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TRANSDUCER
• These are widely used in measurement work because not all quantities
that need to be measured can be displayed as easily as others.
• Mechanical Transducer are simple and rugged in construction, cheaper in cost, accurate
and operate without external power supplies but are not advantageous for many of the
modern scientific experiments and process control instrumentation owing to their poor
frequency response, requirement of large forces to overcome mechanical friction, in
compatibility when remote control or indication is required, and a lot of other
limitations. All these drawbacks have been overcome with the introduction of electrical
transducers.
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
• Mostly quantities to be measured are non-electrical such as temperature, pressure,
displacement, humidity, fluid flow, speed etc., but these quantities cannot be measured
directly. Hence such quantities are required to be sensed and changed into some other
form for easy measurement.
VL=((R2)/R1+R2)*VS
• LVDT
• There are three types of LVDT: unguided armature, captive armature, and
spring-extended armature.
• AC LVDT’s cost less than DC, but the entire measurement system must be
considered.
• Thus LVDT plays an important role in transforming energy from one
form to another
1. The Strain Gauge should have a high value of Gauge factor Gf.
2. The Resistance of the strain gauge should be as high as high
as possible
• Foil type Gauges have a much greater heat dissipation capacity as compared with wire
wound strain gauges on account of their greater
Surface area for the same volume.
• strain gauge and method of making same for use in certain medical
applications, such as sensing the occurrence of an apnea event.
• The strain gauge actually measures the change in direct current resistance
produced by stretching and compression of a number of carbon deposits
coupled in series on a longitudinally extendible substrate.
• The RTD wire is a pure material, typically platinum, nickel, or copper. The
material has an accurate resistance/temperature relationship which is used to
provide an indication of temperature. As RTD elements are fragile, they are
often housed in protective probes.
• High accuracy
• Low drift
• Wide operating range
• Suitability for precision applications.
• Limitations:
• RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C. At
temperatures above 660 °C it becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the
platinum from becoming contaminated by impurities from the metal
temperature changes and have a slower response time. However,
thermistors have a smaller temperature range and stability.
• At very low temperatures, say below −270 °C (3 K), because there are very
few phonons, the resistance of an RTD is mainly determined
by impurities and boundary scattering and thus basically independent of
temperature. As a result, the sensitivity of the RTD is essentially zero and
therefore not useful.
• The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy; system errors of less than
one degree Celsius (°C) can be difficult to achieve.
• Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include
temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and
other industrial processes. Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and
businesses as the temperature sensors in thermostats, and also as flame
sensors in safety devices for gas-powered major appliances.
• In practical use, the voltage generated at a single junction of two different types of wire
is what is of interest as this can be used to measure temperature at very high and low
temperatures. The magnitude of the voltage depends on the types of wire used
• Generally, the voltage is in the microvolt range and care must be taken to obtain a
usable measurement. Although current flows very little, power can be generated by a
single thermocouple junction.
• Steel industry
• RVDTs use brushless, non-contacting technology to ensure long life and reliable,
repeatable position sensing with infinite resolution. Such reliable and repeatable
performance assures accurate position sensing under the most extreme operating
conditions.
• Most RVDTs consist of a wound, laminated stator and a salient two-pole rotor The
stator, containing four slots, contains both the primary winding and the two
secondary windings. Some secondary windings may also be connected together.
• Sturdiness
• low cost
• small size
• The capacitive transducers are highly sensitive and can be used for
measurement of extremely small displacements down to the order of
molecular dimensions, i.e., 0.1x10-6 mm.
• On the other hand, they can be used for measurement of large displacements
up to about 30 m as in aeroplane altimeters.
DISADVANTAGE:
A disadvantage is that the seeing distance is very short, and
is varied.
DISADVANTAGE :
• The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage)
across a current carrying conductor (in presence of magnetic field),
perpendicular to both current and the magnetic field.
• The Hall effect was discovered in 1879 by Edwin Herbert Hall whileworking
on his doctoral degree at the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore,
Maryland, USA.
• A static magnetic field has no effect on a charged particle unless it is
moving.
• When charges flow, a mutually perpendicular force (Lorentz force) is
induced on the charge.
• Now electrons and holes are separated by opposite force.
