or 30 (F or 30
:
n e n e
S ub t r ac t 031
F
rom T abl e 1 , C i c la F
r u r , U S
. . We ather B ure a u N O 4 72
. .
ATMO S PH E RI C PR E S S U RE AND BAR OME TRI C CO RR EC TI ON S
the true pressure at some elevat i on whi ch is not extremely diff erent
from that at whi ch a b arometer i s read i t i s only necessary to ,
t i ons Ob tai ned from the ab ove tab le for vari at i ons i n alt i tude of as
much as feet The average alt i tude i s to be used when oh
.
grav ity The standard usually adopted for thi s i s that at s ea level
.
and a lat i tude of Table 1 Twi ll give these correct i ons for the
vari ous lat i tudes .
t i on i s proport i onal to the hei ght Of the mercury and for a 30 inc h -
been given .
The hei ght Of the meni scus and the di ameter of the tube are the
two most i mportant factors requi red to determine the amount O f
thi s correct i on Table II will give these correct i ons for nearly
.
all cases .
a df
P re p re ro m T ab l e 21 V ol II R ep or t hi f
Of th e C e of th e We a th er B ure au 1 9 00—1 9 01
TAb i d g d f ab l S m i ths i a Ta b l s
.
, , , .
”
r e r om T e 1 01 of th e on n e .
22 ATMO S P HE RI C P RE S S UR E AND B AR OME TRI C C O RRE CTI O N S
merc ur y to pounds per squ are in ch Table III may be used , . Thi s
table was prepared by us ing t h e following equat i on
One cubic i nch a t 32 F is equal to °
.
1 (t 32) cu in a t t F . .
°
.
The density ,
poun d s per cubic inc h at 32 F was obtained °
.
,
T h is is th al u g i
e v e v en b y Tabl e 19 of Lan dol t an d B ern ste in Ph ysik al is ch - Ch mis ch
e e a b ll
T e en .
IN D E X C H A R T
1 359 B t u
. . .
1 285 B t u
. . .
3
1 1 21 5 B t
. . u .
1 1 45 B t u
. . .
S p e cifi c . V o l um e
( 4)
2 PLATE 1A
Sp e ci fi c Vol u m e, C u Ft p
. . er Lb .
Sp e cif i c Vo lum e , C u F t p e r Lb
. . .
(26 ) PLATE 2A
Sp e c i fi c V o lume , C u Ft p e r
. . Lb .
S p e ci fi c V o lume , C u F t p e r
. . Lb .
PLATE 2B
S p ec ifi c V o lum e , C u ft p e r lb
. . .
8
S p e c if i c Vo l u m e , C u ft p e r lb
. . .
(28) PLATE 3A
20 22 24 26 28 30
S p e c if i c ,
Volum e , C u F t p er
. . Lb .
S pe c i f i c V o lu m e, C u Ft p e r L b
. . .
Sp i Vo lum e
e c if c , C u F t p er
. . Lb .
Sp ec i fi c V olum e , C u Ft p er
. . Lb .
70 so 90 1 00
70 80 90 1 00
Sp e c i fi c Vo l um e ,
Cu F t p
. . er Lb .
(31 )
70 80 90
Sp e c i fi c Vo lum e , C u ft p
. . er lb .
(32) P LATE 5A
Sp e ci fi c V o lu m e , C u Ft p
. . er Lb .
S p e ci fi c Vo lu m e , Cu F t p er Lb
. . .
(34 ) P LATE 6A
S p e c i fi c Volum e , Cu F t p
. . er Lb
900 1 000 1 1 00 1 200 1 300 1 800 2000 2200
l
S p e cifi c V o um e , C u F t p e r
. . Lb .
PL ATE 6B (35)
Sp ec i fi c l
V o um e , C u F t p e r
. . Lb .
Sp e ci fi c Vo l um e , C u F t p e r Lb
. . .
(36 ) PLATE 7
S p e d fi c Vo l um e , C u F t p e r L b
. . .
26 28 30
26 28 30
Sp ec i fi c V o l u m e , C u Ft p e r
. . Lb .
S p e c ifi c V o lum e, Cu Ft p
. . er Lb .
