Process knowledge in foundries

By
Dr.Hathibelagal Roshan
Chief Metallurgist
Maynard Steel Casting Company

ABSTRACT:
In order to be profitable, foundries need to have adequate process knowledge on the various processes used by
them to manufacture the specific parts needed by their customers. In spite of a large number of publications on
various aspects of metal casting processes, there appears to be a lack of gap in technology to specifically define
process knowledge. Process knowledge is defined as the list of process variables, their collection system,
visualization system and analysis to determine the ranges of relevant process variables that are related to the
product characteristics for specific castings made in the foundries. It is not adequate to just focus on individual
sub-processes in the foundry and try to control its process variables in a general way. It is essential to focus on
the critical product characteristics that are related to the acceptance criteria and document the process
knowledge relevant to the specific part. It is possible that the process knowledge relevant for one part need not
be the same for another part in the same foundry. For example, in the melting of steel with Al content of 0.06
max may be satisfactory for one part and may not be adequate for another part that requires Al 0.03 max in
order to meet the product characteristics requirement of the freedom from conchoidal fracture of the test
specimens.

INTRODUCTION:

On average foundries lose a minimum of 5% of their revenue in internal and external failure costs. This
indicates that foundries do not have the technology to produce castings without incurring these costs that could
affect their profitability. We have a serious problem of Technology Gap in our foundry industry. The gap in
technology lies in the lack of process knowledge in foundries and lack of adequate personnel trained in process
control.

PROCESS KNOWLEDGE:
Process knowledge is defined as the list of process variables, their collection system, visualization system and
analysis to determine the ranges of relevant process variables that are in deed related to the product
characteristics for specific castings made in the foundries.

BUSINESS PROCESS:

Business process is a series of activities that are performed to produce a defined result. It has inputs which are
transformed into outputs. The inputs can be data, material or state of things. Figure 1 shows the process
hierarchy. Process in an organization can be divided into several levels such as Level 1 to Level 4 as indicated
in figure 1. Level 1 contains highest level management process such as Casting Process. Level 1 process is
decomposed into next lower level processes such as various sub-processes in Level 2. Figure 2 shows an
example of process decomposition where Level 1 process is decomposed into level 2 processes.

PROCESS CLASSIFICATION:
In order to develop a computer based tool, there is a need for a hierarchal classification of the process and sub-
process families. Figure 3 shows the taxonomy of the kingdom of PROCESS with part of shaping family
expanded. The process kingdom has three families: shaping, joining and finishing. One of the families, namely
shaping, is expanded to show classes namely: molding, deformation, casting etc. One these classes, namely
casting is again expanded to show its members and sub-members.

1
METALCASTING PROCESS:
Metal casting process is not a single process and has several Level 2 sub-processes. In order to define process
knowledge, the various sub-processes can be identified as follows. The appropriate codes for each of the sub-
processes are indicated in the parentheses against each of the sub-processes. Member Steel and sub-member
Nobake are chosen for this classification.

1. Patternmaking/Methoding (GS-NB-1)
2. Molding (GS-NB-2)
3. Coremaking (GS-NB-3)
4. Melting (GS-NB-4)
5. Ladle/Pouring (GS-NB-5)
6. Shakeout (GS-NB-6)
7. Heat Treatment (GS-NB-7)
8. Welding (GS-NB-8)
9. Cleaning (GS-NB-9)

PROCESS KNOWLEDGE:

Process knowledge can be represented into the following components:

1. Factor Response Table (1)
2. Process Map – Box-Arrow Diagram (2)
3. Process Flow Chart (3)
4. Swimlane Process Map (4)
5. SIPOC diagram with FPRs (5)
6. Value Stream Map (6)
7. Cause and Effect Diagram (7)
8. Cause and Effect Matrix (8)
9. FMEA (9)
10. P-Matrix Case studies (10)
11. Published Literature (11)
Examples of each of the above are given below

1. FACTOR RESPONSE TABLE:

Responses are the outcome of processes that are relevant to either internal or external customers. For the
purpose of defining process knowledge, the various responses are identified as follows:
Major categories of responses are given below:

Y1: Casting Dimensions

Y2: Casting Defects
Y3: DPMOs
Y4: Quality Costs

2
Each of the above major response categories are again expanded to sub-categories of responses as indicated
below.
Code Name

