1

Vedant Chavan, Sumeet Singh, Jordan Varghese, A. Amruth Sai, Ankit Chandraker, Divyansh
A Review of Recent
Chandaniha, Sangeetha Trends
Benjamin, Rochan in Jain,
Parashar, Anshul Bio-fuel
Varun Vijayan, Hritik Tiwari,
VELLORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 632014, TAMIL NADU
Consumption and Fuel-Characteristics
Improvement Technology
Abstract We are witnessing increased adaptation of bio-fuels in the present economy. This trend is fueled by our increasing
awareness of the harmful effects of use of fossil fuels, viz. Global Warming and Climate Change. Consequently, there has been
increased interest in developing bio-fuels, so that they can replace conventional fuel sources like coal and petroleum.

This has encouraged increased research efforts in this direction. We referred many studies, that aimed to develop bio-fuel,
especially firewood, for industrial and commercial application.

Index Terms— Torrefaction, Pelletization,

I. INTRODUCTION1 heat output and at the same time regulate the air-change

A number of processes have been developed to prolong
the life of wood and in many cases, improve its
specific properties like calorific value, hydrophobicity etc.
Some of the noteworthy works of literature have been
discussed here.
One approach for optimization of fuel-wood size has been
in the context of enhanced stoves, used by the remote
societies and villagers that have limited access to quality
fuel for heating and cooking appliances. In these studies,
the effect of the fuel wood sizes, on the total efficiency of
the apparatus has been studies for both, the traditional
chulha and the modified stoves. In both the cases it has
been found that decreasing the wood chip sizes has caused
the efficiency to decrease and more smoke is generated.
This has been explained in terms of the devolatization rate
which increases as the voidage increases. Voidage refers to
the % gap that occurs in the bulk fuel mass, as voidage
increases, the residence time of the combustion gases and
air, within the reactive mass decreases, hence incomplete
combustion is promoted. On the other hand, increasing
the size of the fuel wood and hence improving the packing
resulted in improved thermal efficiency of the stove. As
much as 4% increase in the efficiency was observed. Also,
the amount of fuel consumed for unit amount of heat
produced was also reduced. [2]
There is a call for innovation of new smaller, more
efficient and more particle-safe wood-burning stoves.
Today there already is a need for guidance for salesmen
and users of wood burning stoves explaining not only the
right size of the stove and the correct way of lighting it,
but also the importance of an optimal airflow interaction
between the stove and the building’s ventilations system. .
In this field study, it was found that modern stoves were
actually extremely difficult to light and to add more wood
to without causing particle emissions. Automation could
be a solution for controlling supply and demand and this
might be performed through a digital control system that
can adjust the combustion air supply and consequently the
1
rate during the operation of the appliances in air tight
buildings such as those modern buildings under analysis
in this study.
Other researchers have studied the effect of particle size
effect on pinewood combustion in a stationary packed bed
configuration. Various parameters like mass loss rate,
temperature profile at different bed locations and gas
compositions in the out-of-bed flue gases were measured
for a fixed flow rate. The studies conducted, utilized wood
sizes ranging from 5 to 35 mm. It was found that smaller
particles are quicker to ignite than larger particles and
have distinctive combustion stages; burning rate is also
higher with smaller fuel size; and smaller fuels have a
thinner reaction zone and result in both higher CO and
CH4 concentrations in the out-of-bed flue gases; on the
other hand, larger particles produced a higher flame
temperature and result in higher H2 concentration in the
flue gases. Whereas for larger particles, the combustion
process becomes more transient and the burning rate
varies for most part of the combustion process; this is not
desirable. For an efficient heating / cooking. system the
ideal characteristics involve a steady combustion rate, ease
of use, low amount of smoke and pollutants produced,
high calorific value etc. [3]
From the one of study results, several general conclusions
can be drawn on how the user can minimize emissions
from such stoves:
1) Burning conditions like usage of excess air or burning
of wood that is completely dried or in very small logs
result in strongly elevated emission factors, likely due to
reduced residence time in the combustion region. Very
large burn rates under such conditions suggest enhanced
combustion efficiency while in fact the emissions are
strongly enhanced
2) The influence of usage of different wood types as well
as of the load of the oven on emission factors was found to
be comparatively low. However, the composition of the
particles shows some differences for different wood types.
3) Burning of fuels other than solid wood (e.g., brown
coal, paper briquettes, wood chips) leads to much worse
emission characteristics and changes the composition of
the emitted particles (higher organic fraction).
4) While comparable emission factors of solid particles
were found for wood stoves and pellet stoves, a larger
potential aerosol mass can be expected for wood stoves,
which show higher emissions of volatile organic
compounds than pellet stoves
Thermal efficiency calculation for a household stove
Formulas (1), (2), (3) are used to calculate the cooking fire
intensity, rated heat-load and thermal efficiency separately
from the thermal efficiency test data.