P LATE SE (39 )
Sp ec if i c Vo l um e, C u Ft p
. . er Lb .
60 70 80 1 00
Sp ec if i c V o lu m e , C u Ft p e r Lb
. . .
S how i ng correct i on of M ercury C o l umn d ue t o T emperature w h en s c al e ,
O bse rv e d i
r e ad n g in In ch e s O f Me r c ur y
P LATE 9B
A l t i t ud e i n Fe e t
Th e v e l o cities are g i v en in fee t p er s e con d for e a ch B t u
. . . up to 59 9 .
t
. 11 . p er lb
.
1 582 1 59 8 1 61 3 1 6 28 1 64 3 1 6 58 1 6 73 1 6 88 1 7 03 1 71 8
1 7 32 1 74 7 1 76 1 1 7 75 1 7 89 1 8 03 1 81 7 1 831 1 84 4 1 8 58
1 87 2 1 88 5 1 89 8 1 91 1 1 9 24 1 9 37 1 9 50 1 9 63 1 9 76 1 9 88
2000 201 3 2026 2038 2050 206 2 2074 208 6 209 8 21 1 0
21 22 21 34 21 4 6 21 58 21 6 9 21 8 0 21 9 1 2202 221 4 2226
2237 224 8 2259 227 0 2281 229 2 2303 231 4 2325 2336
234 6 2356 236 7 237 8 2389 239 9 24 09 24 1 9 24 30 24 4 0
24 50 24 6 0 24 7 0 24 8 0 24 9 0 2500 25 1 1 2521 2531 254 0
2550 256 0 2570 258 0 259 0 26 00 26 09 26 1 9 26 28 26 37
26 4 7 26 57 26 6 6 26 75 26 84 26 9 4 27 03 27 1 2 27 21 2730
27 4 0 27 4 9 27 58 27 6 7 27 7 6 27 85 27 9 4 28 03 281 2 28 21
28 30 28 39 284 8 2857 28 6 6 28 7 4 28 82 29 00 29 08
29 1 7 29 25 29 34 29 4 2 29 5 1 29 6 0 29 6 8 29 7 6 29 84 29 9 3
3001 301 0 301 8 3026 3034 304 2 3050 3059 306 7 307 5
3083 309 1 31 00 31 08 31 1 6 31 24 31 32 31 4 0 31 4 8 31 56
300 387 4 8 88 1 38 8 8 38 9 4 39 00 39 07 39 1 3 39 20 39 26
31 0 39 39 89 4 6 39 52 39 58 39 6 4 39 7 0 39 7 6 39 8 2 39 89
320 4 002 4008 4 01 4 4 020 4 027 4 033 4 039 4 04 5 4 051
330 4 06 3 4 07 0 4 07 6 4 08 2 4 088 4 09 4 4 1 00 4 1 07 41 1 3
4 1 25 4 1 31 4 1 37 4 1 43 4 1 49 4 1 55 41 61 4 1 67 4 1 73
494
490 4 9 52 4 9 57 4 9 62 49 67 4 9 72 4 9 77 4 9 82 4 9 87 4992 499
500 5002 5007 501 2 501 7 5 022 5027 5 032 5037 504 2 504
51 0 5 052 5057 506 2 5 06 7 5 07 2 5 07 7 5082 508 7 509 1 509
520 5 1 01 5 1 06 51 1 1 51 1 6 51 21 5 1 26 5 1 31 5 1 36 51 4 0 51 4
530 5 1 50 51 55 51 6 0 51 64 51 6 9 51 74 51 79 5 1 84 51 8 8 51 9
54 0 51 9 8 5203 5208 521 2 521 7 5222 5227 5232 5236 524
550 524 6 525 1 5256 526 0 526 5 5270 527 5 5280 5284 528
56 0 529 4 5 29 9 5 303 5308 5 31 2 5 31 7 5322 5 327 5331 533
57 0 534 1 534 6 5350 5 355 5359 536 4 5 36 9 5 373 537 8 538
580 5 38 7 539 2 539 7 54 01 54 06 54 1 1 54 1 6 54 20 54 25 54 2
59 0 54 34 54 39 54 4 3 54 4 8 54 52 54 57 54 6 1 54 6 6 54 7 0 54 7
P R OB LE MS
1 F ind t h e t otal h eat vol ume en tro p y a n d t emp erat ure o f a
.