Y1-1 Casting Dimensions

Y2-1 Runout
Y2-2 Inclusions
Y2-3 Shrinkage
Y2-4 Misrun
Y2-5 Erosion
Y2-6 Penetration
Y2-7 Hot Tear
Y2-8 Type II Sulfides
Y2-9 Incorrect impacts
Y2-10 Incorrect mechanicals
Y2-11 Blowholes- Pinholes
Y2-12 Cracks
Y2-13 Broken Molds
Y2-14 Flash
Y3-1 DPMO-Redlights
Y3-2 DPMO-Missed Deliveries
Y3-3 DPMO-Quality issues
Y3-4 DPMO-Retests
Y3-5 DPMO-ReHeatTreats
Y4-1 Quality Cost-Internal Failure
Y4-2 Quality Cost-External Failure

It is necessary to determine which responses are relevant to the various sub-processes in the foundry. Also, it is
necessary to identify the various factors and the corresponding responses in the various sub-processes in the
foundry. Examples of process knowledge in the form of Factor-Response tables relating to the various sub-
processes are shown in tables 1 to 9 below.

3
 Table 1: PATTERNMAKING/METHODING (GS-NB-1-1)
Response Remarks on significance of factor in
Casting

uremt

Conti
Facto

Prt Spc

Meas
Meth

Discr
Units

nos/
(X)
Sub-

od
(Y) relation to the response

of
r

Pattern Flatness Calibrated Inches Continu Casting Generally ribs are placed under the pattern board
(X1-1) Straight Edge ous Dimension Y1-1 to support the weight of the pattern and the weight
of sand during moldmaking. The pattern board
shall not sag enough to distort the parting line
Patter Shrink Calibrated Correct/ Discrete Critical Casting Choosing the appropriate shrink rule is essential
Rule, Straight Edge Incorrect Dimensions for correct casting dimensions. Verify whehter
% (X1-2) Y1-2..N the pattern and core boxes are made to correct
shrink rule
Casting to Flask Tape Inches Continu Casting Defect Correct selection of flask size and its relationship
Relationship Measurement ous (RunOut) Y2-1 to the gating as well as casting to the flask wall
(X1-3) are important to minimize metal penetrating to the
flask during mold filling. If the metal is too close
to the wall, the potential for the metal penetrating
the wall will be high. Core print areas also need
to be considered
Gating Ratio Tape Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect Gating ratio is defined as the SprueBase Area:
(X1-4) Measurement (Inclusions) Total Runner Area: Total Ingate Area. In a
and Y2-2 pressurized gating system, choke exists at the
calculation ingate and controls the flow rate. In a non-
pressurized gating system, choke does not exist at
1. Patternmaking / Methoding

the ingate and will be upstream, either in the

runner or at the sprue base. For gray irons and
ductile irons, a pressurized gating system is
generally used. For Aluminum alloys and steels, a
non-pressurized system is used.
Location of Visual Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect In a pressurized gating system, runner should
ingates and observation (Inclusions) be in cope and the ingates also in the cope at
runner relative Y2-2 the parting surface. In the Non-Pressurized
to the parting gating system, runner should be in the drag
surface and the ingates in the cope at the parting
(X1-5) surface.
Type of Gating: Visual Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect Bottom gating is preferred for steel castings.
Bottom/Parting observation (Inclusions)
Line/Fountain/T Y2-2
angential (X1-6)
Compatible Visual Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect
nozzle diameter observation (Inclusions)
to Sprue Y2-2
Diameter in
bottom pour
ladles (X1-7)
Modulus Ratio Tape Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect Modulus ratio is defined as the ratio of
(X1-8) Measurement (Shrinkage) Y2-3 casting modulus: Riser neck Modulus: Riser
and Modulus.In general the ratio should be 1: 1.1:
calculation 1.2 for steel castings. Verify whether you
have a satisfactory modulus ratio
Total Weight of Weight Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect Available feed metal from a cylindrical sand
the risers in Measurement (Shrinkage) Y2-3 riser is 10-12% available feed metal from a
relation to the and conical sand riser is 15-20% available feed
casting weight calculation metal from a insulating sleeve riser is 20%
plus gating available feed metal from an exothermic
system (X1-9) sleeve riser is 30%. Based on the type of
riser, verify whether your riser weight is
adequate or not