• Thus R=Vh/aJH=Vhb/IH
• Vh is Hall Voltage and I is Jab
• When the force on the charged particles from the electric field
balances the force produced by magnetic field, the separation of
them will stop.
• Position sensing:
• Sensing the presence of magnetic objects (connected with the
position sensing) is the most common industrial application of Hall
effect sensors, especially those operating in the switch mode
(on/off mode).
• The Hall effect sensors are also used in the brushless DC motor to
sense the position of the rotor and to switch the transistors in the
right sequence.
• is available that can measure either North or South pole magnetic fields
• can be flat
• Hall effect sensors provide much lower measuring accuracy than fluxgate
magnetometers or magnetoresistance-based sensors. Moreover, Hall
effect sensors drift significantly, requiring compensation.
• 1. Measurand
• 2. Primary Sensing Element
• 3. Telemeter Transmitter
• 4. Telemeter Channel
• 5. Telemeter Receiver
• 6. End Devices
PHOTO DIODE :
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that
converts light into current. The current is generated when photons
are absorbed in the photodiode.
• A small amount of current is also produced when no light is
present. Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and
may have large or small surface areas.
• Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode,
and a photocurrent is produced
• The total current through the photodiode is the sum of the dark
current (current that is generated in the absence of light) and the
photocurrent, so the dark current must be minimized to maximize
the sensitivity of the device.
• latent effect
• Illumination of the central region causes the release of electron hole pair
here.This lowers the barrier potential across the both junction,causing an
increase in the flow of electron from left hand region in to the central
region and on the right hand region.
• Likewise the widely used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device which both
measures and indicates, and is probably the best known type of gauge.
• As timers in the degaussing coil circuit of most CRT displays. When the
display unit is initially switched on, current flows through the thermistor
and degaussing coil.
• The coil and thermistor are intentionally sized so that the current flow will
heat the thermistor to the point that the degaussing coil shuts off in under
a second.
• 1. Measurand
• 2. Primary Sensing Element
• 3. Telemeter Transmitter
• 4. Telemeter Channel
• 5. Telemeter Receiver
• 6. End Devices
• The Rocket ao unnammed space craft presents more obvious need for a
radio
Link based telemetry.The vehicle in this case is too small to carry even
one person,much lessthe entireteam of engineers and also a computer.
• A path between two nodes in a network. It may refer to the physical cable, the signal transmitted
within the cable or to a subchannel within a carrier frequency. In radio and TV, it refers to the
assigned carrier frequency.
• High-frequency signals can also be propagated without a medium, and are called radio. As
frequency rises further the electromagnetic energy is termed 'light' which can also travel without a
medium, but can also be guided through a suitable medium.
•
• TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• The means through which data is transformed from one place to another is called transmission or
communication media. There are two categories of transmission media used in computer
communications.
• BOUNDED/GUIDED MEDIA
• UNBOUNDED/UNGUIDED MEDIA
• BOUNDED MEDIA:
• Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are
confined to narrow path. These are also called guide media.
• Radio Transmission
• MicroWave Transmission
• Radio Transmissioan
• Its frequency is between 10 kHz to 1GHz. It is simple to install and has high
attenuation. These waves are used for multicast communications.
• Microwave Transmission
• It travels at high frequency than the radio waves. It requires the sender to
be inside of the receiver. It operates in a system with a low gigahertz
range.
• Terrestrial Microwave
• Satellite Microwave
Receiver
A device, as in a radio or telephone, that converts incoming
radio or microwave signals to a form, such as sound or light the
at can be perceived by humans.
Transmitter:
• Multiplexer:
Multiplexing is the process of sharing a single channel with
more than one output.
• Calibrating Equipment:
Before each test there is a pre- calibration , and
often after each calibration there is a post –calibration.
• Integrating Equipment
• Analog Recorder
• Analog Computer
• Transducer:
This is use to convert one form of energy to another and vice-
versa.
• Signal conditioning Equipment:
This includes any equipment that assists in
transforming the output of the transducer to the desired magnitude or form
required by the next stage of the DAS.
• Multiplexer:
Multiplexing is the process of sharing a single channel with
more than one output.