, , ,
Total h eat B t . . 11 .
Volume cu ft . .
E ntropy
From P late 2b we read from t h e temperature
, of vaporization
curv e near t h e bottom of the P l ate :
Temp of vapori zation for 75 l bs per s q in abs
. . . . . F .
Temperature 280 F .
T ot al heat B t u . . .
Vo lume cu ft . .
E ntropy
Temperat ure F .
H eat o f th e liquid B t u
. . .
3 E igh t
poun ds o f s t e a m are confined in a space o f 800 cubic
.
S oluti on
Spec i fic v o lume 1 00 cu . ft per l b
. .
Temperature F .
4 The barometer re a ds
. inches of mercury at a tempera
ture of 9 1 F The mercury column attac hed to the conden s er reads
°
.
°
i nches at a temper a ture of 1 1 0 F Find the absolute pressure .
F i s seen to be
.
°
Th erefore vacuum readi ng at 58 1 28 6 . 28 4 5 . and
abso lute pre s sure Hg at .
T hi s is th t m p a t
e e ure a t wh i ch 30 i ch s f m c y
n e o ur are e q al t a s a da d atm sp h whi ch is
u o t o e re ,
p a g 1 8 f f th di c ssi f th i s
er er n r
defin e d as b i g q al t
e n e u o ni ch s f m c y at 32 F
e o er ur
°
. S ee e or ur er s u on o
P R O BLEM S
1
B arometer a t 38,
06 or at °
.
58 1 F
°
.
Vacuum ,
at 9 2 1 0 or at °
.
58 1 F
°
.
Total heat 89 1 B t 11 . . .
Volume 74 5 cu ft . .
Quali ty
68 6 F
°
Temperature .
average temperature i s F ? .
from the same plate for a pressure of 1 50 pounds per square inc h
,
stant pre ssure o f 60 pounds per square inc h absol ute from wa ter
at 32 F until it is superheated 21 0 F
°
.
°
.
Total heat 1 28 1 B t u . . .
wit hin the steam i tself we may Obtai n it eas i ly by s ub t rac ting
,
Intrins ic h eat 1 28 1 1 05 1 1 76 B t u. . .
Init i al vo lume cu ft . .
a
() Final quality .
b
( ) Final volume .
()
d Work d one .
Initi al entrop y 1 69
Ini tial vo lume cu f t
. .
re ad
Fina l total h e at 9 25 B t u . . .
From t he s e resu lt s we h av e :
Fi na l v o l um e 39 7
( ) R at i o
0 of expansi on
Ini t i a l v olume
“
51 5
Hence
Ini tial in trinsic he at 1 1 62 B . t u . .
P R O BLEMS
I
For t he final p ress ur e of H g an d a qu ali t y of . we
read from the upper right han d corner of Plate 8b z
-
Hence
Final intrins ic he at 9 25 50 875 B t u . . .
d
() Work d one during adi a b at ic e xp a nsion 1 1 6 2 875
287 B t u or 223300 ft lbs
. . . . .
resent ing the adi ab atic e xp ans ion for th e p reviou s p roblem .
FI G 3 . .
Pl ate us e d P ressure
2a 1 00
2b 60
2b 40
52 PR O BL E M S
/13
l
. A closed metalli c tank having a cubic al content of 30 cubic
fee t contains 3 pounds of steam having an absolute pressure of
75 pounds per square inch .
(a ) The in i ti al superheat .
( )
b '
3
—0
S oluti on : Specifi c Vo lume 1 0 cu . f t per lb
. .
3
H ence by tur ning t o Pl ate 2a and runni ng al ong the 75 pound
,
-
fin d
()
a I nitia l super h eat 4 90 F °
.
()
b Th is mu s t be a constant volume abs t raction of heat since
the steam is con fin e d in a closed t ank Hence for a spec i fic volume
.
such a process .
The intrinsic heat for any state may be obt aine d by subtra c ting
t he external work as obt ained from Plate 8 from the t o tal he at
, ,
.
