Geography www.iasscore.

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ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION
• The atmosphere is made up of gases and vapor, and receives incoming solar energy from the sun giving
rise to what we call climate.
• We live at the bottom of this indefinite layer of atmosphere where the air is densest.
• Moving up, the air thins out and the atmosphere extends up to 6000 miles above sea level.
• The lowest layer, in which the weather is confined, is known as the troposphere.

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OR
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Thickness of the Atmosphere

• The upper limit of the atmosphere is 10,000 km (6000 miles) above the earth surface. However, most of
the meteorologists consider the top of the atmosphere at round 480 km (300 miles).
Structure of Atmosphere On the basis of composition
Homosphere and Heterosphere
• Homosphere is a zone where the constituent gases are fairly well mixed and the composition is homogeneous
throughout. The Homosphere extends up to an altitude of about 50 miles above sea level.
• Heterosphere lies above the Homosphere and is a zone of poor mixing where the average composition
varies depending on the location. This region starts at 50 to 60 miles (80-100 km) above the earth and,
therefore, closely coincides with the ionosphere and the thermosphere.
Structure of Atmosphere on the basis of Temperature
About 50% of the atmosphere is confined to 5.6km and 97% upto 29km. On the basis of characteristic of
temperature and pressure there are different layers of atmosphere.
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Layer Range Characteristics

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Troposphere • It extends up to 18 km at • Temperature decreases vertically at the rate

Equator and 13 km at poles.
Stratosphere • Extending upwards from a
height of 18 km at the equator
and 8 km at the poles upto a
height of about 50 km.
Notes
of 6.4°C/1000M. The temperature near
Tropopause is about -57°C.
• All the weather phenomena like fog, cloud, dew,
frost, rainfall, hailstorm, cloud thunder, etc
occurs in this layer.
• It is because of this that the air navigations are
conducted above this layer because it makes
air navigation difficult with the presence of
various dangerous weather conditions.
• The temperature ranges between -57°C and 0°C
and gradually rises upward and is about 0°C at
the stratopause, the upper limit of stratosphere.
• Strong and persistent winds (Jet Streams) flow
in stratosphere.

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• In the lower part of stratosphere there is ozone

layer between the heights of 15 to 30 km. This
part is called as ozonosphere. Ozone layer
absorbs ultraviolet rays.
Mesosphere • Extends from 50 km to 80 km. • Temperature again starts decreasing with
increase in height in this layer. This is because
this layer is being heated from below. The
ozonosphere present in the stratosphere provides
the heat.
• The upper most limit of mesosphere is 80 km
where the temperature becomes - 80°C, and is
called as Mesopause.
• When the meteors, which are also known as
shooting stars enters the mesosphere, they get

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heated due to the frictional resistance
experienced by them due to air.
Ionosphere • It is located between 80 and
400 km.
OR
• At this level, the ionization of atmosphere
begins to occur. Here the elements are found in
the form of free ions that is why it is called as
ionosphere.
• It has electrically conducting layers which make
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short-wave radio transmission possible over long
distances. Radio waves transmitted from the
earth are reflected back by this layer.
• Modern artificial satellites, launched in the upper
strata of the atmosphere, as well as balloons
are used to transmit back to earth valuable
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information regarding the conditions of the

atmosphere.
Exosphere/ • The density is very low and Temperature
Thermosphere increases with height. Temperature becomes
5568°C.
• This layer merges with the outer space.
• Lowest air pressure
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BASIC CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGIES

ATMOSPHERE
• Atmosphere - Atmosphere is the envelope of gases surrounding the earth, held by gravity.
• Tropopause - The outer boundary of the troposphere is the Tropopause.
• Aurora : Multicoloured lights that appear in the upper atmosphere (ionosphere) over the polar regions and
visible from locations in the middle and high latitudes. Caused by the interaction of solar wind with oxygen
and nitrogen gas in the atmosphere. Aurora in the Northern Hemisphere are called aurora borealis and
aurora australis in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Solar Wind : Mass of ionised gas emitted to space by the sun. Plays a role in the formation of auroras.

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ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE AND CYCLES
OR
• Insolation : Incoming solar radiation in short wave form.
• Convection - The transmission of heat from one part of a liquid or gas to another by movement of the
particles themselves.
• Conduction - Conduction takes place when two bodies of unequal temperature are in contact with one
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another; there is a flow of energy from the warmer to cooler body. The transfer of heat continues until
both the bodies attain the same temperature or the contact is broken.
• Advection: The transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air is called advection.
• Radiation - The process by which a body emits radiant energy (energy received from the sun). It causes
a loss heat, and therefore, leads to cooling
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• Plank’s Law - Plank’s law states that hotter a body, the more energy it will radiate and shorter the
wavelength of that radiation.
• Specific Heat - Specific heat is the energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of substance by
one Celsius
• Net Radiation - When net radiation is positive, the surface gains heat and temperature rises. When net
radiation is negative, the surface loses heat and temperature falls.
• Temperature Inversion - In a temperature inversion, the normal situation of air cooling with altitude is
reversed and air warms with altitude. In the stratosphere, the absorption of ultraviolet radiation causes the
temperature to increase with altitude.
• Isotherms –
• Isotherms Patterns - The world patterns of isotherms are largely explained by latitude, coastal interior
contrasts and elevation.
• Temperature Patterns - Six important points about temperature patterns are:
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– Temperatures decrease from the equator to the poles.

– Large landmasses in the subarctic and arctic develop centers of extremely low temperatures in winter.
– Temperatures in equatorial regions change little from January to July.
– Isotherms make a large north-south shift from January to July over continents in the midlatitude and
subarctic zones.
– Highlands are colder than surrounding lowlands.
– Areas of perpetual ice and snow are intensely cold.
• Temperature Range - Five important points about temperature range are:
– The annual temperature range increases with latitude.
– The greatest ranges are in the subarctic and arctic zones of Asia and North America.

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– Annual range is moderately large on land in the tropical zone.
– Annual range in coastal areas is less than the range inland at the same latitude.

•
–
OR
Small temperature ranges are found near oceans in the tropical zone.
Global Warming: Warming of the Earth’s average global temperature because of an increase in the concentration
of greenhouse gases.
• Greenhouse Effect: The greenhouse effect causes the atmosphere to trap more heat energy at the Earth’s
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surface and within the atmosphere by absorbing and re-emitting long wave energy.
• Greenhouse Gases: Gases responsible for the greenhouse effect. These gases include: carbon dioxide (CO2);
methane (CH4); nitrous oxide (N2O); chlorofluorocarbons (CFC); and tropospheric ozone (O3). The greenhouse
gases absorb long wave radiation and enhance the greenhouse effect. The burning of fossil fuels has
increased the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere by 22% in the past 100 years.
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• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) : Is an artificially created gas that has become concentrated in the Earth’s
atmosphere. This very strong greenhouse gas is released from aerosol sprays, refrigerants, and the production
of fumes.
• Ozone : Tri-atomic oxygen that exists in the earth’s atmosphere as a gas. Ozone is highest in concentration
in the stratosphere (10-50 km above the earth’s surface) where it absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet radiation.
Stratospheric ozone is produced naturally and helps to protect life from the harmful effects of solar
ultraviolet radiation.
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE AND PRECIPITATION
• Moisture - Water exists in the atmosphere as water vapor, clouds, fog and precipitation.
• Hydrological Cycle - The movement of water between the land, the oceans and the atmosphere is called
the hydrologic cycle
• Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor in the air. The amount of water the air can hold depends
on temperature. Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air.
• Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor in the air expressed as a percentage of the
amount of water vapor the air can hold given its present temperature.
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• Specific humidity is the actual mass of water vapor per mass of air, usually stated in grams of water vapor
per kilogram of air. It is a measure of the amount of water vapor that can be extracted from the
atmosphere as precipitation.
• Dew Point Temperature - The dew point temperature is the temperature at which relative humidity would
be 100%. Condensation will occur if the temperature falls producing dew or frost.
• Precipitation results when a large mass of air is lifted and cooled to a temperature below its dew point.
• Adiabatic processes cause heating or cooling solely by pressure change. Air that rises expands and cools
as pressure decreases with altitude. Air that descends encounters higher pressures and is compressed and
warms.
• Adiabatic Lapse Rate The rate of change of temperature by an ascending or descending airmass. If no
other non-adiabatic processes (i.e. no heat enters or leaves the system) occur (like condensation, evaporation
and radiation), expansion causes the parcel of air to cool at a set rate of 0.98° per 100 m. The opposite
occurs when a parcel of air descends in the atmosphere. The air in a descending parcel becomes compressed.
Compression causes the temperature within the parcel to increase at a rate of 0.98° per 100 m.
• Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate - A parcel of air cooling without condensation cools at the dry adiabatic lapse

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rate of 10° C per 1000 m (5.5° F per 1000 ft.).
OR
• Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate - Once air has cooled to its dew point, condensation releases latent heat,
slowing the rate of cooling to the wet adiabatic lapse rate which varies between 4° and 9° C per 1000
m. (2.2° and 4.9° F per 1000 ft) depending on the temperature and pressure of the air and its moisture
content.
• Condensation Nuclei - A cloud is made up of water droplets or ice formed on tiny particles of matter
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called condensation nuclei.

• Clouds are classified on the basis of height and form. Clouds at ground level are called fog. Radiation
fog forms when the temperature of the air near the ground falls below the dew point. Advection fog occurs
when warm moist air is cooled below dew point as it moves over a cold surface.
• Cirrocumulus Clouds: Patchy white high altitude cloud composed of ice crystals. Found in an altitude
range from 5,000 - 18,000 m.
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• Cirrostratus Clouds: High altitude sheet like clouds composed of ice crystals. These thin clouds often
cover the entire sky. Found in an altitude range from 5,000 - 18,000 m.
• Cumulus Cloud: Large clouds with relatively flat bases. These are found in an altitude range from 300 -
2,000 m.
• Cumulonimbus Cloud: A well developed vertical cloud that often has top shaped like an anvil. These
clouds can extend in altitude from a few hundred m above the surface to more than 12,000 m.
• Nimbostratus Clouds - Dark, gray low altitude cloud that produces continuous precipitation in the form of
rain or snow. Found in an altitude range from the surface to 3,000 m.
• Precipitation - Precipitation forms when either cloud droplets or ice crystals increase in size by colliding
with each other until they are heavy enough to fall.
• Hail It is a type of precipitation received in the form of ice pellets or hail stones. The size of hailstones
can be between 5 and 190 mm in diameter.
• Orographic Precipitation - Precipitation that occurs as a result of air being forced over a topographic
barrier is called Orographic precipitation.
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• Convectional Precipitation - Air that rises because it is warmer than the air around it produces convectional
precipitation.
• Cyclonic Precipitation - Air that is forced to rise over another air mass produces cyclonic precipitation.
• Thunderstorms - Thunderstorms are intense convectional storms associated with massive cumulonimbus
clouds. They may produce heavy rains, hail, thunder, lightning and intense downdrafts (micro bursts)
which may create hazards for humans.
PRESSURE, WINDS AND THE GLOBAL CIRCULATION SYSTEM
• Atmospheric Pressure: Weight of the atmosphere on a surface. At sea-level, the average atmospheric pressure
is 1013.25 mb. Pressure is measured by a device called a barometer. Atmospheric pressure is greatest at
the earth’s surface and decreases with altitude.
• Pressure Gradients - Pressure differences between two places create pressure gradients and the resulting
pressure gradient force causes air to move from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.