Cooking fire intensity
Pc=(Gc1−Gc2)×r3600 (1)
Rated heat-load
Pn=Gn2(Tn2−Tj2)×4.185400 (2)
Thermal efficiency
η=4.18×[Gc1(Tc1−Tc0)+Gn1(Tn1−Tj1)+Gn3(Tn3−Tj3)]+
(Gc1−Gc2)×rGmQnet.v.ar+Gm1Qnet.v.ar1+Gm2Qne
t.v.ar2×100 (3)
Where,
Pc ─ cooking fire intensity, kW
Gc1 ─ initial water amount in the pot, kg Gc2 ─
final water amount in the pot, kg
r ─ average latent heat of the vaporization at the
average vaporization temperature, kJ/kg
3600 ─ WBT time, s
Pn ─ rated heat-load, kW
Gn2 ─ total water output of rated heat-load test,
kg
Tn2 ─ average temperature of the output water in
the rated heat-load test, °C
Tj2 ─ average temperature of the input water in
the rated heat-load test, °C
4.18 ─ specific heat capacity of water, kJ/(kg °C)
η ─ thermal efficiency, %
Tc1 ─ local boiling point of water, °C Tc0 ─
initial water temperature, °C
Gn1─ water holding capacity of the water jacket,
kg Tn1 ─ final temperature of the jacket water,
°C
Tj1 ─ initial temperature of the jacket water, °C
Gn3 ─ total water output of the water jacket, kg
Tn3 ─ average temperature of the output water,
°C Tj3 ─ average temperature of the input water,
°C Gm ─amount of total coal consumption, kg
Qnet.v.ar ─ net calorific value as received basis,
kJ/kg Gm1─ amount of the coal igniter, kg
Qnet.v.ar1 ─ net calorific value as received basis
of the igniter, kJ/kg Gm2 ─ air dried kindling, kg
Qnet.v.ar2 ─ net calorific value as received basis
of the air-dried kindling, kJ/kg
The above suggest a need for standardizing small-sized
fuel-chips. This would not only ensure a uniformity in the
properties of the fuel but will also enable the development
of further technology to better utilize this fuel.
This work has already been carried out. As noted by
previous researchers, palletization of wood is an emerging
industrial process. The palletized wood forms an excellent
fuel that has the potential to replace coal. A few studies
have hinted that the replacement of coal with these bio-
fuels would actually have a positive impact on the
environment as the CO2 generated in the combustion of
biomass, gets sequestrated when the crop regrows. As of
now, palletized wood had been used in co-generation
systems along with coal, yielding satisfactory results.
Further processes have also been developed the fuel
characteristics of the wood, one such process is
torrefaction. [1]
Torrefaction is a mild temperature (200–300 °C)
pretreatment process of biomass in an inert atmosphere
[6]. During torrefaction, the biomass loses water and a
proportion of its volatile content becoming dry, brittle, and
darker in color. Furthermore, torrefied biomass is more
hydrophobic, has a higher calorific value and is easier to
grind than untreated biomass [6]. It has been shown that
Torrefaction leads to mass loss of the solid fuel, however,
this is compensated by the its increased heating value
(which was close to 90% for Eucalyptus trees) and
significant improvement in the grindability and
hardenability characteristics of the fuel. [7]
Studies have been conducted to combine the pelletisation
and torrefaction process. The results were very promising,
significantly improved properties of the pellets produced
via combined pelletisation and torrefaction, like reduced
water-uptake, increased durability and longer shelf-life; as
compared to conventionally produced biopellets, clearly
speak of the superiority of the process. [8][9] In fact, the
improvement achieved in the properties have been so
profound that the researchers have claimed to produce
pellets, with properties akin to that of coal. [9] [10]
Combined torrefaction and palletization has been used to
increase the fuel value of biomass by increasing its energy

density and improving its handling and combustion
properties. [11]
However, some have noted that torrefaction of biomass,
especially wood lead to difficulty in the pelletization
process. It was observed that the increase in the heating
value and homogeneity was causing the excessive friction
and hence, a higher pelletizing force for production. This
suggested that an optimum range of torrefaction
parameters exist for the desired quality of pellets required.
Extensive study has been conducted in this regard, one
such work utilized factorial designed-experiments and
response surface methodology, to find the optimum level
of parameters involved. Though, the specific values and
parameters will differ from case to case, the experiments
conducted provide foundation for future studies and
development. Few of the parameters that were determined
to be important for desired pellet quality are moisture
content, degree of torrefaction (measured in terms of the
temperature range chosen for torrefaction) and pelletizing
temperature. [12]
Similar studies on the Norwegian spruce were conducted.