4
 Table 1: PATTERNMAKING/METHODING (GS-NB-1-1)(Contd.)

Measure

Discrete
Factor

Contino
Method
Casting

Process

Prt Spc
Range
Response Remarks on significance of factor in

Units

C/D
(X)
Sub-

mt
of

s/
(Y) relation to the response

Blind Riser Visual Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect Care should be taken while designing the blind
Design with observation (Shrinkage) Y2-3 risers. They will be effective only when the
Williams Core atmospheric pressure acts on the liquid metal
(X1-10) inside the riser. Williams cores or V-notches need
to be provided on the blind risers to permit the
atmospheric pressure act on the blind risers.
Blind Riser Visual Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect Care should be taken while designing the blind
Design with observation (Shrinkage) Y2-3 risers. They will be effective only when the
Flowoff (X1-11) atmospheric pressure acts on the liquid metal
inside the riser. You need to provide a good vent
from the top of the blind riser to the top of the
mold.
Magma Simulation Filling Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect Verify the results of Magma Simulation for
- Porosity Results Simulation (Shrinkage) Y2-3 locations of Macro porosity in the casting
with 35% Feeding
Effectivity (X1-12)
Magma Simulation Filling Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect Verify the results of Magma Simulation for
- Niyama Criterion Simulation (Shrinkage) Y2-3 locations of Micro porosity in the casting. Niyama
1. Patternmaking / Methoding

(X1-13) indications should not be present in the machined

areas.
Magma Simulation Filling Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect It is necessary to design the gating system to have
- Flow Rate (X1- Simulation (Misrun) Y2-4 the highest flow rate and lowest ingate velocity
14) possible. Do not exceed 1 m/sec ingate velocity.
Verify the simulation results and ensure that at the
end of the fill time, no portion of the mold cavity
is below the solidus temperature and preferably
above the liquidus temperature
Magma Filling Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect It is necessary to design the gating system to have
Simulation - Fill Simulation (Erosion) Y2-5 the appropriate fill time. Too long a fill time, will
time (X1-15) result in erosion defects. Too short a fill time will
result in inconsistencies in pouring and thermal
shocks in the molds and cores.
Location and Size Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect
of Chills (X1-16) (HotTear)Y2-7
Modulus Ratio Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect
(X1-17) (Shrinkage) Y2-3
Volumetric Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect
Efficiency (X1- (Shrinkage)Y 2-3
18)
Feeder Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect
Height/diameter (Shrinkage) Y2-3
(X1-19)
Worn out Yes/No Discrete Y2-1; Y2-14
damaged pattern
(X1-20)
Under dried Yes/No Discrete Y2-11;Y2-2
sleeves (X1-21)
Sleeve pad not Yes/No Discrete Y2-2
provided (X1-22)

5
 Table 2: GREEN SAND PROCESS

Specifi

Range
Continuous/

Part
Factor (X) Method of Measurement Units Response (Y)

c
Discrete C/D

Casting Defect(Burn on/Burn-in, Penetration)

New Sand GFN(X2-1) Sieve Analysis Report Yes/No Discrete Y2-6
Casting Defect(Burn on/Burn-in, Penetration)
New Sand, 140 screen (X2-2) Sieve Analysis Report Yes/No Discrete Y2-6

Condition of screens (X2-3) Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y2-13

Inadequate new sand (X2-4) Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y2-13
Ramming Density, X2-5 Scale g/cc Continuous Casting Defect (Hot Tear) Y2-7
Sand Compaction/Squeeze
Pressure gauge psi Continuous Y2-6
pressure (X2-6)
Mold Hardness (X2-7) Hardness Tester Number Continuous Y2-2; Y2-6
Backing sand extending to
mold surface (X2-8)
Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y2-2; Y2-5
Inadequate support after
stripping (X2-9)
Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y2-13

unclean molds (X2-10) Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y2-2

Rusty Chills (X2-11) Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y2-11
Moldassembly-excessive
jolting (X2-12)
Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y2-2; Y2-13
Moldassembly-Incomplete
Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y2-14
closure of mold (X2-13)
Molds not clamped propertly
Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y1-1; Y2-14
(X2-14)