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• Wind - Differences in pressure cause air to move horizontally. This air in motion is called wind. Winds
move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. Wind direction is measured by a wind vane.
Wind speed is measured by an anemometer.
•

•
differences over land and water surfaces. OR
Land and sea breezes are examples of winds caused by pressure differences that result from temperature

Coriolis Effect - The Coriolis Effect is due to the earth’s rotation and causes objects in motion to appear
to be deflected off course. This apparent deflection is to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the
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left in the southern hemisphere. The effect is absent at the equator and increases as you move toward the
poles.
• Frictional Force - The third force affecting the direction of wind is that of friction.
• Buys Ballot Law - Buys Ballot’s law is the relation of wind direction with the horizontal pressure distribution.
According to the law, if you stand with your back to the wind in the Northern Hemisphere, air pressure
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will be lower to your left. If you stand with your back to the wind in the Southern Hemisphere, air pressure
will be lower to your right.
• Air flow spirals into a low-pressure center and rises while the air descends and flows out of a high-
pressure center. The inspiral at a low-pressure center is counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and
clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The out spiral at a high-pressure center is clockwise in the northern
hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere.
• Cyclones - (low pressure centers) are associated with cloudy or rainy weather.
• Anticyclones - (high pressure centers) are associated with clear, dry weather.
• Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) Zone of low atmospheric pressure and ascending air located at
or near the equator. Rising air currents are due to global wind convergence and convection from thermal
heating.
• Trade Winds At 30° latitude, air descends creating areas of high pressure in the subtropical high-pressure
belt. Air moves out of these high pressure areas toward the equator creating the trade winds. Winds also
move toward the mid latitudes creating the westerlies.
• Anabatic Winds are upslope winds driven by warmer surface temperatures on a mountain slope than the
surrounding air column. 
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• Katabatic Wind : Any wind blowing down the slope of a mountain

• Land Breeze: Local thermal circulation pattern found at the interface between land and water. In this
circulation system, surface winds blow from land to water during the night.
• Monsoons - The monsoon is a seasonally reversing wind pattern that brings heavy rains onto the Asian
subcontinent in summer and hot, dry conditions in the winter.
• Geotropic Winds - Winds at an altitude of 5 to 7 km above the earth’s surface are influenced by pressure
gradient force and Coriolis force but not by the force of friction. These are the Geotropic winds that flow
parallel to isobars.
• Rossby waves are large undulations in the flow of the upper air Westerlies along the zone of contact
between cold and warm air. They allow warm air to penetrate northward and cold air to penetrate
southward.
• Jet streams are narrow bands of high velocity air that form along the polar front and above the Hadley
cell in the subtropics.

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WEATHER SYSTEMS
• Air Mass : A body of air whose temperature and humidity characteristics, acquired in source region,
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remain relatively constant over a horizontal distance of hundreds to thousands of km. Air masses develop
their climatic characteristics by remaining stationary over a source region for a number of days. Air
masses are classified according to their temperature and humidity characteristics.
• Front - A front is a boundary between one air mass and another. The leading edge of cold air advancing
into an area is called a cold front.
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• Cold Front: A transition zone in the atmosphere where an advancing cold air mass displaces a warm air
mass.
• Warm Front Warm air moving into an area of cold air is called a warm front.
• Occluded Front When a cold front overtakes a warm front and forces the warm air aloft, it is called an
occluded front. It’s a transition zone in the atmosphere where an advancing cold air mass sandwiches a warm
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air mass between another cold air mass pushing the warm air into the upper atmosphere.
• Wave Cyclone An important weather system affecting middle and high latitudes is a traveling low pressure
system called a wave cyclone. Wave cyclones move from west to east and involve interaction of warm
and cold fronts that often produces cyclonic precipitation.
• Tornado - A tornado is an intense low pressure system with very high wind speeds. Tornadoes develop
with thunderstorms and hurricanes.
• A weather system associated with tropical areas is the easterly wave, a low pressure trough into which air
converges and is lifted producing precipitation.
• A polar outbreak occurs when cold polar air forces its way into very low latitudes, bringing storms
followed by cold, clear weather.
• Tropical cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons are all names for powerful storms which develop over warm
ocean surfaces between 8° and 15° latitude, migrate westward and curve toward the poles. Tropical
cyclones often create tremendous damage due to high winds, high waves, flooding and heavy rains.
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INSOLATION AND HEAT BUDGET

Introduction
• The only source of energy for the earth's atmosphere comes from the sun which has a surface temperature
of more than 10,800 degree F. This energy travels through space for a distance of 93 million miles and
reaches us as solar energy or radiant energy in the process called Insolation.
• Only that part of the sun's radiation which reaches the earth is called Insolation. It is the amount of solar
energy reaching the earth's surface per unit time per sq. cm.
• Insolation is measured with the help of Pyranometer.

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Variability in Insolation

OR
• The amount of Insolation received on any date at a place on earth is influenced by the following factors:
– the rotation of earth on its axis
– the angle of inclination of the sun's rays
– the length of the day
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– the transparency of the atmosphere
– The configuration of land in terms of its aspect.
• The Earth's axis makes an angle of 66 with
the plane of its orbit round the sun, has a
greater influence on the amount of Insolation
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received at different latitudes.

• The second factor that determines the
amount of Insolation received is the angle
of inclination of the rays. This depends on
the latitude of a place.
• The higher the latitude the less is the angle
they make with the surface of the earth
resulting in slant sun rays. The area covered
by vertical rays is always less than the slant
rays. If more area is covered, the energy
gets distributed and the net energy received
per unit area decreases.
• Moreover, the slant rays are required to pass through greater depth of the atmosphere resulting in more
absorption, scattering and diffusion.
• For the year as a whole Insolation is greatest at the equator and decreases towards the poles
• Insolation shows the least variation throughout the year at the equator.
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• The diurnal range of temperature is the highest in the hot deserts. (Due to clear skies and high radiation).
• The Summer Solstice and the Winter Solstice fall on 21st June and 23rd December, respectively.
• The Autumn Equinox and the Spring Equinox fall on 23rd September and 21st March, respectively.

Passage of Solar Radiation through the Atmosphere

• The radiation from the sun is made up of three parts, the visible 'white' light that we see when the sun
shines and the less visible ultra-violet and infra-red rays. The visible 'white' light is the most intense and
has the greatest influence on our climate. The ultra -violet rays affect our skin and cause sun-burn when

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our bare body is exposed to them for too long a period. The infra-red rays can penetrate even dust and
fog and are widely used in photography.
OR
• The atmosphere is largely transparent to short wave solar radiation. The incoming solar radiation passes
through the atmosphere before striking the earth's surface.
• The earth's surface receives most of its energy in short wavelengths.
• Within the troposphere water vapor, ozone and other gases absorb much of the near infrared radiation.
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• Very small-suspended particles in the troposphere scatter visible spectrum both to the space and towards
the earth surface. This process adds color to the sky. The red color of the rising and the setting sun and
the blue color of the sky are the result of scattering of light within the atmosphere.
Spatial Distribution of Insolation at the Earth's Surface
• The Insolation received at the surface varies from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to about 70 Watt/
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m2 in the poles.
• Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical deserts, where the cloudiness is the least.
• Generally, at the same latitude the insolation is more over the continent than over the oceans.
• Equator receives comparatively less insolation than the tropics.
• In winter, the middle and higher latitudes receive less radiation than in summer
Heating and Cooling Of Atmosphere
• There are different ways of heating and cooling of the atmosphere. The earth after being heated by
Insolation transmits the heat to the atmospheric layers near to the earth in long wave form.
• Conduction: The air in contact with the land gets heated slowly and the upper layers in contact with the
lower layers also get heated. This process is called conduction. Conduction is important in heating the
lower layers of the atmosphere
• Convection: The air in contact with the earth rises vertically on heating in the form of currents and further
transmits the heat of the atmosphere. This process of vertical heating of the atmosphere is known as
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convection. The convective transfer of energy is confined only to the troposphere

• Advection: The transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air is called advection. Horizontal
movement of the air is relatively more important than the vertical movement. In middle latitudes, most
of diurnal (day and night) variation in daily weather is caused by advection alone. In tropical regions
particularly in northern India during summer season local winds called 'loo' is the outcome of advection
process
• Terrestrial Radiation - The Insolation received by the earth is in short waves forms and heats up its
surface. The earth after being heated itself becomes a radiating body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere
in long wave form. This energy heats up the atmosphere from below. This process is known as terrestrial
radiation.
• Green House Gases - The long wave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon
dioxide and the other green house gases. Thus, the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the earth's radiation.
The atmosphere in turn radiates and transmits heat to the space. Finally the amount of heat received from
the sun is returned to space, thereby maintaining constant temperature at the earth's surface and in the

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atmosphere.
Heat budget of the Earth
•
•
OR
The earth as a whole does not accumulate or loose heat. It maintains its temperature.
This can happen only if the amount of heat received in the form of Insolation equals the amount lost
by the earth through terrestrial radiation.
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• Our earth is heated by the process of radiation. Radiation is the means by which solar radiation reaches
the earth and the earth loses energy to outer space. T
• The global radiation has three major components:
a) Incoming short wave solar radiation.
b) The planetary Albedo.
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c) Outgoing long wave radiation from the earth's surface to the space.
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Incoming shortwave solar radiation: equals to 100 units

a) Amount lost to space through scattering and reflection equals to 35% comprises of
• Clouds = 27%
• Reflected by ground = 2%
• Scattered by dust particles = 6%
b) Heat received by earth equals to 51% comprises of
• Through direct radiation = 34%
• Received as diffuse day light = 17%
c) Absorption by the atmospheric gases and water vapour equals to 14%
Outgoing long-wave terrestrial radiation
a) Reflected by earth which was equal to 51 per cent as shown above

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• 23% from radiation
OR
• 9% through convection
• 19% through evaporation
b) 48% absorbed in atmosphere moved through radiation back into space.
Albedo
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• Albedo is the reflective quality of a surface with respect to solar radiation.