The important parameters considered for the experiment
were torrefaction temperature and isothermal treatment
temperature. The study differed from others in realizing
the fact that the different portions or parts of the trees had
different concentration of constituting chemicals
(cellulose, hemicellulose and acidic compounds), or had
different chemical composition all together. This means
that each part of the tree would react differently to the
torrefaction process. Hence, individual assessment of the
extent and quality of torrefaction is necessary to determine
the overall utility of a given wood species. The techniques
frequently used in this effort is Thermogravimetric
Analysis of TGA as referred by the researchers. [13] [14]
Working on similar lines as above, researchers realized
that in most of the cases, running factorial experiments
was quite costly, both because the number of experiments
increases geometrically with the number of factors
considered for study and because of the fact, that the raw
feed obtained for pelletization, seldom has the same
composition and hence each new batch requires a fresh
analysis of the optimum parameters. As a result, if the
operators are not very experienced, huge amount of capital
gets consumed in trial and error. As a substitute to the full-
scale experiments, a single pellet press has often been
proposed for mimicking the essential parameters and
values of a largescale pelletization plant. This enables a
fast estimation of key process parameters such as optimal
press channel length and moisture content. [15] [16] [17]
More recent works of literature have shown a trend
towards the improvement of pellet properties like
hydrophobicity, density and hardness. The density and the
hardness of torrefied pellets have been examined by using
torrefied samples prepared at different conditions in a
press machine. The hygroscopicity of prepared torrefied
pellets is evaluated in humidity chamber by measuring the
moisture uptake rate of control and torrefied pellets. The
results showed that the density and the hardness of
3
torrefied pellets mainly depended on the densification die
temperature and the weight loss of the torrefied samples.
It has been suggested to precondition the torrefied samples
to a moisture content of ∼10% in order to improve the
quality of torrefied pellets. Also, it is generally noted that
the moisture uptake of torrefied pellets is more sensitive to
the weight loss of torrefaction and the relative humidity of
the storage environment. [18] [19]
Another study analyzed the relevant properties of biomass
pellets, produced via Hydrothermal Carbonization (HTC).
It has been observed that the properties of the obtained
pellets, like energy density, durability and hydrophobicity,
were consistently superior to those of the pellets produced
via Torrefaction. Especially, the resistance against and
water immersion and hydrophobicity of the pellets, were
found to significantly improve after employing
Hydrothermal Carbonization. It has been claimed that the
pellets so produced have the potential to replace coal in
industry and other commercial applications. However, the
authors have noted that implementation of Hydrothermal
Carbonization poses significant control and design
challenges, due to increased process complexity and
higher pressures. This has prevented its widespread
acceptance in the industry. [20] [21] Another process,
which has been gaining a lot of research interest is Wet
Torrefaction. It is a biomass pretreatment method that
involves treating the biomass in hydrothermal media or
hot compressed water at temperatures within 180–260 °C.
The process has been quoted to possess the potential to
improve the properties of the biomass fuels, closer to coal
properties. Also, Wet torrefaction has the capacity to work
with wet or even extremely wet biomasses and hence
enhance the ash removal from the biomass. [22] [23]
Apart from the conventional hardwood and softwood
trees, biomass has been obtained from several other
sources like straw, rice flake, corn stalk and various other
agricultural residue. Effect of torrefaction and
pelletization on such a variety of biomass has been studied
and results compared with that of conventional sources.
Efforts have been focused on the optimization of corn-
stalk skin flake-wood shaving composite technology, the
effects of material-mixture ratio, glue content, hot-
pressing temperature, and hot-pressing time on the
appearance, physical, and mechanical properties of the
composite by the orthogonal experiment method. The
findings yielded highly significant results in all three
cases: the effects of the material-mixture ratio on 2 h of
thickness swelling (2hTS) and the modulus of rupture
(MOR); the effects of glue content on 2hTS, internal bond
strength, and modulus of elasticity (MOE); and the effects
of hot-pressing temperature on MOR and MOE. Product
optimization is achieved when the ratio of corn stalk skin
flake to wood shaving is 3:7, the glue content is 12 %
( isocyanate and urea-formaldehyde resins), the hot-
pressing temperature is 150 °C, and the hot-pressing time
is 4.5 min. [24]
Quite a number of studies have considered the effect of
additives on the pellet properties. Effects on Pellet
Properties and Energy Use When Starch Is Added in the
Wood-Fuel Pelletizing Process has been conducted. It has
been investigated, how various percentages of different
kinds of starch influence pellet properties, including shelf
life and energy use in the pelletizing process. Four
different starch grades were used: native wheat starch,
oxidized corn starch, native potato starch, and oxidized
potato starch. The result shows that starch increases the
durability of the pellets. Oxidized starches increase the
durability more than native starches, and the best results
were obtained by adding oxidized corn starch. The
durability did not decrease with storage time when the
pellets were stored indoors during 7 months. The
oxidation process was not consistently altered by the
addition of starch. [25] [26]
Other related studies have been on the subject of critical
parameter determination and their related experimental
methods. Careful and accurate determination of properties
like calorific value has been a cornerstone in this field of
research. Therefore, optimal use of condensed parameters
of ultimate analysis to predict the calorific value of
biomass has received considerable attention. Higher
heating value (HHV) and lower heating value (LHV) of
biomass species that include woody samples, herbaceous
materials, agricultural residues, juice pulps, nut shells, etc.
have been predicted based on elemental analysis results.