• Signal Converter
• A/D Converter
• Auxilliary Equipment
• Digital Recorder
• Digital Recorder
Functional Operation OF DigitaL
Uses Of DAS
• Analog DAS are used when wide frequency width is required or when
lower accuracy can be tolerated.
• Analog multiplexer
• Sample Holds
some of the specific application in which data converters are use are
data telemetry system,pulse coded communication,automatic test
system.
RECORDER:
An apparatus for recording sound, pictures, or data.
• The digital storage oscilloscope, or DSO for short, is now the preferred
type for most industrial applications. Instead of storage-type cathode ray
tubes, DSOs use digital memory which can store data as long as required
without degradation.
• The data set can be sent over a LAN or a WAN for processing or archiving.
The screen image can be directly recorded on paper by means of an
attached printer or plotter, without the need for an oscilloscope camera.
• The oscilloscope's own signal analysis software can extract many useful
time-domain features (e.g., rise time, pulse width, amplitude), frequency
spectra, histograms and statistics, persistence maps, and a large number
of parameters meaningful to engineers in specialized fields such as
telecommunications, disk drive analysis and power electronics.
• However, the oscilloscope is able to vary its timebase to precisely time its
sample, thus building up the picture of the signal over the subsequent
repeats of the signal.
• Trace storage is an extra feature available on some analog oscilloscopes; they used direct-
view storage CRTs. Storage allows the trace pattern that normally decays in a fraction of a
second to remain on the screen for several minutes or longer. An electrical circuit can then be
deliberately activated to store and erase the trace on the screen.
• The storage is accomplished using the principle of secondary emission. When the ordinary
writing electron beam passes a point on the phosphor surface, not only does it momentarily
cause the phosphor to illuminate, but the kinetic energy of the electron beam knocks other
electrons loose from the phosphor surface.
• This can leave a net positive charge. Storage oscilloscopes then provide one or more
secondary electron guns (called the "flood guns") that provide a steady flood of low-energy
electrons traveling towards the phosphor screen.
• In this way, the image originally written by the writing gun can be
maintained for a long time — many seconds to a few minutes.
• The electrons from the flood guns are more strongly drawn to the areas of
the phosphor screen where the writing gun has left a net positive charge;
in this way, the electrons from the flood guns re-illuminate the phosphor
in these positively charged areas of the phosphor screen.
• Before the introduction of the CRO in its current form, the cathode ray
tube had already been in use as a measuring device. The cathode ray tube
is an evacuated glass envelope, similar to that in a black-and-
white television set, with its flat face covered in a fluorescent material
(the phosphor).
• The screen is typically less than 20 cm in diameter, much smaller than the
one in a television set. Older CROs had round screens or faceplates, while
newer CRTs in better CROs have rectangular faceplates.
• Typically, the CRT runs at roughly -2 kV or so, and various methods are
used to correspondingly offset the G1 voltage. Proceeding along the
electron gun, the beam passes through the imaging lenses and first anode,
emerging with an energy in electron-volts equal to that of the cathode.
The beam passes through one set of deflection plates , then the other,
where it is deflected as required to the phosphor screen.
• One type (Cossor, UK) had a beam-splitter plate in its CRT, and single-
ended vertical deflection following the splitter. (There is more about this
type of oscilloscope near the end of this article.)
• More elaborate oscilloscopes like the Tektronix 556 and 7844 could
employ two independent time bases and two sets of horizontal plates and
horizontal amplifiers.
•
• Thus one could look at a very fast signal on one beam and a slow signal on
another beam.
• Vertical plates for channel A had no effect on channel B's beam. Similarly
for channel B, separate vertical plates existed which
• The primary use is to measure the power of the spectrum of known and
unknown signals.
• The display of a spectrum analyzer has frequency on the horizontal axis and
the amplitude displayed on the vertical axis.
• spectrum analyzers may seem really technical and scientific to the ears. This is
because spectrum analyzers are often used in factories and in laboratories.
• Signals that are weaker than the noise in the background cannot be
measured by the spectrum analyzer, power levels that are often seen in
microwave receivers.
• This is the reason why spectrum analyzers need the RBW to be able to
determine these measurements. Here, the received signals are measured
in decibels rather than voltage because of the low signal strengths that are
received and the frequency range of the measurements.