• Smooth surface increase albedo, whereas rough surface reduce it.
• The albedo of the earth is approximately 0.4 i.e. about 40 % of solar radiation is reflected back into space.
• Albedo is higher for a snow covered surface, and low for dark soil.
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• Tropics (23 ½°N and 23 ½°S)- Albedo is between 19 to 38 per cent

• Polar Regions - Albedo as high as 80%.
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Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the Earth's Surface

• There are variations in the amount of radiation received at the earth's surface. Some part of the earth has
surplus radiation balance while the other part has deficit.
• Figure depicts the latitudinal variation in the net radiation balance of the earth - the atmosphere system

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OR
• There is a surplus of net radiation balance between 40 degrees north and south and the regions near the
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poles have a deficit.
• The surplus heat energy from the tropics is redistributed pole wards and as a result the tropics do not get
progressively heated up due to the accumulation of excess heat or the high latitudes get permanently
frozen due to excess deficit.
Latitudinal Variations
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• Although the earth and its atmosphere as a whole have a radiation balance, there are latitudinal variations.
The heat/energy is transferred from the lower latitudes to the higher latitudes through winds and ocean
currents.
• In the low latitudes (between 40 N and 40 S) heat gained by short wave radiation is far more than the heat
loss by long waves through the earth's radiation. In contrast in the higher latitudes more heat is lost by
outgoing long wave than it is received in short waves.
• In view of the imbalances at high and low latitudes, there is large-scale transfer of heat from tropics to
high latitudes by atmospheric and oceanic circulation.
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TEMPERATURE
Introduction
• The interaction of Insolation with the atmosphere and the earth's surface creates heat which is measured
in terms of temperature.
• While heat represents the molecular movement of particles comprising a substance, the temperature is the
measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a place) is.
Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution
The temperature of air at any place is influenced by

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(i) The latitude of the place
(ii) The altitude of the place
OR
(iii) Distance from the sea
(iv) The air mass circulation
(v) The presence of warm and cold ocean currents
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(vi) Local aspects

Distribution of Temperature
• The global distribution of temperature can well be understood by studying the temperature distribution
in January and July.
• The temperature distribution is generally shown on the map with the help of isotherms.
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• The Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature

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Inversion of temperature
• In the troposphere, the temperature decreases from the earth's surface up to the Tropopause with increasing
altitude. This decrease in temperature is known as normal lapse rate.
• The normal lapse rate is 6.4°C per kilometer. But sometimes, under special circumstances, the decrease
in temperature with altitude is reversed and the temperature increase with increasing altitude. This phenomenon
is known as inversion of temperature. Inversion of temperature generally occurs in valleys.
• Conditions for the Inversion of Temperatures:
a) In winters, on calm and clear nights.
b) When the sky is clear and anticyclone condition prevails.
c) When the earth surface is covered with ice. Snow and frost.

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OR
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Significance of Temperature Inversion

The inversion of temperature has a direct bearing on weather, climate, economy and society. Some of the
influences of inversion of temperature are as under:
• The weather phenomena like, formation of clouds, atmospheric visibility and precipitation are
• The diurnal range of temperature
• The vertical distribution of temperature
• The equable distribution of moisture in the lower level of the atmosphere is affected.
• At the occurrence of dense fog, the sensitive crops, especially citrus fruits, vegetables, sugarcane, wheat
and other cereal crops are damaged.
• The air-traffic is also affected by the inversion of temperature. The density, speed, results in the formation
of bumpiness in certain layers of the atmosphere. A surface inversion of temperature makes air navigation
difficult and hazardous.
• The reduced visibility at the occurrence of dense fog due to inversion of temperature may be hazardous
for road and rail traffics.
• The daily life of people especially in the temperate latitudes is adversely affected.
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ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION - PRESSURE BELTS

Introduction
• The movement of air in the atmosphere due to the uneven distribution of temperature over the surface
of the earth is known as Atmospheric Circulation.
• Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variations in the atmospheric
pressure. The result is that it causes the movement of air from high pressure to low pressure, setting the
air in motion.
• Atmospheric pressure also determines when the air will rise or sink.
Wind
• Air in motion is wind.

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• The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across the planet, thereby, maintaining a constant temperature
for the planet as a whole.
OR
• The vertical rising of moist air cools it down to form the clouds and bring precipitation.
Atmospheric Pressure
• The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the
atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure.
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• The atmospheric pressure is expressed in units of millibars.

• At sea level the average atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 millibars.
• Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser and hence has higher pressure.
• Pressure is measured with the help of a mercury barometer or the aneroid barometer.
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• The pressure decreases with height. At any elevation it varies from place to place and its variation is the
primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind which moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas
Vertical Variation of Pressure
• In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases rapidly with height. The decrease amounts to about 1 mb
for each 10 m increase in elevation.
• It does not always decrease at the same rate the vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that
of the horizontal pressure gradient.
• But, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not experience
strong upward winds.
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure
• Small differences in pressure are highly significant in terms of the wind direction and velocity. Horizontal
distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels. Isobars are lines connecting places
having equal pressure. In order to eliminate the effect of altitude on pressure, it is measured at any station
after being reduced to sea level for purposes of comparison.
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• Low pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre. High-
pressure system is also enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure in the centre.
Forces Affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind

OR
The wind blows from high pressure to low pressure. The wind at the surface experiences friction. In addition,
rotation of the earth also affects the wind movement. The force exerted by the rotation of the earth is known
as the Coriolis force. Thus, the horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the combined effect of three
forces –
SC
1. Pressure gradient force
2. Frictional force and
3. Coriolis force
4. In addition, the gravitational force acts downward.
GS

Convergence and Divergence of winds

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Pressure Gradient Force

The differences in atmospheric pressure produce a force. The rate of change of pressure with respect to
distance is the pressure gradient. The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and
is weak where the isobars are apart.
Frictional Force
It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at the surface and its influence generally extends up to an
elevation of 1 - 3 km. Over the sea surface the friction is minimal.
Coriolis force

E
OR
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• The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind.
• This force is called the Coriolis force after the French physicist who described it in 1844. It deflects the
wind to the right direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
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• The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.

• The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude.
• It is maximum at the poles and is absent at the equator.
• The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient force is
perpendicular to an isobar.
• The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the velocity of the wind and the larger is the deflection
in the direction of wind.
• As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the low-pressure areas the wind
blows around it.
• At the equator, the Coriolis force is zero and the wind blows perpendicular to the isobars. The low
pressure gets filled instead of getting intensified. That is the reason why tropical cyclones are not formed
near the equator.
• The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of the
surface and are controlled mainly by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.
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Geotropic wind
• When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the
Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as the Geotropic
wind
Cyclonic Circulation
• The wind circulation around a low is called cyclonic circulation. Around a high it is called anti cyclonic
circulation. The direction of winds around such systems changes according to their location in different
hemispheres

E
• OR
Other important patterns of atmospheric circulation over the globe are
The wind is strong where the isobars are crowed and weak where they are wide apart. The normal sea level
pressure is expressed as 1013.2 millibars or 29.92 inches.
• The relation between isobar spacing and wind speed is rather firm in high and mid-latitudes but weakens
SC
as we approach the equator. Between 10°N and 10°S, it is difficult to relate the winds to pressure
distribution.
• In the large wind systems, the air is slow starter, but when it has worked up some speed, it will carry on
for a longer time.
• Along and near the earth’s surface, wind does not move freely in a horizontal plain. The irregularities of
GS

the earth surface (e.g. mountains, hills etc,) influence the direction of winds
• Other factors being equal, the difference in wind speed and direction between the surface and upper levels
is greatest over rough land surface. Over water the surface wind nearly equals the gradient wind.
• The maximum speed of wind usually occurs in the early
afternoon and the minimum in the early morning hours just
before the sunrise.
• Winds are named for the direction from which they come. A
wind blowing from north to south is a north wind, a wind
blowing from west to east is a west wind and a wind blowing
from east to west is an east wind.
GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
• The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is called
the general circulation of the atmosphere.
• The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion
the ocean water circulation which influences the earth’s climate.
The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises
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because of convection caused by high Insolation and a low pressure is created. The winds from the tropics
converge at this low pressure zone.
The pattern of planetary winds largely depends on:
(i) Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;
(ii) Emergence of pressure belts
(iii) The migration of belts following apparent path of the sun
(iv) The distribution of continents and oceans
(v) The rotation of earth
• The converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an
altitude of 14 km. and moves towards the poles. This causes accumulation of air at about 30o N and S.
• Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high. Another reason for sinking
is the cooling of air when it reaches 30 N and S latitudes.

E
• Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the easterlies. The easterlies from
either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such circulations from
OR
the surface upwards and vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is called Hadley Cell.
• In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the rising
warm air that blows from the subtropical high. At the surface these winds are called westerlies and the
cell is known as the Ferrel cell.
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• At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the
polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell. These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation
of the atmosphere. The transfer of heat energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the
general circulation.
The Tricellular Circulation
GS

The Tricellular Circulation is the atmospheric circulation in the upper atmosphere.