Simple linear equations have been developed in which C,
H, N, S, and O contents exist and the prediction
performance of these empirical equations are evaluated
comparing the experimental and the predicted values of
calorific values according to the criteria of mean absolute
error (MAE), average absolute error (AAE), and average
bias error (ABE). For this purpose, equations that include
parameters changing from only C to sum of C, H, N, S,
and O have been tested to compare the prediction
performance of each additional parameter. It was thus
concluded that, the use of only two parameters including
carbon and extra one element either nitrogen or oxygen is
optimal to predict the calorific value. These condensed
forms of ultimate analysis-based equations gave r 2 values
changing in the range of 0.9219–0.9572. Improving
effects of additional parameters are rather limited and it
has been found that the addition of H and S contents does
not lead to significant improvement in prediction
performance. [27] [28]
And given the rise and rapid commercialization of the
pellet fuel and their widespread use in domestic cooking
and heating, it becomes imperative that pollution studies
be conducted, taking into account both the pollution
originating from the fuel used and its basic qualities and
also, the pollution due to the design or form the stove or
other respective appliance used. It has been often noted
that the user plays a critical role in such scenarios,
controlling the fuel-load of the appliance, always making
sure that it operates at the design-optimum.
A broad range of highly time-resolved measurements of
particulate (and some gas phase) emission factors for a
wood stove, operated with various fuels and under
different conditions, and for a pellet stove have been
performed to obtain detailed information on the emission
behavior of these appliances. From these results, several
general conclusions have been drawn on how the user can
minimize emissions from such stoves.
Burning conditions like usage of excess air or burning of
wood that is completely dried or in very small logs result
in strongly elevated emission factors, likely due to reduced
residence time in the combustion region. Very large burn
rates under such conditions suggest enhanced combustion
efficiency while in fact the emissions are strongly
enhanced.
Burning of fuels other than solid wood (e.g., brown coal,
paper briquettes, wood chips) leads to much worse
emission characteristics and changes the composition of
the emitted particles (higher organic fraction). [29] [30]
Speaking more of additives, some studies have been
conducted regarding the addition of plastics to the wooden
pellets; with satisfactory results. Plastic waste has been
incorporated in producing smokeless bio-coal briquettes.
The briquettes were of medium to high quality with good
ignition and burning properties. The briquettes could
replace fuel-wood for out-door and in-door cooking. The
process could be part of waste management options in the
developing countries. [31]
Apart from the fuel technology, the cooking or heating
appliances used also play a vital role in determining the
overall efficiency and pollution characteristic of the
operation, whether it be cooking or heating. Given that the
basic motivation behind any study that tries to improve the
fuel properties of conventionally used or available sources,
if the fact that very often these fuel sources are not
available to everyone or even if they are, they are not very
efficient. The pollution caused by the use of a certain fuel
is also a significant motivator for further development.
Below we discuss some trends and issues related cooking
appliances; their impact on the type of fuel and how they
in turn are affected by the available fuel sources, is
discussed here.
About half the people across the world use different types
of biomass fuels, to cook a large number of dishes in
diverse ways. Furthermore, adoption and sustained usage
of stoves is a complex, multi-stage process, in which more
than one device is routinely used, a practice sometimes
called “stacking” [39]. Hence, a large number of stove
designs are required to meet the diversity of fuels, pots,
foods, cooking methods, price-points, and aesthetics. We
cannot force the new stoves upon the consumers; they
must be clearly better than the current cooking practices

that users switch to it on their own. It is essential to sell
well-fabricated, good quality, inexpensive stoves, with
prompt after-sale services.
Today’s modern generation stove, manufactured
completely in factories, after adequate market research,
based upon technically optimized designs, and rigorous
quality control assurance is a ray of hope.[40][43] In many
studies, these factory- manufactured stoves have proven
their superiority over traditional or artisan-built stoves.
Commercial cook stove operations worldwide have
demonstrated ability to scale up, proving that the financial
sustainability with adequate profits is possible, in case of
ICS enterprises. Scientific principles of combustion, fluid
mechanics, and heat transfer are already under study, but
require further integration. We need experimentally
validated user-friendly mathematical and computational
tools, to go beyond empirical methods. Finally, we need to
focus on developing the cook stove technologies to
publicize, how close we imitate the performance of LPG
(the most aspired cooking-appliances); off-course with
biomass fuels, whether unprocessed, lightly processed,
palletized or briquetted. Lastly, only affordable and
technically optimized stoves are not enough to create
acceptance in the society. We need to identify and unite;
the decisive socio-cultural, natural, and local resource
conditions, with economics and modern technology.[42]
[43] The building blocks of the successful CS program
identified from this review are research and development,
universal testing standards and benchmarks, monitoring
mechanisms; involvement of private- sector interest,
supported by governmental institutions; Innovative
financing models and sources, and collective effort of the
enthusiastic stake holders. All of this is essential, if we
want to deploy hundreds of better stove models to millions
of poor people. [39] [38] [37]
II. DISPERSION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
In high density mega cities, air pollution has a higher
impact on public health than cities of lower population
density. Apart from higher pollution emissions due to
human activities of densely populated street canyons,
stagnated air flow due to closely packed tall buildings
result in lower dispersion potentials. The coupled result
leads to high air pollution concentrations being reported
frequently at street side stations in Hong Kong. High
density urban morphologies need to be carefully designed
to lessen the ill effects of high density urban living. The air
ventilation assessment understandings for high density
planning and design are advanced to relate the air
pollutant dispersion issues... Urban-scale parametric
studies are conducted to clarify the effects of urban
permeability and building geometries on air pollution
dispersion, for the outdoor pedestrian environment. Given
the finite land resources in high-density cities and the
numerous planning and design restrictions for
development projects, the performance of mitigation
strategies is evaluated to optimize the benefits. The
particulate matter in the air is made up of PM10 and
5
PM2.5. The leading cause for these particulate matters are
emissions from vehicles stuck in traffics, industries that
emit harmful gases into the air and emissions from
residential areas. In various studies, green infrastructures
were used to reduce the air pollution on a city scale by a
combination of dispersion and deposition on trees and
grasses. For a city like Mumbai, the concentration of these
particulate matters in the air are higher than for a city like
Kochi where greenary is higher. There has been studies
aimed to quantify the effectiveness of four green roof
species namely, creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera),
red fescue (Festuca rubra), ribwort plantain (Plantago
lanceolata) and sedum (Sedum album) at capturing
particulate matter smaller than 10 mm (PM10). We also
find high amounts of gases like NO,NO 2 and O3 . The
intensifying proportion of urban green infrastructure has
been considered as one of the remedies for this. We need to
build a better understanding of the interactions between
vegetation and surrounding built-up environments and
ascertain means of reducing particulate matters in the air.