P R O BLE MS
Hence
I ni ti al intrinsic heat 1 4 21 B t 1 1 per lb . . . .
,
f —
From the s ame plate at the i ntersect i on o the 4 0 pound pressure
line and the 1 0 cub i c feet sp eci fic volume line we read :
-
,
we have
H e at abstracted 3
3 B t 11 . . .
F ind
(a) In iti al and final superheats .
b
( ) I ni t i al and final entrop i es .
d
( ) In i t i a l and fin a l volumes .
f
() Heat requ i red to e ffect the change .
g
() Work done du r i ng t hi s expansi on .
Therefore
(a ) In i ti al superheat
°
34 0 295 45 F .
( l ) I niti al vo lum e
d cu ft . .
s uperh eat w e m ay re a d :
(bz) F inal entropy
( )02 Fina l t otal he at B t u . . .
(dz) F in al v ol ume 23 7 cu f t . . .
H ence f or thi s c as e
(f ) He at requ ire d (34 0 4 60)
B t u given to the steam . . . .
Work 2
Heat G ain in
m ally wh i l i t h s p h a t d fi l d
ue on e u e er u o rr n e e ne e r r u o er e o ex n so er
Th s wh t h i k t ha t t h h a t q i d t ff ct th is cha g sh l d b q al t th d ff c i t t al
e n e u er e e e .
f d t th m a i g f tha t t m as giv i th i t d ct i
o e o n e e re u re o e e n e ou e e u o e i e re n e n o
b t e a s are re erre o e e n n o er en n e n ro u on .
The p ress ure in a s te am pipe is 1 05 p oun ds p er square inc h
a bsolute an d in a throt tli ng calorimet er whic h i s connec t ed t o
, ,
°
the temperature in th e c al orime ter is 238 F fin d th e quality o f .
,
the ste am .
23
°
Superh eat in cal orimeter 8 21 3 F
25 .
P late 2b
Q ua l ity
°
l em had been 276 F and the pressure in th e calorimeter had been
.
,
solute .
and the 1 87
poun d pres sure line whic h is rea dily foun d b y th e
- -
,
Quali ty 9 8%
a
() F i nal super h eat .
b
( ) D rop in temperature due to t h rott ling .
c
() Increase i n volume due to t hrottl i ng .
9 8% we read :
Total h eat 1 1 72 B . t u . .
1 1 72 48
21If for e
. ach pound Of fuel the boil er of the prev i ous problem
, ,
S oluti on :
From previous problem
Heat of the l i quid 4 8 B t 11 . . .
To t al h ea t 1 282 B t u . . .
T hen a s before
, ,
1 282 48
(a ) Factor of evaporation 9 70 4
( )
b E quiv al ent evaporation X pounds .
in the main .
95
°
we read
Total heat 1 253 B t u . . .
%
Then the mixture w e h ave
for ,
6 000 4000
.
23 Assuming
. no loss by radiat i on conduction or leakage what
, , ,
1 ,
—
Plate b we may follow th e 1 209 to t al heat l ine unt il it intersects
-
24
Two b o ilers A and B are connected to the same steam mai n
.
, ,
F ind the wei ght of steam coming from eac h boiler assuming ,
WA H A WB H B (WA WB ) Hm
[H A H3] WA 1 2000 [ H m H 3]
Hm H3
WA 1 2000
EH A H3 ]
1 250
1 2000
1 220 1 250
1 2000
25. T he eich aust s team from an engine is deliv ere d t o the h eating
system of a buil ding If the pressure in t his system is maintained
.
°
p ipes i s del ivered to the boi ler room at a tempera ture o f 21 0 F .
E n tr o p y
FI G 4 . .
hour ,
254 5
Are a abode
(0) C yc l e effi ciency Area mabcdn
Total h eat] d Total h eat] e 1 270 915
1 201 1 201
355
29 55%
1 201
for 2 inches of
mercury an d the entrop y lin e . Thi s en trop y is
obtained from P l ate 1 b f or the state d
,
.
254 5
(d) Th eoretic al w at er r ate N et work per lb . of steam
254 5
pounds p er hp hr
3
. . .