Mechanism of Circulation:
The heat in the atmosphere is transferred:
1. Horizontally – The horizontal distribution of heat is mainly because of the unequal heating at different
latitudes, while the vertical circulation is because of the ascent and descent of heated and cold air,
respectively.
2. Vertically - The meridional circulation of heat transfer and vertical circulation of atmosphere result into
the formation of certain cells which are as under:
• Tropical Cell (Hadley Cell)
• Polar Front Cell (Ferrell Cell)
• Polar or Sub-Polar Cell
a) Tropical-Cell (Hadley Cell): The Idea of tropical cell was given by Hadley in 1735. In his opinion there
is a vertical cell in each hemisphere.
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• In the equatorial zone, the Sun’s rays fall vertical. Consequently, the air becomes light resulting into the
formation of a low pressure area along the equator, known as Doldrums.
• The warm ascending air current releases latent heat. This process results into the formation of cumulous
clouds. The formation of cumulous clouds provides the required energy to drive the tropical cell. The
cumulous clouds give torrential rains in the equatorial regions.
• The rising air from thermally driven tropical cell moves pole-ward in the upper troposphere. The air of
the Hadley Cell descends at 30° North and 30° South. The Hadley Cells are more pronounced in the
Southern Hemisphere than that of the Northern Hemisphere. It is mainly because of the less proportion
of land in the Southern Hemisphere.
b) The Polar Front Cells (Ferrell Cell):
• The polar front cell, also known as Ferrell Cell develops between the 30° and 60° in both the Hemispheres.
In these latitudes the wind blows from southwest to northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from
northwest to southeast in the Southern Hemisphere and because of the Coriolis force the winds blow

E
almost from west to east.
• In the upper part of the atmosphere in these latitudes (30°C and 60° N and S) the movement of winds

•
is parallel to the trade winds in both the Hemisphere.
OR
The prevailing westerly in this zone is frequently influenced by the migratory temperate cyclones. The
direction of winds in the temperate cyclones is variable, coming from different directions and thus helps
in the mixing of temperature.
SC
• The middle latitude circulation cell plays a very vital role in maintaining the terrestrial heat balance. There
is plenty of rainfall in these latitudes from the temperate cyclones throughout the year.
c) Polar or Sub-Polar Cells:
• This cell is located between 60° to 90° in both the hemispheres. These are the areas of high pressures or
anticyclones. In these latitudes, the air descends downward from the upper atmosphere.
GS

• From these high pressures the air moves towards the sub-polar low pressure. Though the direction of winds
is from northeast to southwest in the Northern hemisphere and from southeast to northwest in the
Southern Hemisphere, but under the impact of coriolis force the direction of winds is generally from east
to west.
• The cold polar easterlies in their equator ward movement clash with the warmer westerlies (anti-trades)
of the temperate regions. The zone of convergence of these two airflows of contrasting nature is known’s
“Polar Front”. In this cell the mixing of heat transfer is accomplished by waves in the westerlies.
• In the upper atmosphere of this cell the wind blows from the 60° towards the poles.
• In brief, in the tropical cell (Hadley Cell), the exchange of heat and movement of air are accomplished
by direct circulation, while in the Ferrell Cells and Polar Cells have a tendency to move north and
southward with the shifts in pressure belts and change in seasons. In these areas the transfer or energy is
influenced by the temperate cyclones.
Climatic Significance of Tricellular Circulation
Climatic Significance of Meridional Circulation
Some of the significant climatic influences are as under:
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• The Tricellular circulation is very significant in the transfer of heat from the lower to the upper atmosphere.
• The convergence of trade winds in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone and in the Subtropical High
Pressure (Divergent) Zone makes a substantial contribution in the transfer of energy.
• The Tricellular Cells help in the development of the temperate and tropical cyclones.
• The mechanism of origin of Indian Monsoon is closely influenced by these cells.
• The Origin of tornados and vertical disturbances are the results or heat transfer in the Hadley Cells.
• The formation of hot deserts, horse latitudes, roaring forties are because of the meridional circulation of
the atmosphere.
• In brief, the seasons, climates, climatic belts, vegetation belts, and the life style of people in the different
regions of the world are directly or indirectly influenced by the Tricellular atmospheric circulation.

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OR
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GS
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WINDS
Introduction
• When the movement of the air in the atmosphere is in a horizontal direction over the surface of the earth,
it is known as the wind. Movement of the wind is directly controlled by pressure.
• Horizontally, at the Earth’s surface wind always blows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure
usually at speeds determined by the rate of air pressure change between pressure centers. Wind speed is
a function of the steepness or gradient of atmospheric air pressure found between high and low pressure
systems. When expressed scientifically, pressure change over a unit distance is called pressure gradient
force and the greater this force the faster the winds will blow.

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OR
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PLANETARY WINDS
• Equatorial Low Pressure Belt (inter-Tropical Convergence Zone):
– This is known as Doldrums (Gloomy and sultry air).
– NE and SE Trade wind converge on Doldrums.
GS

– In this zone strong heating causes surface air to expand and rise.
– The humid, rising and expanding air loses moisture as Convectional rainfall (tropical rain forests).
– Doldrums migrates about 5°N and 5°S.
• Subtropical High Pressure Belts
– The subtropical high pressure belts lie adjacent to Tropical zone but just outside the Tropic of Cancer
and Tropic of Capricorn (40°N and 40°S)
– These are the regions of anticyclones.
– The Subtropical High Pressure Belts are, however, not contiguous. They are best developed on oceans.
– In these belts the air descends. The descending are is generally arid.
– The great hot deserts are found in both the hemispheres in the sub-tropical High pressure Belts.
– Also known as Horse Latitudes.
• Low Pressure Belts
– The Sub-polar low Pressure Belts lie between 60° and 65° latitude is both of the Hemispheres.
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– These are dynamically produced by the rotation of earth on its axis.

– The Sub-polar Low Pressure Belt is more developed in the Southern Hemisphere.
– In the Northern Hemisphere it is more developed on the Aleutian Islands and Iceland.
• Polar High Pressure Belts
– Polar regions are cold throughout the year.
– These are the areas of high pressure.
– The polar winds move outward.
– More developed in Canada and Siberia.
• Trade Winds (Easterlies)
– Origin from the Latin word ‘trado’ meaning constant direction.
– The trade winds are the surface winds of the Hadley cells as they move from the horse latitudes to the

E
doldrums.
OR
– In the Northern Hemisphere they blow from NE to SW and in the Southern Hemisphere from SE to
NW. (Winds are named by the direction from which they blow).
– Trade winds blow with great regularity on oceans.
– Trade winds help in maintaining the global heat balance.
SC

– With the change in seasons, the Trade winds move 5 degree latitudes.
– Between the two trade winds is the Doldrum.
• Anti-Trade Winds (Westerlies)
– Blow from the Sub-tropical High Pressure towards the Poles.
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– In the N. Hemisphere they blow from SW to NE and in the S. Hemisphere from NW to SE.
– In winter they move southward and in summer northward affecting the Mediterranean region.
– They blow throughout the year.
– Cyclonic weather.
– In the S. Hemisphere they blow with greater strength.
– Roaring Forties (40°S to 50°S)
• Polar Easterlies
– They blow from polar areas towards the mid latitudes.
– They are more pronounced is the Southern Hemisphere.
– In Northern Hemisphere they blow from NE to SW and the Southern Hemisphere form NW to SE.
– Extremely cold.
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Shifting of Pressure Belts
–
–
–
OR
Summer Solstice (21st June) : The pressure belts move northward (Equator upto 10°N)
Winter Solstice (23rd Dec.): The Pressure belts move southward.
Spring Equinox (21st March) and Autumn Equinox (23rd Sept): The pressure belts occupy normal positions.
SC
– The occurrence of the Mediterranean and Monsoon climates, are closely influenced by the shift in
pressure belts.
PERIODIC WINDS
The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of regions of maximum
heating, pressure and wind belts. The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in the monsoons,
GS

especially over Southeast Asia.

(a) Monsoon Winds
• Monsoons are regional scale wind systems that predictably change direction with the passing of the
seasons.
Summer Monsoon
During the summer, monsoon winds blow from the cooler ocean surfaces onto the warmer continents. In the
summer, the continents become much warmer than the oceans because of a number of factors. These factors
include:
(i) Specific heat differences between land and water.
(ii) Greater evaporation over water surfaces.
(iii) Subsurface mixing in ocean basins, which redistributes heat energy through a deeper layer.
Precipitation is normally associated with the summer monsoons. Onshore winds blowing inland from the warm
ocean are very high in humidity, and slight cooling of these air masses causes condensation and rain. In some
cases, this precipitation can be greatly intensified by Orographic uplift. Some highland areas in Asia receive
more than 10 meters of rain during the summer months.
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Winter Monsoon
In the winter, the wind patterns reverses, as the ocean surfaces are now warmer. With little solar energy
available, the continents begin cooling rapidly as longwave radiation is emitted to space. The ocean surface
retains its heat energy longer because of water’s high specific heat and subsurface mixing. The winter monsoons
bring clear dry weather and winds that flow from land to sea.
Besides, Asian continent, monsoon wind systems also exist in Australia, Africa, South America, and North
America.

E
OR
LOCAL WINDS
• Local Winds is a general term for winds generated as a direct effect of local terrain. Local winds generally
develop as a result of variations in local temperature, pressure and humidity. The origin of local winds
is also attributed to the formation of air-currents Crossing Mountain ranges, valley and other physical
SC

barriers.
Main Causes of Local Winds
– Unequal heating of land and sea resulting into the land and sea breeze.
– Unequal heating and cooling of the mountain slopes.
GS