There have been case studies relating population with the
concentration of the particulate matters in the air. For a
city like Mumbai and Delhi where the population is high,
the emission levels are higher than in towns like Jamnagar
and Sikkim where they are much lower. Air quality in
cities is the result of a complex interaction between natural
and anthropogenic environmental conditions. During
transmission the air pollutants get dispersed, diluted and
subjected to photo chemical reactions. The best remedy
through a variety of papers has been decided as green
infrastructures which can help in decreasing the
concentrations of these particulate matter.
Gaseous Tracer Model For Tracking Air Pollution
The contribution of wood burning to urban fine-particle
pollution can be determined by using a gaseous tracer
model (GTM). Tracers are gases that are emitted along
with the particles from the source. We conclude by
discussing the physical properties of useful tracers and the
advantages of GTM. The most useful tracers are those
whose background concentrations are small or C, >> C, in
polluted environments. Second, the lifetime of the tracer
should be long enough that it is not removed from the
atmosphere between the source and the receptor. Third, the
tracer should be unique to the class of sources under study,
and finally it should be accurately and precisely
measurable at the levels present in polluted environments.
Although CH3C1 fulfills most of these requirements, there
are
probably better gaseous tracers of wood burning yet to be
found. The concentration of CH&l in the background
atmosphere is high and variable; thus it is unlikely to
provide estimates of wood burning to accuracies of better
than 350%.The main advantages of the gaseous tracer
model over the previous methods are first that is provides a
means for almost real-time analysis of the contribution of
specific
sources to urban fine-particulate pollution. Second, it is
practical, being inexpensive and experimentally simple.
There are only a few potential sources of error. Finally, at
least for wood burning, we believe this method is accurate
and can be made precise.

Numerical Modeling of Pollution dispersion
Since the simulation of the dispersion field around
buildings depends strongly on the correct simulation of the
wind-flow structure, the studies performed during the past
years on the wind-flow field around buildings are
reviewed. This work also identifies errors that can produce
poor results when numerically modeling wind flow and
dispersion fields around buildings in urban environments.
Finally, particular attention is paid to the practical
guidelines developed by researchers to establish a common
methodology for verification and validation of numerical
simulations and/or to assist and support the users for a
better implementation of the computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) approach. Although the Gaussian plume model
(GPM) is based upon many simplifying assumptions about
the dispersion process, it is applied to a wide array of
dispersion scenarios and some form of this model is
adopted in most regulatory air pollution models for
continuous releases. In order to extend the applicability of
the GPM to realistic scenarios, the U.S. EPA models make
use of several special algorithms or semi-empirical
corrections to account for the various effects.
The Air Pollution Model (TAPM)
Air pollution predictions for environmental impact
assessments usually use Gaussian plume/puff models
driven by observation-based meteorological inputs. An
alternative approach is to use prognostic meteorological
and air pollution models, which have many advantages
over the Gaussian approach and are now a viable tool for
performing year-long simulations. This report provides a
comprehensive technical description of the newly enhanced
prognostic model called The Air Pollution Model (TAPM).
Land Use Regression to Model Air Pollution
Results showed that geographic characteristics as altitude
and traffic intensity contribute
considerably to the urban air quality. In future research,
additional meteorological will be incorporated into the
model and then will be extrapolated for later years based
on measurements of monitoring stations. Furthermore, the
LUR model can be used to estimate outdoor concentrations
at the home address of participants in epidemiological
studies regarding air pollution, as well as it could support
policy making about the improvement of urban air quality.
Wind Tunnels
Air pollution aerodynamics concerns the interaction of
noxious aerosols, gases and particles emitted into the
atmosphere with surrounding structures, terrain and
vegetation. This interaction can deflect materials toward
sensitive areas, concentrate species above acceptable levels,
or even mitigate concentration levels and enhance diffusion
and dispersion.