From P lat e 5b ,
a
() Heat s upp l ied per h r 9 [ 1
. 27 0 4 7] 1 1 007 B t u . . .
254 5
(b ) D el ivered thermal effi ciency
1 1 007
From P lat e 6b
Total heat] % 882 B . t u . .
Hence
(0) Cycle efficiency 1 27 0 47
254 5
(d) Theoretical w at er ra t e poun ds p er h p hr
. . .
388
231
(e ) E ffic i ency ratio 7
.
. 31 7
P R O BLEM S
(b ) Speci fic vo l ume .
()
c Ve l oc i ty .
E ntropy 1 67
(a) Qual i ty
(b ) Specific volume 204 cu ft per l b
. . .
p er lb.
2
b
( ) Q u al i ty at release .
(c ) N et work of cycle in B t u . . .
d
( ) C yc l e effic i ency .
e
() Water rate o f an ideal engi ne worki ng on th is cyc l e .
66 PR O BLEM S
(b ) Release qual i ty
Total heat] c B t . . ii .
w e have
Heat supp l ie d area meabn
Total heat] , H eat t h e liqu id]
of ,
1 274 1 07 1 1 67 B t u per l b
. . . .
69 ] 1 07 11 B . t u per lb
. . .
cubic f eet per pound and the quali ty at c has a lready been
,
from Plat e 8b Thus by runn ing down the constant sp eci fic v olume
.
-
PR OBLEM S
may rea d
Work done
]% 11 B t u per l b
. . . .
c
() N e t work o f cyc l e H eat supplie d H eat rej ec t e d
1 1 67 B t 1 1 p er 1b . . . .
254 5
(e ) I deal water rate
N et work per lb . of steam
lbs per h p hr . . . .
s t s ch a v l m Wi tp y li th tha t h v l m li Ev Wi t h a s cal fv l m s
n e oun o er o u e e o on ou u ee , e en o e n .
5t
as la g as t hat s d f F i g 7 with P bl m 34 t h v l m f th wa t sca c l y b sh w
o re p re e n u o u e an ne o er n e zer o o u e n e ea. en e o o u e
r e u e or . ro e , e o u e o e er can r e e o n.
Find the net work of cycle in the previ ous problem by the
30 .
S ol uti on
To t al Tot al
heat b hea t 0
1 274
B t u per lb
. . . .
N et work 0
cycle Work
e cde
’
69 11 58 B t u per l b
. . . .
Tot al 0 6
Workl
heat c h
Work
l .
. i
69 11
B t . . 11 . per lb .
total heat at f is f ound from Plate 4 b for the given back pressure ,
Work
]: is found from Pl ate 8b as before .
Work
]% is f ound from Pl ate 8b as before .
Total Total
B u t the cycle abfe
heat 5 heat
1 274
B t u per lb
. . . .
32Find the rati o Of vol umes o f the cyl inders necessary for the
.
find the per cen t reduction in the net work due t o t he incomplete
.
expansion .
P R O BL E M S
Then since the cylinder volumes for any c ase woul d be propor
,
h ave .
see that by changing the back press ure only the solut ion rema ins ,
the same except the value of the work done dur i ng exh aust From .
Work
]% B t . . 11 . per lb .
Hence
P er cent increase i n the net work of the cycl e is
.
7 2 .
Work
]2 80 B . t . 11 . per l b .
V o l um e
Then running down t his Constant V 01
)
FI G 7
ume line until we inters ec t the back pres
sure Of 1 8 p oun ds we have
,
Work
] c
12B . t u per lb
. . .
68
t he compression to be adiabat i c .
whi ch is equal to the spec ific volume at the beginn ing of com
press i on divi ded by the rat i o of compressi on .
90 + 16
Rati o compression
.
Of
.
16
H ence
F inal specific volume cu f t per l b
. . .
F inal superheat 24 0
°
F .
Actual volume X cu f t
. .
0 1 63
.
°
Super he at 9 F .
°
37 The tempera ture i n a condenser is
. 87 F and the absolute
.
Pl ate 5b f or ,
we find :
Pressure of we t steam Hg .