– Local winds originate because of the formation of air-currents, crossing the mountain ranges, and physical
barriers.
– Convectional local winds are caused by steep pressure gradients and steep variations in local temperatures.
Some of the local winds are discussed as follows
• Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
– Land and sea breezes are local periodic winds
on a diurnal basis which change their direction
after every twelve hours.
– They result when a differential heating takes
place within a short distance near the sea coast.
– Their air movement is caused either by heating
or cooling of a particular area.
• Mountain and Valley Wind
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• Sea Breeze
– A local air movement from sea to land.
– The greatest intensity of the sea breeze is in the
afternoon.
– It is a regular phenomenon in the equatorial region,
where it ameliorates the hot and humid weather
of the coastal areas.
– It varies considerably in speed and strength along
the sea coast, being influenced by topography.
– Sea breeze normally has a depth of more than
one km and does not extend inland more than
50km.
– It beings offshore around 10 A.M. and gradually
extends inland.
– Towards evening it subsides.
The mountain and valley winds may be termed as diurnal periodic winds.
SC
GS
These winds can be observed in Greenland, Arctic Island, Siberia, and Scandinavian countries, Alaska, Himalayas,
1. Valley Breeze (Anabatic)
– On warm sunny days, the heating of mountain
slopes result in the development of low pressure
on the peaks, ridges and higher slopes. The valley
bottom develops a relatively high pressure.
– The wind in the day blows from valley to
mountains.
– As the cool valley wind moves upward, it
moderates the surface temperatures.
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• Land Breeze
– A movement of wind from land to sea.
– Land breeze occurs when the skies are clear (by
radiation).
– It is confined to coastal regions and lake sides,
especially in the equatorial regions.
– It generally starts blowing after midnight or a
few hours later.
– Its maximum intensity is in the morning hours.
– Both the sea breeze and the land breeze are of
immense help to fishermen. These winds are so
regular that fishing boats go out at night with
E
the land breeze and return the next afternoon
with the sea breeze.
OR
2. Mountain Breeze (Katabatic)
– In the evening, the mountain slopes cool the
surrounding air more quickly than the air found
lower in the atmosphere.
– This creates a high pressure which causes winds
to blow down the mountain towards the valley
floor thus known as mountain breeze.
– In general, the mountains winds (night winds)
are stronger than the valley winds (day winds).
– The valley winds result into the formation of
cumulus clouds in the day time in mountainous
areas.
– These clouds disappear in the evening.
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Andes and Rockies. In the Andes these winds are known as Nevados. Also, Inversion of temperature due to
valley breeze affects crops and orchards in the valley adversely.
OTHER LOCAL WINDS
Drainage (Gravitational) Winds
These local winds blow in the temperate latitudes during the winter season. In winter a high pressure area
develops over plateaus.
Some of the important drainage winds are as under:
– Brick fielder : Blows from the desert of Australia in Summers (Dec., Jan.)
– Chili: A hot dry wind which blows southerly from the Sahara desert to the Mediterranean sea through
Tunisia.
– Karaburn : (Tarim Basin of China) - Blows from March to July. Hazy weather, helps in loess deposits
of China.

E
– Khamsin (Egypt) : Hot wind Blows for 50 days (April to June)
– Loo (N. W. India) : Blow in the months of May and June.
OR
– Sirocco: (Algeria) Blows from the Sahara desert towards Malta and Sicily - April to July. It becomes hot
and humid.
– Zonda: (Argentina and Uruguay) - A warm and dry wind.
– Blizzard: (Greenland, Canada, Antarctica) - Intensely cold, high wind, accompanied by falling snow,
SC

visibility reduced.
– Bora (Adriatic Sea): cold, Dec. to March, speed 120 to 140 km. per hour and occasionally upto 225 km
per hour, may blow for several days.
– Buran (Siberia and Central Asia): Strong, cold north-easterly wind, temperature around -30°C.
– Mistral (Rhone Valley of France): Winter season, 130 km. per hour. Orchards are protected from it.
GS

– Pampero (Pampas of Argentina): It is cold wind.

Descending Winds
– Berg (Germany, descends from the Alps) : Hot and dry, leads to irritation and headache.
– Fohn (Foehn, Fon): Blows northwards from the Alps in the upper Rhine Valley.
– Chinook (Snow and Ice-eater): Lows in U.S.A. (Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, N. Dakota, Oregon and
Washington) and in Canada (Alberta, Manitoba, Mackenzie). Period Dec. to April. Warm and dry. It
melts the winter snow and ice.
– Samoon (Iran and Kurdistan): Hot and Dry.
– Andhi (Dust Storm): May and June in N.W. India.
– Haboob (Sudan): Hot wind.
– Simoon (S. Arabia): Hot wind.
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PRECIPITATION
Precipitation
• Precipitation has been defined as water in liquid or solid forms falling to the earth. Rain, snow, hail and
sleet are the common forms of precipitation. Fog dew, frost are, however, been excluded from precipitation.
• Precipitation involves the process of evaporation, condensation, saturation and precipitation. The process of
condensation involves a change from water vapuor to liquid, while the process of precipitation the falling
out of water as rain, hail or sleet.
• Droplets produced by the condensation process are very small in size, averaging less than 10 micrometers
in diameter (compare with the human hair which is about 75 micrometers in diameter).

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Forms of Precipitation

OR
All forms of precipitation are collectively termed hydrometeors. The major types of precipitation are rain,
drizzle, snow, sleet, and hail. A brief account of each one of them has been given as under.
• Rain
– Rain is precipitation of water in liquid state.
SC
– The liquid water particle, either in the form of drops or more than 0.5 mm diameter or in the form
of smaller widely scattered drops. Whenever the rain drops fall from high altitude clouds, some of
them evaporate while passing through a layer of dry air
• Drizzle
– When the drops of falling precipitation are very small and of uniform size, and seem to float in the
air, It is called as drizzle.
GS

– Drizzle is fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of uniform water drops. They are formed
in very low stratus type clouds with a high water content. The relative humidity in the inter layers
of air between the cloud base and the ground is often nearly 100 per cent, so that the small drops
never evaporate in their journey.
• Snow
– It is precipitation of white and opaque grains of snow. In other words, snow is precipitation of solid
water. Generally, in the winter season, when temperatures are below freezing in the whole atmosphere,
the ice crystals falling from the alto stratus clouds do not melt and reach the ground as snow.
• Sleet
– Sleet is a type of precipitation in the form of mixture of rain and snow. It is a frozen raIn, which
forms when rain, while falling to the earth, passes through a layer of cold air and freezes. Sometimes,
sleet may grow into hailstorms when violent vertical currents are produced in the atmosphere.
• Hail
– A type of precipitation which falls in the form of small pellets of ice (hailstones) with a diameter
between 5 to 50 mm and sometimes more. Hailstones are generally of pea size or even smaller, but
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in rare cases they attain the size of a baseball. Hail is the most destructive form of precipitation
produced in violent thunder storms or cumulonimbus clouds.. The structure of a hail resembles to
that of an onion.
– Hailstorms seldom occur in the tropics and in the higher latitudes. Oceans are also almost free from
them. In both the hemispheres, area lying between 30° to 60° north and south latitudes, have the
maximum number of these storms.

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OR
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Types of Precipitation
On the basis of characteristics precipitation may be classified under the following categories:
GS

1. Convectional Precipitation: The convectional precipitation occurs in the areas of intense heat and abundant
supply of moisture. Solar radiation is the main sources of heat to produce convection currents in the air.
Convection rainfall generally results from the cumulus clouds. Thunder, lighting and occasional hails are
the characteristics of this type of precipitation. The belt of doldrums generally receives this type of
rainfall. Convectional rainfall is less effective for crops as much of its water is drained off in the form of
surface drainage.
2. Orographic Precipitation: The type of precipitation resulting from a vertical uplift of an air stream by
the topographic barrier (mountains etc,) In fact, for heavy rainfall to occur it is necessary for cyclonic or
convective process to be operative because the Orographic component is normally weak and acts merely
as a triggering mechanism. This type of precipitation is generally found on the wind ward sides of
mountain ranges, while the leeward side receives insignificant rainfall.
3. Cyclonic or Frontal Precipitation: Cyclonic precipitation occurs when deep and extensive air masses
converge and move upward which lead to their adiabatic cooling. The frontal rainfall is a characteristic of
the temperate latitudes. These latitudes are the zone of convergence of the warm and cold air masses. The
rainfall in these latitudes is generally in the form of drizzle. The frontal rainfall is widespread and continues
for longer periods. In North West Europe and North America the rainfall is mainly of cyclonic origin. In
the north-western parts of India also the winter rainfall is of frontal origin.
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OR
Distribution of Precipitation
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• The world distribution of precipitation is highly uneven.
• The distribution of rainfall is closely influenced by the latitudes, temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric
disturbance, and mountain barriers, movement of air masses and differential heating and cooling of the
land and water surfaces.
• The average annual precipitation over the whole earth is about 80 cm (30 inches).
GS

• The heaviest rainfall is recorded in the equatorial and monsoon regions. Heavy rainfall is also recorded in
the temperate regions on the western margins of the continents.
• In the tropical latitudes, the average annual precipitation decreases from east to west while in the temperate
latitudes there is a decrease in rainfall from west to east.
• The dry regions of the subtropical high pressure belt and the polar areas receive little precipitation.
• The equatorial belt is generally a region of abundant precipitation. The Amazon basin, Congo basin and
several places in the islands of South East Asia receive more than 200 cm of precipitation annually. Heavy
rainfall is also recorded in the Monsoon region (Mausinram and Cherapunji in Meghalaya-India) where the
average annual rainfall is around. 1000 cm.
• In the temperate latitudes the precipitation occurs largely because of the temperate cyclones. Places like
London, Bonn, Copenhagen, and Paris receive over 100 cm of annual precipitation.
• In the Polar Regions the low precipitation is due partly to the subsidence of air in the high pressure belts
and partly due to the low temperatures of air which holds little moisture.
• The oceans record more precipitation than the land areas, and the Southern hemisphere receives more
rainfall than the Northern.
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OR
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CLOUDS
Condensation
Condensation is the transformation of gaseous form of water into solid form i.e. ice and liquid form i.e. water.
Mechanism of Condensation
The mechanism of condensation depends upon the amount of relative humidity present in the air. When the
air achieves 100 per cent relative humidity, it is called as saturated air (no more water vapour can added to
it).
The temperature at which air becomes saturated is known as dew point and condensation starts only at this point.

E
If the temperature at dew point is above freezing point condensation occurs in the form of fog, rainfall etc. On the
other hand if the dew point is below freezing point condensation occurs in the form of snow, frost etc.
How saturation of air is achieved
OR
Method 1: When the absolute humidity at a given temperature is raised equal to the humidity retaining
capacity of the air.
Method 2: When the temperature of the air is reduced to such an extent that the humidity capacity becomes
SC
equal to its absolute humidity.
CONCEPT OF ADIABATIC CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE
If the change in temperature of air takes place by the ascent and descent of air and no addition or subtraction
of heat occurs then this process is known as adiabatic change of temperature.
GS

When the air is warmer than the surrounding air-mass it ascends. Due to upward movement of air volume
increases and the temperature decreases. As the dew point is achieved, condensation process starts and leads
to formation of clouds, fog and ultimately leads to precipitation. Thus instability of air causes different weather
phenomenon. In the process explained above there is no addition or subtraction of heat and the process is
solely due adiabatic change of temperature.
On the other hand if the dew point is not achieved, the air becomes colder than surrounding air. Thus the air
descends and becomes cooler. This leads to stability of air and weather phenomenon get hampered.
CLOUDS
Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the water
vapour in free air at considerable elevations. As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface of the
earth, they take various shapes. According to their height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness
clouds are grouped under
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OR
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Clouds are very significant because:

GS

• They cause all forms of precipitation.