Removal of volatile organic compound by activated carbon
fiber
Experiments were carried out to study
adsorption/desorption of volatile organic compound (VOC)
on the activated carbon fiber (ACF) under dynamic
conditions. the suitability of ACF in effectively adsorbing
VOCs from inert gaseous stream under varying operating
conditions, and compare its performance that of the other
commercially available adsorbents, such as granular
activated carbon (GAC), silica gel, and zeolites. The
adsorption experiments were carried out in a fixed tubular
packed bed reactor under various operating conditions
including temperature (35–100 _C), gas concentration
(2000–10,000 ppm), gas flow rate (0.2–1.0 slpm) and
weight of the adsorbent (2–10 g). A mathematical model
was developed to predict the VOC breakthrough
characteristics on ACF. The model incorporated the effects
of the gas-particle film mass transfer resistance, adsorbent
pore diffusion and the adsorption/desorption rates within
the pore. The experimental data and the corresponding
model simulated results were compared and found to be in
good agreement. The ACF repeatedly showed a good
regeneration capability following desorption by DC
electrical heating. A bed temperature of 50 _C was found to
be favorable in terms of longer breakthrough and
adsorption times. The commercially obtained ACF was
shown to exhibit greater adsorption for VOC than most of
the other adsorbents available in pellets or powders form,
including granular activated carbon, zeolites, and silica
gel, under identical operating conditions. Under the
experimental conditions, an ACF sample was adsorbed and
desorbed repeatedly without exhibiting any appreciable
degradation in its adsorption Performance The
regeneration of ACF could be effectively carried out by DC
electrical heating.
Carbon Dioxide Removal
Area of carbon dioxide recovery and storage focuses on
minimizing the energy required for CO2 capture, as this
step corresponds to the major cost contribution of the
overall process (capture, transportation, injection). Out of
the three traditional methods of CO2 capture (absorption,
adsorption and membrane processes) absorption is
considered to be the best available technology for post-
combustion application. However, amine absorption
requires 4–6 GJ/tonne of recovered CO2, in a large part
due to significant energy consumption associated with the
regeneration step. Unfortunately, liquid amine absorption
retains several drawbacks, the most significant being the
need for solvent regeneration. When the CO2 is removed
from the flue gas via capture by absorption in an amine, a
second separation process (stripping) is required to isolate
the CO2 and regenerate the solvent. This regeneration step
consumes between 4 and 6 GJ/tonne of CO2 recovered.
Experts in the field agree that a 2–4-fold reduction in the
energy consumption is necessary for this process to be
economically feasible for post combustion Capture
reactions:
CO2 + NRH2 ↔ RH2+NCOO-
RH2+NCOO- + NRH2 ↔ RH2NCOO-NRH2+
2H2O ↔ H3O+ + OH-
2H2O + CO2 ↔ H3O+ + HCO3-
H2O + HCO3- ↔ H3O+ + CO32-
H2O + NRH3+ ↔ H3O+ + NRH2
H2O + NRH2 + CO2 ↔ H3O+ + NRH2COO-
Note: In the case of MEA (NH2C2H2OH), R is C2H2OH.

It is precisely due to the high cost of this regeneration that
membrane processes have generated so much interest. If
we can make use of the selective permeation of gases
through a membrane, we can achieve CO2capture in one
step. Note that gas permeation differs from membrane
contactors, which are used to intensify absorption processes
. While membrane contactors make use of a porous
membrane which improves gas/ liquid inter facial contact,
gas permeation takes advantage of the differences in
permeation rates through a polymeric or mineral
membrane.
Treatment of Nitrogen Oxides
Photo catalytic reactions of nitrogen oxides (NOx ¼ NO þ
NO2) were studied on
commercial TiO2 doped facade paints in a flow tube photo
reactor under simulated atmospheric conditions. Fast photo
catalytic conversion of NO and NO2 was observed only for
the photo catalytic paints and not fornon-catalytic reference
paints. Nitrous acid (HONO)was formed in the dark on all
paints studied, however, it efficiently decomposes under
irradiation only on the photo catalytic samples. Thus, it is
concluded that photo catalytic paint surfaces do not
represent a daytime source of HONO, in contrast to other
recent studies on pure TiO2 surfaces. As main final
product, the formation of adsorbed nitric acid/nitrate
anion(HNO3/NO3) was observed with near to unity yield.
In addition, traces of H2O2 were observed in the gas phase
only in the presence of O2. Formation of the greenhouse
gas nitrous oxide (N2O) could be excluded. The uptake
kinetics of
NO, NO2 and HONO was very fast under atmospheric
conditions (e.g.
g(NO þ TiO2) > 10_5). Thus, the uptake on urban surfaces
(painted houses, etc.) will be limited by transport. For a
hypothetically painted street canyon, an average reduction
of nitrogen oxide levels of ca. 5% is estimated. Since the
harmful HNO3/NO3 is formed on the surface of the
photoactive paints,whereas it is formed in the gas phase in
the atmosphere, the use of photo catalytic paints may also
help to reduce acid deposition, e.g. on plants, or nitric acid
related health issues.