The ai r pre s sure i s equal to t h e to tal pressure l ess the pres sure of
Hg .
°
1 inch o f mercury at 58 1 being equal to pound per square
inch th e air pressure in the condenser i s
,
. 14 X . 49 X 1 4 4 lb . per sq f t . .
Hence the weight o f air exi st ing in the same space as each pound
of s te a m i s
PV X 4 9 X 1 4 4 ) 44 2 .
0 1 5 lb
RT 54 7
° °
S aturat i on pressure 0 7 Hg .
7: d 2
Hence d n X 6 0 X v eloc i ty
1 74 8
water rate X load X sp vol . .
X X
p oun d s per kw h r fi
. nd-
th e
. ve,
l oci t y th roug h th i s o p ening ass umin g ,
th e st e am has a qu al ity o f
T h en
V o l ume X X 523
V el oc i ty ft p er mi n
Area
. .
60 X 252
thi s condit i on to be
P R O BLE MS
1
S oluti on : 3From Plate 2b, for a p re ss ur e o f 56 p oun ds and super
°
heat of 64 we find :
T otal h ea t B t u
. . .
E ntropy 1 69
T otal h e a t B t u . . .
Sp ecifi c v o lume cu f t p er lb . . .
1 44 V V
FV X
s q in
25 N v X 1 12 X 1 27 0
. .
25
bucket and rotation al l o sses amoun t to 25% of this energy N egl ect
, .
76 PRO BLEM S
rad iation l oss and l eakage o f steam and ass ume nozz l e coeffic i ent
to be 9 6 % as before .
T ota l h ea t . 25 X 35 B . t . 11 .
T h en from Plat e
, 3a, for t he s e two values we obtain
E n t ropy 1 70+
Superh eat 27
°
P ressure 23 5 lb s .
Spec i fic vo lume cu ft . .
Then the steam ent er s t h e nozzle of the fourth stage in the following
cond i t i on
Pressure lbs .
Total h eat 25 X 35 .
Pressure lbs .
S pec i fic volume cu ft . .
Hence the area of the thr oat Of t h e nozz l e for t h e fourt h s tage is
A4
W X
MW Sq m
NV
' '
25 25 x 82 x x
43. S team
exp ands through a properly shaped divergent
nozzle from an i ni t i al pressure of 1 25 pounds per s quare inc h absolute
and 220 Of superheat to a final pressure of 1 pound per s quare i nc h
°
absolute F ind the proper cross sect i onal areas of thi s nozzle to
.
-
and no fri ct i on .
Total heat
E ntropy
L et the nozzle be divi ded into sect i ons so that in eac h one t h e ,
expans i on wi ll be suffic i ent to use equal parts of thi s total avai lable
energy I f we compute the veloc i ty for 1 0 such sect i ons we shall
.
. . . .
volume B y Table IV the veloc i ty i s obtai ned and the area of the
.
,
. .
S ecti on En t y
rop
Sq . In .
En tra n ce
If these sect i ons are now lai d off at equal i nterval s so that the
total length becomes equal to the des ired length of the nozzle the
form wil l be such that i t wil l give uni form accel er at i on of the steam .
h ave been chosen a t suc h po i nts that the energy transformed i nto
v el oc i ty i n each on e i s constant Such a nozz l e wi ll have curve d
.
Then by th e aid of a log log s lide rul e or logari thms and t h e resul ts
, ,
Qu al ity or p h at
S u er e
S ecti on
V alu e
U s ed
Wit h t h e value o f n
45 . as Ob tai ned from prob l em
44 find the pres s ure at the t hroa t of t hi s nozzle by the foll owing
,
equati on
pt 2 Il
—l wh ere
po ( 11 1 ) n --
S oluti on
P5 P0
1 325
.
0 325
4 07 5
1
(1 1 6 25 )
1
1 25 -
lbs .
Of p o.
Av a ilabl
cti t y
e
Se En P ss e é
zgg
l
égfgigg
gi
on rop re ure n rg y
c. Sq . In .
1 25 . 0
70 .
68 .
Throat 1 71
67 .