• They play a major role in the heat budget of the earth.
• They reflect, absorb some part of incoming solar radiation as well as some part of long-wave terrestrial
radiation re-radiated by the earth.
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JET STREAMS
Introduction
• A jet stream develops where air masses of differing temperatures meet. Therefore, the surface temperatures
determine where the jet stream will form. 
• The greater the difference in temperature, the faster the wind velocity inside the jet stream. 
• Jet streams can flow up to 200 mph (322 km/h), are 1000’s of miles long, 100’s of miles wide, and a few
miles thick.
Where the jet stream begins?

E
• Air warmed in the tropics around the equator fuels the jet stream as it rises.
•
OR
Hitting the tropopause at about 58,000 feet (the layer of the atmosphere separating the troposphere from
the stratosphere), it is drawn toward the colder air at the north and south poles.
SC
GS

How does it form a convection cell?

At higher latitudes, the warm air cools and sinks, drawing more warm air in behind it. The cooled air flows
back towards the equator, creating a loop or convection cell.
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Why the jet stream flows on an easterly course?

E
As the earth rotates on its axis, so does the air around it. Due to this easterly rotation, rising warm air builds
OR
up momentum going the same direction. Thus, the jet stream cannot flow due north or due south, but makes
an angular approach from the west, toward both poles.
TYPES OF JET STREAMS
Subtropical Jet Streams
SC
GS

• These jets, like the polar-front jets, are best developed in winter and early spring.
• During summer, in the Northern Hemisphere, the subtropical jet weakens considerably, and it is only
identifiable in sporadic velocity streaks around the globe.
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• During winter, subtropical jets intensify and can be found between 20° and 50° latitude.
• Their maximum speed approaches 300 knots, although these higher wind speeds are associated with their
merger with polar-front jets.
• The core is most frequently found between 35,000 and 40,000 feet.
• A subsidence motion accompanies subtropical jets and gives rise to predominantly fair weather in areas
they pass over.
• These jets are also remarkably persistent from time to time, but they do fluctuate daily. 
• Sometimes they drift northward and merge with a polar-front jet. Over Asia in summer, the subtropical
jet is replaced by the tropical easterly jet stream.
Tropical Easterly Jet Stream
• This jet occurs near the Tropopause over Southeast Asia, India, and Africa during summer. 

E
• The strongest winds are over southern India, but they are not as intense as the winds encountered in polar-
front or subtropical jet streams.
•
•
OR
This jet is closely connected to the Indian and African summer monsoons.
The existence of this jet implies that there is a deep layer of warm air to the north of the jet and colder
air to the south over the Indian Ocean.
SC
• This warm air is of course associated with the maximum heating taking place over India in summer, while
the colder air is over the ocean.
• The difference in heating and cooling and the ensuing pressure gradient is what drives this jet stream
Polar-Night Jet Stream
• This jet meanders through the upper stratosphere over the poles.
GS

• It occurs only during the long winter night. Night is 6 months long over the pole in which winter is
occurring.
• The polar stratosphere undergoes appreciable cooling due to the lack of solar radiation. The
horizontal temperature gradient is strongly established between the equator and the pole, and the
pressure gradient creates this westerly jet.
• The temperature gradient breaks down intermittently during middle and late winter in the Northern
Hemisphere, therefore, the jet is intermittent at these times. 
• In the Southern Hemisphere the temperature gradient and jet disappear rather abruptly near the time of
the spring equinox.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE JET STREAM
Aviation
• In terms of commercial usage, the jet stream is important for the airline industry. By flying well within
the jet stream at 25,000 feet (7,600 meters), the flight time gets reduced significantly. The reduced flight
time and aid of the strong winds also allows for a reduction in fuel consumption.
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Weather
• One of the most important impacts of the jet stream though is the weather it brings. Because it is a strong
current of rapidly moving air, it has the ability to push weather patterns around the world.
• As a result, most weather systems do not just sit over an area, but they are instead moved forward with
the jet stream. The position and strength of the jet stream then helps meteorologists forecast future
weather events.
• In addition, various climatic factors can cause the jet stream to shift and dramatically change an area’s
weather patterns.
• The world’s jet streams are also impacted by El Nino and La Nina. During El Nino for example, precipitation
usually increases in California because the polar jet stream moves farther south and brings more storms
with it.
• Conversely, during La Nina events, California dries out and precipitation moves into the Pacific
Northwest because the polar jet stream moves more north. In addition, precipitation often increases in Europe
because the jet stream is stronger in the Northern Atlantic and is capable of pushing them farther east.

E
• Today, movement of the jet stream north has been detected indicating possible changes in climate.
• Whatever the position of the jet stream, though, it has a significant impact on the world’s weather patterns
OR
and severe weather events like floods and droughts.
How do the Jet Streams affect the Monsoons and the Indian Sub Continent?
Over the Indian subcontinent, there are a number of separate jet streams whose speed varies from 110 km/
h in summer to about 184 km/h in winter.
SC

Winters
• In winter the sub-tropical westerly jet streams bring rain to the western part of India, especially Himachal
Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab.
Summers
GS

• In summer the sub-tropical easterly jet blows over Peninsular India approximately at 14N and bring some
rain and storm.
Monsoons
• With respect to the monsoons of India it is the Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ) and the countering Easterly
Jet that are most important. As the summertime approaches there is increased solar heating of the Indian
subcontinent, this has a tendency to form a cyclonic monsoon cell situated between the Indian Ocean and
southern Asia.
• This cell is blocked by the STJ which tends to blow to the south of the Himalayas; as long as the STJ
is in this position the development of summer monsoons is inhibited.
• During the summer months the STJ deflects northwards and crosses over the Himalayan Range. The
altitude of the mountains initially disrupts the jet but once it has cleared the summits it is able to reform
over central Asia.
• With the STJ out of the way the sub continental monsoon cell develops very quickly indeed, often in a
matter of a few days. Warmth and moisture are fed into the cell by a lower level tropical jet stream which
brings with it air masses laden with moisture from the Indian Ocean.
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• As these air masses are forced upward by north India’s mountainous terrain, the air is cooled and compressed,
it easily reaches its saturation vapor point and the excess moisture is dissipated out in the form of
monsoon rains.
• The end of the monsoon season is brought about when the atmosphere over the Tibetan Plateau begins
to cool; this enables the STJ to transition back across the Himalayas. This leads to the formation of a
cyclonic winter monsoon cell typified by sinking air masses over India and relatively moisture free winds
that blow seaward.
• This gives rise to relatively settled and dry weather over India during the winter months.
• Atmospheric changes over the southern Pacific Ocean led to warmer than usual waters flowing into the
Indian Ocean. This provided additional moisture to feed the monsoon systems.
• Further to the north the polar jet stream stalled due to being countered by Rossby Waves, there was a large
kink in the stream and this was centred over Russia. The stalled system prevented weather systems being
drawn across Russia and the kink acted as a barrier trapping hot air to the south and cold air to the north.

E
• The consequence of this static mass of hot air was the heat wave that devastated Russia. With the jet
stream stalled the STJ was unable to transit across the Himalayas as it would do ordinarily, the monsoon
cell to the south, fed by warmer waters in the Indian Ocean, had nowhere to go and as a consequence

1.
to extensive flooding.
The Somali Jet Stream
OR
it deposited vast amounts of rain over Pakistan, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir and this led

• The monsoon wind that is deflected to the north as it crosses the equator is further deflected to the
SC
east by the mountains of Africa.
• Further, the progress of the southwest monsoon towards India is greatly aided by the onset of certain
jet streams including the crucial Somali jet that transits Kenya, Somalia and Sahel and exits the
African coast at 9 degrees north at low level and very fast.
• This low level jet stream was found to be most pronounced between 1.0 and 1.5 km above the
GS

ground.
• It was observed to flow from Mauritius and the northern part of the island of Madagascar before
reaching the coast of Kenya at about 3º S. Subsequently it ran over the plains of Kenya, Ethiopia
and Somalia before reaching the coast again around 9º N.
• The jet stream appears to be fed by a stream of air, which moves northwards from the Mozambique
Channel.
• The major part of this low level jet penetrates into East Africa during May and, subsequently,
traverses the northern parts of the Arabian Sea before reaching India in June.
• Observations suggest that the strongest cross equatorial flow from the southern to the northern
hemisphere during the Asian Summer Monsoon is in the region of the low level jet.
• This has intrigued meteorologists, because it is not clear why the major flow of air from the southern
to northern hemisphere should take place along a narrow preferred zone off the East African coast.
• The importance of the low level jet arises from the fact that its path around 9º N coincides with a
zone of coastal upwelling. As the strong winds drive away the surface coastal waters towards the east,
extremely cold water from the depths of the sea rise upwards to preserve the continuity of mass. This
upwelling is brought about by strong low level winds.
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• After the low level jet moves towards the Indian coastline around 9º N, it separates into two branches.
One appears to move to the northern parts of the Indian Peninsula while the other recurves towards
the southern half of the Indian coastline and Sri Lanka.
• Conclusively, an increase in the cross-equatorial flow was followed by an increase in rainfall over the
west coast.
2. The Somali Ocean Current
• This ocean current named the Somali Current, flows northward from the equator to 9º N, where it
separates from the coast. It is a fairly strong current.
• The Somali Current may be considered to be a western boundary current of the Indian Ocean. But,
its peculiar feature is a reversal in direction with the onset of the summer monsoon.
• In winter, this current is from north to the south running southwards from the coast of Arabia to the
east African coastline; but with the advent of the summer monsoon it reverses its direction and flows
from the south to the north.
• This suggests a relationship with the reversal of monsoon winds, but usually the oceans respond very

E
slowly to changes in atmospheric circulation.
OR
3. Sub-tropical Westerly and Tropical Jet Streams
• Certain interesting changes take place in the upper atmosphere with the advent of the summer
monsoon.
• Towards the end of May, a narrow stream of air, which moves from the west to the east over northern
India, suddenly weakens and moves to a new location far to the north of the Himalayas. This is
SC

known as sub-tropical westerly jet stream.