Table 3: NOBAKE PROCESS

Specifi

Range
Part

Continuous/
Factor (X) Method of Measurement Units Discrete C/D Response (Y)
Casting Defect(Burn on/Burn-in, Penetration)
New Sand GFN (X3-1) Sieve Analysis Report Yes/No Discrete Y2-6
Casting Defect(Burn on/Burn-in, Penetration)
New Sand, 140 screen (X3-2) Sieve Analysis Report Yes/No Discrete Y2-6
Binder Content (X3-3) LOI % Continuous Casting Defect (Hot tear) Y2-7
Binder N2 content (X3-4) SpectroAnalysis % Continuous Y2-11
Improper mixing (X3-5) Visual Yes/No Discrete Y2-2; Y2-5
Amount of reclaimed sand (X3-
6)
Scale % Continuous Y2-2; Y2-5
Exceeding sand work time
(X3-7)
Watch Yes/No Discrete Y2-2; Y2-5 and Y2-6

Inadequate hardening (X3-8) Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y2-13

Incorrect moldwash
formulation (X3-9)
Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y2-5; Y2-6; Y2-11; Y2-2
Improper wash application
(X3-10)
Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y2-2; Y2-6
Not dried wash (X3-11) Visual Observation Yes/No Discrete Y2-11

6
 Table 4: MELTING
Factor (X) Part Spec Method of Units Continuous/Dis Response (Y)
Range Measure crete C/D
Furnace Operator (X4-1) Log Nominal Discrete Y2-2 - Inclusions
No of Heats on Furnace (X4-2) Data Log Number Continuous Y2-2 - Inclusions
Type of Charge material (X4-3) Melt Sheet Nominal Discrete Y2-2 - Inclusions
TimeInterval- PowerOn-MeltDown (X4-4) Melt Sheet Hrs Continuous Y2-2 - Inclusions
Temperature at MeltDown (X4-5) Melt Sheet Deg. F Continuous Y2-2 - Inclusions
MD(MeltDown) C (X4-6) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
MD(MeltDown) Mn (X4-7) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
MD(MeltDown) Si (X4-8) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
MD(MeltDown) S (X4-9) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
MD(MeltDown) P (X4-10) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
MD(MeltDown) Ni (X4-11) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
MD(MeltDown) Cr (X4-12) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
MD(MeltDown) Mo (X4-13) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
MD(MeltDown) Cu (X4-14) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
Volume/Time of O Blow (X4-15) Melt Sheet min Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
BB (Before Block) C (X4-16) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
Carbon Drop (X4-17) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y2-12; Y2-7
BB (Before Block) Mn (X4-18) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
BB (Before Block) Si (X4-19) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
BB (Before Block) S (X4-20) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
BB (Before Block) P (X4-21) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
BB (Before Block) Ni (X4-22) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
BB (Before Block) Cr (X4-23) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
BB (Before Block) Mo (X4-24) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
BB (Before Block) Cu (X4-25) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
Furnace Block Addition, FeSi (X4-26) Melt Sheet Lbs Continuous Y2-11
Furnace Block Addition, FeMn (X4-27) Melt Sheet Lbs Continuous Y2-11
Furnace Block Addition, SiMn (X4-28) Melt Sheet Lbs Continuous Y2-11
Furnace Alloy Addition, Ni (X4-29) Melt Sheet Lbs Continuous Y2-11
Furnace Alloy Addition, FeCr (X4-30) Melt Sheet Lbs Continuous Y2-11
Furnace Alloy Addition, Mo (X4-31) Melt Sheet Lbs Continuous Y2-11
PT (PreTap) C (X4-32) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
PT (PreTap) Mn (X4-33) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
PT (PreTap) Si (X4-34) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
PT (PreTap) S (X4-35) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
PT (PreTap) P (X4-36) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
PT (PreTap) Ni (X4-37) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
PT (PreTap) Cr (X4-38) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
PT (PreTap) Mo (X4-39) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
PT (PreTap) Cu (X4-40) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-1 - Redlights
Points of C blown per minute of O2 (X4-41) Melt/Pour Logs % Continuous Y2-11
Points of Mn blown per minute of O2 (X4-42) Melt/Pour Logs % Continuous Y2-11
Points of Si blown per minute of O2 (X4-43) Melt/Pour Logs % Continuous Y2-2 - Inclusions
Height of steel in ladle (X4-44) Melt/Pour Logs % Continuous Y2-2 - Inclusions
Al loss from Tap to pour (X4-45) Melt/Pour Logs % Continuous Y2-11
Mn loss from Tap to pour (X4-46) Melt/Pour Logs % Continuous Y2-2 - Inclusions
Si loss from Tap to pour (X4-47) Melt/Pour Logs % Continuous Y2-2 - Inclusions
Mn/S Ratio (X4-48) Melt/Pour Logs % Continuous Y2-7 (Hot tear)