66 . 65 .
s how thi s more fully is due t o the fact that the des ire to make a
S hort tab l e necessita t ed the sel ection of po i nt s w hi c h are some
di stance apart .
tube was i nch and the h ei ght of the meni scus was
inch The vacuum was determined by reading t h e hei ght of
.
500 f eet above sea l evel and the barometer was i n another building
50 fee t higher than t hi s T h e temperature Of the atmosphere wa s
.
40 F
°
.
Total . 09 1 in .
()
1 D ue t o cap ill ari ty from Table II .
()
2 D u e to temperature from Plate 9 a .
Total .
i Hg d f m P lat 6 b t h d iff
n c i t tal h ats b tw a p ss
an ro e f e eren e n o e e ee n re ur e o
s m c mm t p y l i is s t b ab t 6 7 B t Th is am t f h at m ight
. .
i d f in or o e o on en r o ne ee n o e ou or u oun o e
e e n o e o e e n er or u or o e en er e n e s
*
t h e theoret i cal cycle for the Ferrant i turb ine .
S P w D c m b 30 1 9 1 3 p ag 9 08 f a d s c i p ti f t h i s t b i
ee o er , e e er , , e , or e r on o ur ne.
P R O BL E M S
b ati cally to 25 pounds per square i nch absolute and after that i s
, , , ,
a
() N et work o f the cyc l e .
b
( ) Heat suppl i ed per poun d o f s team .
(c ) C yc l e effic i ency .
T h eoretical water r a te .
356 F
°
Temperature of vapori zat i on for 1 4 5 lbs tb . .
24 0 F
°
Temperature of v apori zat i on for 25 lbs tb . r .
H ence
71 6 F
°
td 356 360 .
superhea t we have
T otal h eat
l H, 1 386 B t u
. . .
or
P RO BL E M S
Total hear
l H, 1 077
a
() N e t wor k of cyc l e area b bcdee b efka
—H
d
—H , + Hf — Hk
1 37 7 1 1 95 1 386 1 077
B t u per l b of steam
49 1 . . . . .
b
( ) H eat s u p p l ie d p er lb o f s t e am
. are a labcdefn
Hd H H, , h ,
1 377 1 1 95 1 386 60
1 508 B t u . . .
()
0 C yc l e e ffi ciency
lb s .
p er kw . hr .
S oluti on : The only addi t i onal numeri cal value needed i s the
total heat at the po int j From Pl ate 5b for the entropy 1 76 and
.
,
H, B . t u . .
Hence
(a ) N et work of cyc l e H, H, 1 377 B . t u
. .
(0) C yc l e effiCI en c 1 3?
86 PR O B LEM S
254 5
Theoret i cal water rate lbs per h p hr
4 09 7
. . . .
34 1 2
lbs per kw hr
4 09 7
. . .
From the above results i t i s seen that for the theoretical cyc l es
t h e decrease i n water rate due to the reheat i ng is
the leakage fri ct i on and rotat i onal losses are very much reduced
, ,
.
l
A, reci p r oca of th e mechan i ca eq uiv a en t Of eat l l h
l
Ab so ut e t emp er at ure , F , cons t an t for , p r ob 8 7
°
. .
h
Abs tr acti on of eat at con s t an t v o um e, p r ob 1 3 l .
h
Ad di ti on of eat at cons t an t p r ess ur e , p rob 9
m
.
t
Of s eam , e xp on en t for p r ob 47 ,
.
P— V di agr am for p ob 1 9 ,
r .
Ai r i n con d en s e p r ob 8 7 r, .
Al tit ud e v a i ati on of at m os p h er i c p es s ur e w it h
, r r
s up p li ed t ur b i e p r ob 26
‘
n ,
.
Ar ea ep es en ti n g w or k g en er al di s cuss m
r r ,
n
At m o p h e i c p es s ur e th e s t an d ar d
s r r ,
va i ati o of w it h altitude
r n ,
Av ailab l e en er gy d efi n iti on of ,
i n s te am n ozz l e
B ack p r ess ur e eff ect of on n et work p ob 83
, , ,
r .
B arom et e th e t hi rt y i n ch s t a dar d
r, -
n
B arom et i c co ecti on s :
r rr
d ue to cap i ll ar it y di s cus s i on ,
Tab l e II
p r ob 48 .