Evidence on the impact of sustained exposure to air
pollution on life expectancy from China’s Huai River
policy
The analysis suggests that the Huai River policy, which
had the laudable goal of providing indoor heat, had
disastrous consequences for health, presumably due to the
failure to require the installation of sufficient pollution
abatement equipment. Specifically,it led to TSP
concentrations that were 184 μg/m3 higher (95% CI: 60,
308) or 55% higher in the North and reductions in life
expectancy of 5.52 y (95% CI: 0.8, 10.2) in the North due
to elevated rates of cardio respiratory mortality.
Effects of Air Pollution on Urban Climates
Cities which produces many pollutants is itself an obstacle
to the dispersion of these pollutants, and thus increases the
dangers associated with the accumulation of the noxious
7
components. Unfortunately, little information is available
on the effects of urban climate on man. There seems to be
general agreement that the
increased concentration of pollutants in city air constitutes
a hazard as far as respiratory diseases are concerned, and
the results of the smog episodes in 1952 and 1962 in
London, and Western and Central Europe, respectively,
have been widely
reported in the literature.
Acute Respiratory Infections
Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are the leading cause of
burden of disease worldwide and have been causally linked
with exposure to pollutants from domestic biomass fuels in
developing countries.
We used longitudinal health data coupled with detailed
monitoring and estimation of personal exposure from more
than 2 years of field measurements in rural Kenya to
estimate the exposure–response relationship for
particulates < 10 μm diameter (PM10) generated from
biomass combustion. Acute respiratory infections and acute
lower respiratory infections are concave, increasing
functions of average daily exposure to PM10, with the rate
of increase declining for exposures above approximately
1,000–2,000 μg/m3.
III. POLLUTION STUDIES ON WOOD BURNING
Nearly 3 billion people worldwide rely on solid fuel
combustion to meet basic household energy needs. The
resulting exposure to air pollution causes an estimated
4.5% of the global burden of disease. Large variability and
a lack of resources for research and development have
resulted in highly uncertain exposure estimates. Burning
wood to heat homes is increasingly common in residential
properties. Wood burning stoves are becoming popular
household additions and have been recommended as an
energy source, because they use a renewable fuel resource.
Researchers have now identified the exact compounds
released by wood combustion and have measured the
proportion of pollutants in the air produced by burning
wood. Wood smoke has many organic compounds like
benzene, ethyne and ethene.70% of benzene in air is from
wood smoke. We see that fluctuations of benzene levels in
the air depends on wood burned in the area according to
experiments. Statistics showed that respiratory problems in
children were more common in homes with wooden stoves
due to the release of particulate air pollutants up to PM10
in the air.
Thus, we see that torrefication is a very viable solution as it
reduces the percentage of PM 2.5 and PM 10 particles and
also gives a higher gross calorific value thus giving more
energy by burning less wood.
Emissions from biomass combustion are a major source of
indoor and outdoor air pollution, and are estimated to
cause millions of premature deaths worldwide annually. In
this study, we assessed the effect of exposure to biomass
smoke on various health status including blood pressure,
gaseous component and ventilation pattern of kitchen and
living room. For this investigation, a number of
measurements were done to obtain indoor air quality (IAQ)
data (indoor humidity, temperature, CO, CO2 and
O3concentration). Blood pressure was measured at baseline
and one hour post-exposure. Results highlighted that a
higher concentration of CO2 was released during burning
of dry leaf, straw, cow dung compared to that from straw
and LPG gas. Moreover, correlation study showed a strong
negative relationship between CO and humidity
(r = −0.609, p < 0.000).
Symptoms like eye irritation, shortness of breath, cough
and dizziness were highly prevalent among biomass users.
Both systolic and diastolic blood pressure showed a strong
positive (p < 0.05) relationship with age of biomass users.
However, wood users suffer from high systolic pressure
(p < 0.037). On the other hand, a very poor ventilation
pattern was recorded in the studied population.
Energy required for cooking often has the biggest share in
the total national energy demand and is normally met
mostly by biomass. Experimental studies on emission
conducted on a number of traditional and improved
cookstoves collected from different Asian countries using
wood and charcoal as fuel. In the case of wood combustion,
CO2 emission factor is in the range of 1560–1620gkg−1.
In the case of charcoal combustion, CO2 emission factor is
in the range of 2155–2567gkg-1. Comparison between
wood and charcoal fired stoves shows that, CO2 and CO
emission factor values for wood are lower as compared to
charcoal. Particulate emission factors for wood ranged
from 1.6 to 6.4 g/kg (fuel). These values are substantially
less than the values obtained previously.
The main rules, as well as the errors that should be
avoided, in wood-fired stove management are as follows:
improve house thermal insulation to reduce wood
consumption; install an outdoor air intake near each stove;
create a separate chimney for each appliance; avoid the use
of the stove as a waste incinerator; use only a small
quantity of newspapers to start the fire; always keep the
stove warm during use; avoid horizontal tracts and limit
elbow turns in the chimney stacks; clean the chimney every
year; and thoroughly ventilate the house soon after the fire
is started.