• Its movement towards the north is one of the main features associated with the onset of the monsoon
over India.
• As the westerly jet moves north, yet another jet stream sets in over the southern half of the Indian
peninsula. This flows in the reverse direction from the east to west. It is called tropical easterly jet,
GS

and it exhibits periodic movements to the north and south of its mean location during the hundred-
day monsoon season beginning with the first of June and ending around mid-September.
• The altitude at which the winds attain their maximum strength in the tropical easterly jet is around
150 hPa, but the maximum winds associated with the sub-tropical westerly jet occur at a lower
altitude of 300 hPa. (HPa refers to ‘hecta Pascal’ and is a unit of measure of atmospheric air
pressure)
• A remarkable feature of the tropical easterly jet is that it can be traced in the upper troposphere right
up to the west coast of Africa.
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AIR MASSES
Introduction
• When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the characteristics
of the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains. The air with distinctive
characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an Airmass.
• Warm Air Mass is that whose temperature is greater than the surface temperature of the areas over which
it moves. Thus this indicates that the surface underlying the air mass is cold. Due to the presence of cool
surface the warm air mass gets cooled from below. The lower layer becomes stable and stops the vertical
movement of air. Due to this No adiabatic cooling of air formation of cloud halts precipitation stops

E
creates anti-cyclonic stable conditions Warm air mass can further be divided as continental warm air mass
and maritime warm air mass (based on the source of origin whether continent or ocean respectively).
•
OR
Cold Air Mass originates in the polar and arctic regions. Temperature and specific humidity is very low.
Its temperature is lower than the surface temperature of the areas over which it moves. Thus the air mass
is warmed from below and becomes unstable. Due to heating up of air from below, the air rises vertically
and because of adiabatic cooling condensation process starts. This will lead to formation of clouds and
finally will result in precipitation. But the precipitation will occur only when the air mass is above the
SC
warm ocean as it will get the unobstructed supply of moisture whereas if lies above warm continent then
leads to clear weather.
• Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are cold.
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FRONTS AND CYCLONES

Introduction
When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone between them is called a front. The process of
formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis. Front is the leading edge of an advancing air-mass It’s a line
of contrasting weather conditions. The leading edge of a cold air - mass is a cold front, whereas, the leading
edge of a warm air mass is a warm front.
Types of Fronts
1. Cold Front: On a weather map shown by a line marked with triangular spikes, pointing in the direction
of frontal movement.

E
Weather Prior to the Contact with After the Passing
Phenomenon Passing of the Front the Front of the Front
OR
Temperature Warm Cooling suddenly Cold and getting colder
Atmospheric Decreasing steadily Leveling off then Increasing steadily
Pressure increasing
Winds South to southeast Variable and gusty West to northwest
SC

Precipitation Showers Heavy rain or snow, Showers then clearing

hail sometimes
Clouds Cirrus and cirrostratus changing Cumulus and Cumulus
later to cumulus and cumulonimbus
cumulonimbus
GS

2. Warm Front: A warm front is denoted on weather maps by a line marked with semi-circles facing the
direction of frontal movement.
Weather Prior to the Contact with After the Passing
Phenomenon Passing of the Front the Front of the Front
Temperature Cool Warming suddenly Warmer then leveling off
Atmospheric Decreasing steadily Leveling off Slight rise followed
Pressure by a decrease
Winds South to southeast Variable South to southwest
Precipitation Showers, snow, sleet or drizzle Light drizzle None
Clouds Cirrus, cirrostratus, altostratus, Stratus, sometimes Clearing with scattered
nimbostratus, and then stratus cumulonimbus stratus, sometimes
scattered cumulonimbus
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3. Occluded Fronts: Occluded front is formed when cold front overtakes warm front and warm air is
completely displaced from the ground surface. The temperature drops as the warm air mass is occluded,
or “cut off,” from the ground and pushed upward.
4. Stationary Front:
· A stationary front forms when a cold front or warm front stops moving. This happens when two
masses of air are pushing against each other but neither is powerful enough to move the other. Winds
blowing parallel to the front instead of perpendicular can help it stay in place.
CYCLONES
1. Temperate Cyclone
– Isobars are generally elongated or oval shaped.
– Air pressure 940-930 mb.
– The size (diameter) may by 150-3000 km (100-200 miles), but mostly vary between 300-1500 m.

E
– Speed: It may be practically stationary or moving at a speed of 900-1000 Km per day. Aleutain and

OR
Iceland places of origin track.
– They originate where warm tropical air mass meets cold polar air.
– Characterized with unsettled and variable weather. They change their path with season.
– General direction of movement from west to East (in the belt of westerlies).
SC
– The averages speed is about 30 to 50 km per hour.
– Rainfall is light to moderate light shower.
– Fogginess and poor visibility.
– A few hours after the front has passed, clear weather (anticyclone) prevails.
GS

– Thunder and lightning occurs in the rear part of a cyclone.

Weather Associated with Temperate Cyclones
– Air temperature changes as we move from behind the cold front to a position ahead of the warm
front.
– Behind the surface position of the cold front, forward moving cold dense air causes the uplift of the
warm lighter air in advance of the front.
– Because this uplift is relatively rapid along a steep frontal gradient, the condensed water vapor quickly
organizes itself into cumulus and then cumulonimbus clouds.
– Cumulonimbus clouds produce heavy precipitation and can develop into severe thunderstorms if
conditions are right.
– Along the gently sloping warm front, the lifting of moist air produces first nimbostratus clouds
followed by altostratus and cirrostratus.
– Precipitation is less intense along this front, varying from moderate to light showers some distance
ahead of the surface location of the warm front.
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Stage of Development of a Temperate Cyclone

– The stage in the development of temperate cyclone (depression) as per Bjerknes, are as under (shown
in the figure as A, B,C, D, E and F):
– Stage I: A Warm and cold air are present side by side separated by a stationary quasi-stationary front.

E
OR
SC
GS

– Stage II: A wave has formed on the fornt and a centre of low pressure is developing at the apex of
wave.
– Stage III: The young and developing cyclone.
– Stage IV: The cold front overtakes the warm front and the system is set to occlude.
– Stage V: The occlusion process continues, the warm air is lifted to higher levels.
– Stage VI: The cyclone comes into existence.
2. Tropical Cyclone
– A powerful manifestation of Earth’s energy and moisture system is the tropical cyclone.
– These cyclones originate entirely within tropical air masses, i.e. 23 ½°N and 23 ½°S
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– The air of the tropics is essentially homogenous, with no front or conflicting air masses.
– In addition, the warm air and warm seas ensure an abundant supply of water vapor and thus the
necessary latent heat to fuel (generate) these cyclones (stroms).
– The tropical cyclones generally originate on the western margins of oceans around 8° to 12° N and
South.
– With the help of latent heat, the tropical cyclones start whirling like a chimney, pulling more moisture-
laden air into the developing system.
– Tropical cyclones tend to occur when the equatorial low pressure trough is the farthest from the
equator that is during the month that follow the summer solstice in each hemisphere.
– Tropical cyclones are most destructive.
– Vertically, these storms dominate the full height of the troposphere.
– A system of low pressure occurring in tropical latitude is known as tropical cyclone. It is a general

E
term for any type of cyclonic storm at low latitudes for which many other terms (local names) like
hurricanes, typhoons etc. are used.
Origin of Tropical Cyclones
OR
The exact mechanism that leads to the origin and development of tropical cyclones is not fully known due
to lack of climatic data. There are however certain basic requirements which results in the origin of a tropical
cyclone. The required conditions are as under:
SC
• Large and continuous supply of warm and moist air: Tropical cyclones develop over the warm tropical
oceans where the surface temperature is around 27°C. The high temperature near the surface of the oceans
makes the air full of water vapor. The latent heat is transported into the storms and released in the process
of cloud and rain formation. Tropical cyclones consequently originate in the western parts of the ocean
where temperatures are relatively higher than their eastern parts. In the eastern parts of the ocean the
existence of cold water currents reduce the surface temperature of the oceans.
GS

• Large value of Coriolis force: The maximum value of Coriolis force is along the equator. Consequently,
the tropical cyclones do not originate in the belt of doldrums. Most of them have their origin around 15°
latitude on the western margins of the oceans.
• Upper level outflow: At a height of 9000 to 1500 meters above surface of the ocean, there must be an
anti cyclonic circulation, so that the ascending air currents within the cyclone may continue to be pumped
on in order to maintain the low pressure at the centre of the cyclone.
• Weak vertical wind shear in the basic current: Because of weak vertical wind shear, hurricane formation
processes are limited to latitudes equator wards of the subtropical jet stream.
• Presence of anti cyclonic circulation: There should be an anticyclonic circulation at the height of 9 km
to 15 km above the surface disturbance.
Main Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones
• They have circular and closed isobars.
• Their diameter varies between 150 to 300 km. And in exceptional cases to 10 km. vertically, these cyclones
dominate the full height of the troposphere. The inwards spiraling clouds from dense rain bands, with a
central area designated the eye, around which a thunderstorm cloud called eye-wall swirls, producing the area
of most intense rainfall. The eye has quite, warm air with even a glimpse of blue sky or stars possible.
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• They do not have fronts and developing the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) over the oceans.
They tend to occur when the equatorial low-pressure through is the farthest from the equator.
• They drive their energy from the latent heat.
• They are irregular. They occur in the autumn season in the Northern Hemisphere and in March and April
in the Southern Hemisphere.

E
OR
SC
GS

• In the initial stage their speed varies between 15 to 30 km per hour which accelerates up to 200 and even
more km per hour.
• There is an eye of the cyclone about 30 km in diameter in which the atmosphere is calm, clear and the
air pressure as low as 892 mb. The winds are light and variable. The clouds are either absent or scattered.
The eye of the cyclone is the warmest part.
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• There are towering cumulonimbus clouds, torrential rainfall and violent winds accompanying a tropical
cyclone.
• The majority of cyclones decay when they come over the land or when they resurvey northward and reach
over oceans.
• Heavy rain may continue even after winds have become weak.
Nomenclature of Cyclones
Cyclones Indian Ocean
Hurricanes Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico and Gulf of Panama
Typhoons China Sea
Baguio Philippines
Nowaki/Taifu Japan

E
Willy Willies Australia
Regional Distribution: of the Tropical Cyclones
The tropical cyclones occur mainly in the following regions:
1.
OR
Tropical North Atlantic - Caribbean Sea, West Indies, Gulf of Mexico, Western coastal areas of Mexico
and Gulf of Panama (Hurricanes).
SC
2. Tropical part of the North pacific and the Philippines (Baguio) the China Sea and areas around Japan
(Taifu)
3. The Bay of Bengal and the north east Arabian Sea Gulf of Cambay of Kathiawar coast (Cyclones).
4. The south Indian Ocean, Coral Sea, Fiji, and the north and north east coast of Australia (Willy Willies).
GS

5. The south western parts of the Indian Ocean, Madagascar, Mozambique, and Tanzania.
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CLIMATIC ZONES OF THE WORLD

Introduction
The world has several climatic zones. These are summarized on the map below.