P lat e 9b
p rob .
48
d ue l titud
to a e, d is cuss i o n
Tab l I e
P l at e 9 8
p r obs 4 . and 5
p r ob 48
Bo iler an d furn ace effi ci en cy p r ob 1 9 ,
.
Comp l et e e xp an s i on cy cl e p r ob 32 , .
88 I NDEX
C on st an t e t r op y ch an ge s p r obs 5
n 44 45 and 47 , .
, , ,
C on s t an t v ol um e ab s t r acti on of h eat p ob 1 3 ,
r .
d efin ition
effi ci en cy p robs 27 29 49 an d 50
, .
, ,
, .
Tab l e III
Dir ect actin g s t eam p um p cy cle pr ob 34
- -
,
.
E ffi ci en cy cy cl e p r obs 26 and 27
, , .
of b oi l er an d furn ace p r ob 1 9 , .
E n er gy avail ab le d efi ni ti on
, ,
En trop i es ,
con s an t t , h ow drawn
p r obs 5 , 1 1 .
, 1 2, 35, —
43 45 , an d 47
En trop y defin iti on
,
of s te am d efin iti on
h ow foun d fr om ch ar t p r obs 1 an
,
d 2 ,
.
E x h aus t O p en in g i n l ar ge t ur b in e p r ob 40 ,
.
n ,
d 45 , , . .
i n s in gl e s t age t ur b i e p r ob 28 n ,
.
E xp ans i o r ati o of d efi ni ti on p r ob 1 1
n, , , .
P l at es 8a an d 8b
p roblem 7
F ac t or of evap oration , p r obs 2 . 0a d 21 n
I NDEX
P r op er ti es of s t eam
Qualit y at e d Of adi ab ati c exp ans i on p rob 1 1
,
n , .
at e d of co s t a t volum e ch an g e p rob 1 3
n n n
, .
at re ease, l p rob 36 .
li of o t a t h ow d awn
ne c ns n , r
Ratio of p u i ozz l p b 41 a d 45
r es s r es n n es , ro s . n
Rati of v olum fo m p l t a d i om p l t p a m y l
o es r co e e n nc e e ex ns n c c es , p r ob 3
. 2
R du tio Of b a om t i adi g to t a d a d g avit y
e c n r e r c re n s s n r r
R h ati g ff t f i multi t ag t u bi p b 42
e e n ,
e ec O ,
n -
s e r n e, ro .
S i z e Of t ur b i n e ex h aus t p i p e p rob 40 , .
s up p l y p i p e p r ob 39 ,
.
S p ecifi c h eat of s up erh eat ed s t eam for v ery low p ressur e h ow foun d ,
Of w at er n um er i cal v al ues
,
S t eam p rop er ti es of
,
s up er h eat ed d efi n iti on , .
2 n ,
.
Table IV
Tab le of v elociti es h ow p r ep ar ed ,
Tem p er at u e ab s ol ut e F p r ob 37
°
r , ,
.
, .
for Fe an ti cy cl e p r ob 49
rr ,
.
for t urb i n e cy cl e p r ob 26 ,
. .
l
Thr ott i n g i n s t eam autom ob i e, p rob 1 8 l .
l
Tot a en t r op y of s t eam
lh
Tot a eat , d is cuss i on
Tur b in e , F err an ti , p robs 49 an 50 . d
l
mu ti s t age , p r obs 41 and 42
-
.
i g le s t age p rob 28
s n -
, .
Us i g th e ch art s g en e al m et hod of
n ,
r
h ow comp ut ed
Velocit y Of st eam at exh aust from t urb i e p r ob 40 , ,
n ,
.
Volum e of wat er on P —
.
, , ,
V di agr am p r ob 29 ,
.
p r ob 29 .
Wat t
er r a e an dv acuum p ob 27 ,
r .
p r ob 7 .
Wo k g e al equatio fo
r , en r n r
(5 1 0) 64 2 6 753 -
b oo ks Io NRLF
Re ne wals a nd re c h a rg e s may b e ma d e 4
d ays p rio r to d ue d ate .
AMPED BELOW
DUE AS ST
(1