7
 TABLE 5: LADLE – POURING
Part Continuous Response (Y)
Factor (X) Spec Method of Units /Discrete
Range Measure C/D
Ladle Additions, Al (X5-1) Melt Sheet Lbs Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)C (X5-2) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)Mn (X5-3) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)Si (X5-4) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)S (X5-5) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)P (X5-6) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)Ni (X5-7) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)Cr (X5-8) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)Mo (X5-9) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)Cu (X5-10) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)Al (X5-11) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)N (X5-12) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)Ti (X5-13) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)Ca (X5-14) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)Zr (X5-15) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)V (X5-16) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
LT (Ladle)B (X5-17) Melt Sheet % Continuous Y3-Redlights
Tap Temperature (X5-18) Melt Sheet degF Continuous Y2-2; Y2-11
Tap time (X5-19) Melt Sheet Hrs Continuous Y2-2; Y2-11
Ladle Number (X5-20) Melt Sheet Log Discrete Y2-2; Y2-11
No of times stopper used (X5-21) Pouring Log Log Discrete Y2-2; Y2-11
First Ladle Temperature (X5-22) Pouring Log degF Continuous Y2-2; Y2-11
First Ladle Time (X5-23) Pouring Log Hrs Continuous Y2-2; Y2-11
Last Ladle Temp (X5-24) Pouring Log degF Continuous Y2-2; Y2-11
Last Ladle Time (X5-25) Pouring Log Hrs Continuous Y2-2; Y2-11
Volme-Time of Argon Stir (X5-26) Pouring Log min Continuous Y2-2; Y2-11
Start Pour time (X5-27) Pouring Log Hrs Continuous Y2-2; Y2-11
Estimated Pour Temp (X5-28) Pouring Log degF Continuous Y2-7 (Hot tear)
Finish Pour Time (X5-29) Pouring Log Hrs Continuous Y2-2; Y2-11
Weight of Steel in ladle (X5-30) Pouring Log lbs Continuous Y2-2; Y2-11
Weight of slag in ladle (X5-31) Pouring Log Lbs Continuous Y2-2; Y2-11
Pour time in each mold (X5-32) Pouring Log sec Continous Y2-7 (Hot Tear)
Height of nozzle above pouring basin-cup (X5-33) Pouring Log in Continuous Y2-2; Y2-11
Quality of Pour (X5-34) Pouring Log ok/not Ok Discrete Y2-2; Y2-11
Quality-Furnace Slag (X5-35) Melt/Pour Logs ok/not ok Discrete Y2-2; Y2-11
Quality Ladle Slag (X5-36) Melt/Pour Logs ok/not ok Discrete Y2-2; Y2-11
Ladle preheat condition (X5-37) Melt/Pour Logs ok/notok Discrete Y2-2; Y2-11
Ladle Patch condition (X5-38) Melt/Pour Logs ok/not ok Discrete Y2-2; Y2-11
Insulating cover omitted (X5-39) Melt/Pour Logs yes/no Discrete Y2-3
Feeder heads overfilled (X5-40) Melt/Pour Logs yes/no Discrete Y2-3
Feederneads poured short (X5-41) Melt/Pour Logs yes/no Discrete Y2-3