• Spectrum analyzers especially the modern ones have a lot of uses. One of
which is as a device frequency response measurements, which is used
primarily in measuring amplitude response in dBm in comparison to the
frequency of the device. The resulting value is on Hertz.
• An signal enters each of the two channels. The signal are attenuated to
the inherent full scale range of the recorder, the signal then passes to a
balance circuit where it
It is a X-t recorder.
• A range selector switch is used so that input to the recorder drive system is with in
the acceptable level.
• 1. Marking with ink filled stylus. The stylus is filled with ink by gravity or capillary
actions. This requires that ihe pointer shall support an ink reservoir and a pen, or
capillary connection between the pen and a pen reservoir.
• In general red ink is used but other colours are available and in instrumentation
display a colour code can be adopted. 2. Marking with headed stylus. Some
recorders use a heated stylus which writes on a special paper. This method
overcomes the difficulties encountered in ink writing systems. 3. Chopper Bar.
• C. Tracing system:
• There are two types of tracing system used for producing graphic representation.
1. Curvilinear system. In the curvilinear system, the stylus is mounted on a central
pivot and moves through an are which allows a full width chart marking.
• If the stylus makes a full range recording, the line drawn across the chart will be
curved and the time intervals will be along the curved segments.
• 2. Rectilinear system.
• It is notices that a line of constant time is perpendicular to the time axis and
therefore this system produces a straight line across the width of the chart. Hence
the stylus is actuated by a drive cord over pulleys to produce the forward and
reverse motion as determined by the drive mechanism
• A V-shaped pointer is passed under a chopper bar which presses the pen
into the paper once per second thus making a series on the special paper.
• In fact this system is not purely continuous and hence is suitable for
recording some varying quantities. 4. Electric stylus marking.
• 1. The recording head consists of core, coil and a fine air gap of about 10
micrometer. The coil current creates a flux, which passes through the air
gap to the magnetic tape and magnetizes the iron oxide particles as they
pass the air gap. So the actual recording takes place at the trailing edge of
the gap
• Thus the magnetic pattern in the tape is detected and converted back into
original electrical signal.
• 3. The tape transport mechanism moves the tape below the head at
constant speed without any strain, distrortion or wear. The mechanism
much be such as to guide the tape passed by the magnetic heads with
great precision, maintain propoer tension and have sufficient tape to
magnetic head contact.
• 2. Low distortion.
• 2. Measured variable
• What you observe in order to determine the actual condition of the
controlled variable
• In most cases, you measure the controlled variable itself. For instance, if
you want to know how fast a car is going, you measure its speed. In other
cases, you measure a different variable to determine the condition of the
controlled variable. For instance, you can determine the level (controlled
variable) of liquid in an open or vented tank by measuring
the pressure (measured variable) at the bottom of the tank.
• 3. Set Point
• The desired value of the controlled variable; for example, 70 room
temperature a window left open, poor insulation, a damaged thermostat.
•
• 5. Manipulated variable
• 6. Disturbance
•
Anything that affects the process and could cause deviation from the set
point; for example, a window left open, poor insulation, a damaged
thermostat.
•
DEEPA MISHRA ASSISTANT PROFESSOR JIT 161
ELEMENTS OF PROCESS CONTROL(Continued)
• 5. Manipulated variable
• 6. Disturbances
Anything that affects the process and could cause deviation from
the set point; for example, a window left open, poor insulation, a
damaged thermostat.
• If the input signal deviates from the set point, the controller sends a
corrective output signal to the control element. This electric signal must
be converted to a pneumatic signal when used with an air operated valve,
such as a Trerice Series 910 or 940 Control Valve.
• The conversion can be made using a Trerice TA901 I/P Transducer, which
converts a 4 to 20 mA electric signal to a 3 to 15 psi air signal.
• If the input signal deviates from the set point, the controller sends a
corrective output signal to the control element. This electric signal must
be converted to a pneumatic signal when used with an air operated valve,
such as a Trerice Series 910 or 940 Control Valve.
• The conversion can be made using a Trerice TA901 I/P Transducer, which
converts a 4 to 20 mA electric signal to a 3 to 15 psi air signal.