E
OR
1. Tropical Moist Climates (Af)
SC

• Average temperature: 18 °C (°F)

• Annual Precipitation: 262 cm. (103 in.)
• Latitude Range: 10° S to 25 ° N
• Global Position: Amazon Basin; Congo Basin of equatorial Africa; East Indies, from Sumatra to New Guinea.
GS

– This climate is located upto 50 to 100 latitudes on both the hemispheres.

– The zone is subjected to seasonal shifting due to northward and southward movement of Sun.
– The tropical climate is characterized by two major properties - uniformly high temperature throughout the
year and uniformly adequate rainfall throughout the year by convectional rainfall. The total annual rainfall
is often more than 250 cm.
– Humidity is between 77 and 88%.
– The equatorial climate is found in - The Amazon Basin in South America, Congo Basin in Africa, Guinea
coast in Africa, Java, Sumatra, Malaysia etc.
– The climates on eastern sides of continents are influenced by maritime tropical air masses. These air
masses flow out from the moist western sides of oceanic high-pressure cells, and bring lots of summer
rainfall. The summers are warm and very humid. It also rains a lot in the winter.
– This region accounts for the largest number of plant species due to high temperature and high rainfall.
– This climatic region is characterized by broad leaf evergreen dense forests comprising mahogany, rosewood,
bamboos, sandal etc.
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2. Wet-Dry Tropical Climates (Aw) savanna

• Temperature Range: 16 °C
• Annual Precipitation: 0.25 cm. (0.1 in.). All months less than 0.25 cm. (0.1 in.)
• Latitude Range: 15 ° to 25 ° N and S
• Global Range: West Africa, southern Africa, South America and the north coast of Australia
– This type of climate is located between 50 - 200 latitudes on either side of the equator.
– This climatic type is bounded by tropical rainforest climate towards the equator and by dry climate
towards the poles.
– The Savanna type is found in the southern continents and all the regions are to the south of the Tropic
of Cancer.
These are -

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a) South America: Cuba, Jamaica and the islands in the Pacific.

OR
b) Africa: The Sudan, large parts of the newly formed Republics - Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Chad and
also in Ghana, Togo, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Angola and Uganda.
c) Australia: The northern region and Queensland.
– The Savanna climate is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons, mean high temperature throughout
SC
the year and high insolation.
– There is sunshine for 13 to 14 hours and humidity is low, the air is hot, dry and dusty.
– The average monthly temperature during the dry season ranges between 22°C and 37°C.
– Coastal regions on the windward side of the mountains get heavier rain. Rainfall decreases as one goes
GS

either towards north (in the Northern Hemisphere) or towards south (in the Southern Hemisphere).
– The Savanna vegetation marks the transition from the dense equatorial forests, where the rainy season lasts
practically throughout the year, and the semi-desert and deserts where the dry season lasts practically
throughout the year.
– The seasonal rain allows only grass to grow. These are therefore the natural grasslands of the world.
Rainfall is not sufficient to support tall trees but grass grows well and one variety known as the elephant
grass grows up to four and a half metres.
– Trees occur more as one goes towards the Equator.
3. Hot Desert Climate
• Temperature Range: 16° C
• Annual Precipitation: 0.25 cm (0.1 in). All months less than 0.25 cm (0.1 in).
• Latitude Range: 15° - 25° N and S.
• Global Range: southwestern United States and northern Mexico; Argentina; North Africa; South Africa; central
part of Australia.
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– This type of climate is located between the latitudinal belt of 150 - 300 in both the hemispheres.
– The arid deserts lie close to the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn in the western margins of
continents.
– The climatic zone lies in - The Sahara, the Arabia, the Thar, Mohave and Sonoran (South Western U.S.A.),
Kalahari and Namib (South Western Africa), Simpson, Gibson, Great Sandy (Australia)
– The climate is dominated by the subsidence of air masses and marked stability of the sub-tropical
anticyclones and hence nearly rainless. The highest temperatures in the world are recorded here (Azazia
58.7°C). The greatest daily ranges of temperature of (15°C) are seen here.
– These areas receive the lowest annual rainfall (12 to 15 cm). Cold currents also influence the climate on
the western margins of continents. The aridity is intensified because of these currents which chill the air
and further stabilize it.
– The vegetation found here is cactus, thorny plants, shrubs, herbs.
4. Steppe Climate

E
• Temperature Range: 24° C (43° F).
• Annual Precipitation: less than 10 cm (4 in) in the driest regions to 50 cm (20 in) in the moister steppes.
OR
• Latitude Range: 35° - 55° N.
• Global Range: Western North America (Great Basin, Columbia Plateau, Great Plains); Eurasian interior, from
steppes of eastern Europe to the Gobi Desert and North China.
SC

– This type of climatic zone is found between 40° and 55° North and South. They lie far away from the
influence of the sea, in the heart of continents.
– The areas are - Prairies (North America), Pampas (South America), Velds (South Africa), Downs (Australia)
and Steppes (Russia)
– The temperature in summer varies from 18°C to 24°C and in winter from - 4°C to 2°C. The range of
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temperature is large. Rainfalls in spring and early summer and vary between 23 cm. and 65 cm. It is of
convectional type but very light.
– This dry climate exists in the interior regions of the North American and Eurasian continents. Moist
ocean air masses are blocked by mountain ranges to the west and south. These mountain ranges also trap
polar air in winter, making winters very cold. Summers are warm to hot.
– Short grass grows everywhere. Trees appear only on the slopes of mountains.
5. Monsoon Climate
• Temperature Range: 27.05 °C
• Latitude Range: 10° and 25° and North and South of the equator.
• Global Range: The countries are along the coastal regions of southwest India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar,
South western Africa, French Guiana, and northeast and southeastern Brazil.
– Monsoon climate is generally related to those areas which register complete seasonal reversal of wind
direction and are associated with tropical deciduous forests. The region lies between 10°N to 30°N and
10°S to 30°S latitude.
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– Climatic zone areas are - Eastern Brazil (S. America), Central American countries, Natal coast (South
Africa), India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, South East Asia including Burma, Thailand, Vietnam and the
Philippines etc., Parts of East Africa including Malagasy, North Australia.
– The annual average temperature is about 26°C and the annual range is about 3°C. The maximum temperatures
occur in May before the summer rainfall maximum in June and July. The annual rainfall amounts to about
300 cm.
– The characteristic feature of this type of climate is a reversal in the wind direction with the change of
season.
– During the summer season, the wind is on shore, bring large amount of moisture to the land surface.
Rainfall is both orographic and cyclonic in nature.
– In winter season the wind is off shore and hence is cool and dry. But some parts like Madras coast get
rain during this season because winds are on shore there.
6. Mediterranean Climate:

E
• Temperature Range: 7 °C (12 °F)
•
•
•
Annual Precipitation: 42 cm (17 in).
Latitude Range: 30° - 50° N and S OR
Global Position: central and southern California; coastal zones bordering the Mediterranean Sea; coastal Western
Australia and South Australia; Chilean coast; Cape Town region of South Africa.
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– This type of climate has developed between 300 - 400 latitudes in both the hemispheres.
– This is a wet-winter, dry-summer climate. Extremely dry summers are caused by the sinking air of the
subtropical highs and may last for up to five months.
– This climatic region includes European, Asiatic and African lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea.
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– This climate owes its origin to the seasonal shifting of wind and pressure belts due to northward and
southward migration of the sun.
– In winter they are under the influence of westerlies which are moisture laden thus brings rainfall in winters
whereas they come under the influence of subtropical high pressure belt in summers thus associated with
anti cyclonic conditions.
– Plants have adapted to the extreme difference in rainfall and temperature between winter and summer
seasons. Sclerophyll plants range in formations from forests, to woodland, and scrub. Eucalyptus forests
cover most of the chaparral biome in Australia.
– Fires occur frequently in Mediterranean climate zones.
7. Taiga Climate
• Temperature Range: lows; -25 °C (-14 °F), highs; 16 °C (60 °F).
• Average Annual Precipitation: 31 cm (12 in).
• Latitude Range: 50° - 70° N and S.
• Global Position: central and western Alaska; Canada, from the Yukon Territory to Labrador; Eurasia, from
northern Europe across all of Siberia to the Pacific Ocean.
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– This climate type has been named after the coniferous forest cover of the same name found in the region.
the region extends from 50-55 degrees to 60-70 degrees latitudes in northern hemisphere.
– It stretches as an almost continuous belt across southern Canada, northern Europe and Russia. The
Tundra region lies on the north and the Temperate Grasslands on the south.
– The areas are - Southern Alaska, Southern Canada, parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, Northern Russia,
Northern Siberia, Sakhalin Island.
– Winters are very cold and severe from 6 to 7 months with temperatures below freezing. In this region
lies Verkhoyansk the “cold pole” colder than the Arctic region.
– Summers are short lasting for 3 or 4 months but the days are long; at 60°N the sun shines for over 18
hours.
– Rainfall varies from 25 to 100cm. There is more rainfall near the coast. Most of the rain comes from
cyclonic weather. It falls throughout the year but maximum in summer in frequent showers. In winter it
takes the form of snow, which may remain, on the ground from 5 to 7 months.
– The vegetation associated with this climate type is the soft-wood coniferous forests.
8. Tundra Climate

E
OR
• Temperature Range: -22 °C to 6 °C (-10 °F to 41 °F).
• Average Annual Precipitation: 20 cm (8 in).
• Latitude Range: 60° - 75° N.
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• Global Position: arctic zone of North America; Hudson Bay region; Greenland coast; northern Siberia bordering
the Arctic Ocean.
– The tundra climate is found along arctic coastal areas. Polar and arctic air masses dominate the tundra
climate.
– The winter season is long and severe. A short, mild season exists, but not a true summer season.
Moderating ocean winds keep the temperatures from being as severe as interior regions.
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