8
 TABLE 6: SHAKEOUT
Factor (X) Part Spec Method of Units Continuous Response (Y)
Range Measure /Discrete/ C/D
Shakeout time (X6-1) Shakeout Y2-7; Y2-12
Record
Green Anneal Austenitizing Temp (X6-2) Ht record Deg. F continuous Y2-10
Green Anneal Austenitizing Time (X6-3) Ht record hrs continuous Y2-10
Stress Relief Temp after cut and scarf (X6-4) Ht record degF continuous Y2-10
Stress Relief Time after cut and scarf (X6-5) Ht record hrs continuous Y2-10
Existence of Flash/Fin (X6-6) Log Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect (Hot Tear) Y2-7
Improper reinforcements in mold (X6-7) Log Yes/No Discrete Casting Defect (Hot Tear) Y2-7
Shakeout too early (X6-8) Log Yes/No Discrete Y2-7; Y2-12
Shakeout too late (X6-9) Log Yes/No Discrete Y2-7; Y2-12

TABLE 7: HEATTREATMENT
Factor (X) Part Spec Method of Units Continuous Response (Y)
Range Measure /Discrete C/D
Final HT Austenitizing Temp (X7-1) Ht record degF continuous Y2-10; Y2-9
Final HT Austenitizing Time (X7-2) Ht record hrs continuous Y2-10; Y2-9
Tempering Temp (X7-3) Ht record degF continuous Y2-10; Y2-9
Tempering Time (X7-4) Ht record hrs continuous Y2-10; Y2-9

TABLE 8: WELDING
Part Spec Method of Continuous
Factor (X) Range Measure
Units
/Discrete C/D
Response (Y)

PQR No (X8-1) Weld Record yes/no discrete Y3-3

WPS Number (X8-2) Log yes/no discrete Y3-3
Welder-Operator (X8-3) Log name discrete Y3-3
Welding Machine (X8-4) Log number discrete Y3-3
Welding Process (SMAW, FCAW, GTAW)(X8-5) Weld Record name discrete Y3-3
Electrode Type (X8-6) Weld Record name discrete Y3-3
Electrode Dia (X8-7) Weld Record in continuous Y3-3
Current Amps (X8-8) Weld Record amps continuous Y3-3
Voltage Votls (X8-9) Weld Record volts continuous Y3-3
Travel speed (X8-10) Weld Record in/min continuous Y3-3
Min Pre Heat Temp (X8-11) Weld Record degF continuous Y2-12
Max Interpass Temp (X8-12) Weld Record degF continuous Y2-12
Post Weld HT - Temp (X8-13) Weld Record degF continuous Y2-12
Post Weld HT - Time (X8-14) Weld Record hrs continuous Y2-12

TABLE 9: CLEANING
Factor (X) Part Method of Units Continuous/ Response (Y)
Specific Measure Discrete C/D
Range
Blasting (X9-1) Clock/scale manhrs/ton Continuous Y4-1 (Internal Failure Cost
Cutting (X9-2) Clock/scale manhrs/ton Continuous Y4-1 (Internal Failure Cost
Scarfing (X9-3) Clock/scale manhrs/ton Continuous Y4-1 (Internal Failure Cost
Chipping (X9-4) Clock/scale manhrs/ton Continuous Y4-1 (Internal Failure Cost
Grinding (X9-5) Clock/scale manhrs/ton Continuous Y4-1 (Internal Failure Cost
Welding (X9-6) Clock/scale manhrs/ton Continuous Y4-1 (Internal Failure Cost
Rewelding (X9-7) Clock/scale manhrs/ton Continuous Y4-1 (Internal Failure Cost
Rechipping (X9-8) Clock/scale manhrs/ton Continuous Y4-1 (Internal Failure Cost

9
 2. Process Map: Box-Arrow Diagram
3. Example of high level process map in the form of Box-Arrow diagram is shown figure 2
4. Process Flow Chart:
5. Example of Process Flow chart with reference to the melting process is shown in figure 4 below
6. Example of swimlane process map with reference to the heat treatment process is shown in figure 5
below
7. Example of IPO diagram with factors and responses is shown in figure 6
8. Example of Cause and Effect Diagram with reference to the Inclusions Defect is shown in figure 7
below
9. Example of Cause and Effect Matrix with reference to the Shrinkage defect is shown in figure 8 below
10. FMEA diagram with reference to the Melting process is shown in figure 9 below

SPECIFICATION LIMITS FOR FACTORS

In general specification limits are specified by the customers for the product characteristics. However, the
foundries need to determine the specification limits for the process parameters or the factors. The starting point
for determining the specification limits is the determine the standard deviation value of the parameter. This can
be determined by taking at least 30 consecutive values of the parameter. For a stable process, the upper and
lower control limits for the parameter will be plus or minus 3 sigma. For a process capability of 1, the upper
and lower specification limits would be same as the upper and lower control limits. Generally, it is desirable to
have a process capability of 1.33. The foundry need to establish whether the response associated with this
factor will be acceptable if the factors values fluctuates with plus or minus 3 standard deviations of the factor.
If not, it is necessary to reduce the standard deviation of the factor in question to such a low value that the
fluctuation between plus or minus 3 standard deviations will not affect the response related to the concerned
variable.
Summary:
The taxonomy of the casting process with the various sub-processes is presented in this paper. The components
of the process knowledge for each of the sub-processes are also presented with the examples. Various tables are
constructed giving the details of the factors relevant to the sub-processes. The tables presented in this paper
refer to Nobake process of Steel Castings only. There is a need to create such tables for all the sub-processes
listed in this paper. Foundries are expected to use such tables as a guideline to create product specific tables
with the column ‘Product specific specification range’ filled in appropriately. The foundries are recommended
to review all the factors listed in the tables given in this paper and collect part specific data on these factors.
Eventually, the foundries are expected to have a list of all the factors that are relevant to all the responses in
their foundries and have a suitable system to collect data on the factors and responses. Foundries are also
expected to have part specific specification limits for all the factors. The data collected on the factors during the
manufacture of castings should have traceability to the responses on the castings made in the foundries. Such
part specific process knowledge on the specification limits of factors will help foundries in minimizing the scrap
and rework and improve the profitability.

10
11
12
Kingdom  Class  Process 
Family  Member Sub ‐ Member
Knowledge

Green Sand/ 
Horizontally Parted (GH) 
Pressure Diecasting (DC) 
Molding  Gray Iron (GI)
Coldbox (CB) Factor Response Table (1)
Ductile Iron 
Deformation  Investment Casting (IC)  Process Map‐Box‐ 
Joining  Alloy Iron (AI) Arrow Diagram (2)
Green Sand /  Process Flow Chart (3)
Steel (GS)
Vertically Parted (GV) 
Process  Shaping  Casting  Aluminum (Al) Swimlane Process Map (4)
NoBake (NB) (NB)
Copper (Cu) SIPOC Diagram with FPRs (5)
Finishing  Composits 
Permanent Mold (PM)  Value Stream Map(6)
Zinc 
Powder  Low Pressure Die  Cause & Effect Diagram (7)
Megnesium (Mg)
Centrifugal (CF) Cause & Effect Matrix (8)
Protoypes 
Nickel (Ni)
FMEA 
Vaccum Casting (VC)
OTER ALLOYS (OA) P‐Matrix Case Studies (10)
Squeeze/Semi‐Solid(SC) 

Plaster Mold (PC)

Lost Foam (EPC/Full Mold)(LF) 

Continuous (CC)

V‐Process (VP)

Figure 3: Taxonomy of the Kingdom of Process with Casting Process expanded

13
 PROCESS FLOW CHART – MELTING
Boundary: From Charge to Tap in Ladle

Review of Unpoured
Daily unpoured
Mold List Mold Report
V

Create Melt Schedule for

the Furnaces – Pouring
Supervisor
V

Write Recipe
Instructions-
V
Melter 001
Form#: WorkInstruction

X1: Pink Revert, lbs

X2: Plate Wt. Lbs
X3: Bushlings, lbs Data Collection Charge V
X4: Carbon, lbs Xs [D1] Preparation & WorkInstruction
X5: Lime, lbs Charging [D1]
X6: Time at Start of
Charge

Whether Yes
Back Charge
Form#: 001 is needed

X7: KW Start/Finish
X8: Heats on Lining
X9: Heats on Roof No
X10: Ladle #
X11: Nozzle Size Data Collection Arc Furnace Workinst
V
X12: Time Power on Xs [D2] Start-Melt Down [D2]
X13: Time when change
to B Tap

N
Temperature
Measurement
N No
OK/Not OK

Yes

Sample to Lab
No for Testing WorkInstruction

Form#: 001
Data Collection
X14: MD Yes
Chemistry

Continued on Page 2
Dr. Roshan, Rev. 12/27/2011
1 of 3

14
From Page 1

Form#: 001
Arc Furnace
Refining [D3]
V
X15: Ni, lbs
X16: Moly, lbs
X17: Time at start of Blow Data Collection
X18: Temp at start of Blow Xs [D3]
N
X19: Time at end of Blow
Temperature
X20: Temp at end of Blow
Measurement
N No
OK/Not OK

Yes

Sample to Lab
No for Testing

Data Collection
X21: BB Chemistry

Block
Data Collection WorkInstruction
X22: FeSi, lbs V
Form#: 001
X23: FeCr, lbs
X24: SiMn, lbs Bring Furnace to Tap
Data Collection
X25: FeMn, lbs Temperature. V
Xs [D4] WorkInstruction
Make Alloy additions [D4]

N
Temperature
Measurement
N OK/Not OK No

Yes

Pre Tap Sample

No to Lab for
Testing
Form#: 001 Data Collection
X27: Tap Temp. X26: Pre Tap
Yes
X28: Furnace Tap Time Chemistry
X29: Aluminum, lbs
X30: FeSi, lbs
X31: Carbon, lbs Data Collection Arc Furnace V
X32: Calcibar, lbs Xs [D5] Tapping&Deoxidation [D5] WorkInstruction
X33: FeTi, lbs
X34: SiMn, lbs

Continued on Page 3
2 of 3

15
From Page2

Data Collection X35: Argon Stir

Time of Argon Stir V

Temperature
Measurement WorkInstruction
No OK/Not OK

Yes

N
Ladle Sample to
Red Light/Remake Lab for Testing
No WorkInstruction

Data Collection X36:

Ladle Chemistry Yes

Pour
V

3of3
Figure 4: Process Flow Chart - Melting

16
Figure 5: Example of Swimlane Process Map - Cleaning

17
 INPUT- PROCESS-OUTPUT DIAGRAM WITH FACTORS (Xs) & RESPONSES (Ys)
Boundary: From Charge to Tap in Ladle
CONTROLS

Melting Work Instructions

Process Control Checks

INPUTS OUTPUTS

1. Reverts 1. Liquid Metal

2. Steel Scrap 2. Slag

3.Carbon RESPONSES (Ys)

4.Lime 1. Metallic Melting Loss, %, Y1

5. Ferro Alloys 2. Cost/Ton of Liquid Metal $, Y2

FACTORS (Xs)
3. Process Stability in Ladle Chemistry for

X1-X3: Reverts and Scrap C, Mn, Si, S, P, Ni, Cr, Mo, Al, Cu, Ti, N: Y3
X4: Carbon 4. Process Capablity in Ladle Chemistry for

X5: Lime C, Mn, Si, S, P, Ni, Cr, Mo, Al, Cu, Ti, N: Y4
5. Energy Consumption, KWH/Ton of Liquid
X6-X13: Data from FMMP04
Metal, Y7
X14: MD Chemistry 6. Deviation from Block to Tap time, Y8

X15-X20-D3: Data Collection 7. Deviation from Charge to Tap Time. Hrs,Y9

X21: BB Chemistry 8. Red Lights, Y10

X23-X25 - D4: Data Collection 9. Remakes, Y11

X26: Pre Tap Chemistry 10. Mechanical Properties, Y12

X27-X34 - D5 Data Collection 11. Scrap Costs, $/Ton, Y13

X35: Time of Argon Stir 12. Rework Costs, $/Ton, Y14

X36: Ladle Chemistry

MEANS

Arc Furnaces
Trained Melters

Figure 6: Input-Process-Output diagram with Factors and Responses for Melting Process

18
 CAUSE EFFECT DIAGRAM

Figure 7: Cause and Effect Diagram – Inclusions Defect

19
Figure 8: Cause and Effect Matrtix – Shrinkage Defect

20
Figure 9: Example of FMEA diagram – Melting

21
Figure 9A: Example of FMEA diagram – Welding

22
FEMA (DEC.30, 2011)

Figure 9B: Example of FMEA diagram – Welding

23