One of the major sources of household air pollution,
especially in developing countries, is fuel used for cooking
as well as heating practices. Homes from developed
countries and many houses in the developing world use
electricity, natural gas, or clean LPG for cooking, whereas
houses in rural communities and some houses of the
developing world use biomass fuel for cooking.
Natural gas is primarily methane, whereas LPG is
primarily propane or a mixture of propane and butane.
Natural gas requires less air for combustion (an air-to-gas
ratio of 10:1). LPG, on the other hand, requires more air
for combustion (an air-to-gas ratio of 25:1), releasing
almost three times the energy released by burning natural
gas (93.2 MJ/m 3 through LPG versus 38.7 MJ/m 3 through
natural gas). LPG is relatively denser than air, which is
further denser than natural gas (1.52:1:0.55). Gas leakage
when using LPG therefore tends to settle in the household
air at human levels, whereas leakage of natural gas ascends
toward the ceiling, reducing health effects. Burning of
natural gas not only produces a variety of gases such as
sulfur oxides, mercury compounds, and particulate matter
but also leads to the production of nitrogen oxides,
primarily nitrogen dioxide.
Biomass fuel includes wood, crop residue, animal dung
cakes, and wood charcoal. Approximately, 3 billion people,
or half the world’s population, use biomass for cooking or
heating across the globe and burn about 2 million
kilograms of biomass every day. China alone is responsible
for 420,000 annual deaths due to indoor air pollution
caused by the use of solid fuels. These homes have very
high levels of particulate matter and gaseous air pollutants
such as carbon particles, iron, lead, cadmium, silica,
phenols and free radicals, carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, formaldehyde, hydrocarbon
complexes, and other inorganic and organic substances
which include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
volatile organic compounds, and chlorinated dioxins.
Various studies have shown that, on average, the levels of
particulate matter of less than 2.5 microns in mean
aerodynamic diameter (PM 2.5) in such houses range from
500 to 1,500 µg/m3, which is very high, as the permissible
indoor level of PM 2.5 according to the WHO ranges
between 10 and 50 µg/m 3 in a 24-hour mean value. High
levels of CO, especially during the burning of charcoal, are
also produced. However, burning of wood produces the
least amounts of PM 2.5 and CO among the biomass fuels.
The method of cooking also has an impact on the levels of
particulate matter released in the air. Stir frying, deep or
shallow frying, charbroiling, roasting, and grilling have
different emission levels of particulate matter. The type of
meat, the amount of fat in the meat, and the type of oil
used for cooking also determine the emission levels. Meat
charbroiling, for example, emits large quantities of
particulate matter of 0.1 to 0.2 µm in mean aerodynamic
diameter. Meat frying and charbroiling contribute to about
21% of the particulate matter emitted. Regular meat emits
about 40 g of particulate matter per kilogram of meat when
charbroiled, whereas lean meat emits about 7 g of
particulate matter per kilogram of meat when charbroiled 8.
When subjected to frying, the same meat emits about 1 g of
particulate matter per kilogram of meat. Oil used in
cooking emits a significant amount of PAHs, which further
add to the household air pollutants. Stir frying, a popular
cooking style in Chinese cuisine, has been shown to emit
particulate matter ranging from 300 to 1,700 μg/m 3.
Biomass (wood, charcoal, animal dung and agriculture
residues) is the primary source of fuels used by poor
households in developing countries who can hardly afford
other fuel types (kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas,
electricity) (Akunne et al., 2006). According to WHO
(2006), countries like India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri lanka
used biomass as fuel (72%, 88% and 67% respectively) for
daily household cooking. Nearly 3 billion people depend on

solid fuels (biomass and coal) for cooking and heating and
this number is expected to grow until at least 2030
(International Energy agency, 2002; WHO, 2002).
Incomplete combustion of biomass is the main source of
indoor air pollution worldwide (WHO, 2011) and in most
developing countries; it is burned in open that produces a
lot of smoke (Akunne et al., 2006). Biomass smoke
contains a wide spectrum of potentially health damaging
pollutants that include coarse, fine, and ultrafine particles,
carbon monoxide (CO), oxide of nitrogen and sulfur,
transition metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
volatile organic compounds and bio-aerosols (Zhang and
Morawska, 2002; Smith et al., 2000). Recent studies
(Mondal et al., 2013; Dasgupta et al., 2006) in rural
households had shown that indoor air pollution is due to
combustion of biomass fuels. However, in various
developing countries wood stove emission is the main
source of kitchen-related indoor air pollution in many poor
households (Huboyo et al., 2014). Biomass is the only
source which produces a lot of pollutants that are harmful
for human health and also have effects on climate change
(Arbex et al., 2007). During burning of biomass many
gaseous pollutants such as CO, CO2 and O3 including
humidity and temperature are produced (Andreae and
Merlet, 2001). These pollutants may alter the properties of
the atmosphere since the particles can absorb and reflect
solar radiation (Holben et al., 1991).
Generally, the burning condition (i.e., smoldering or
flaming) of the biomass fuel is indicated by modified
combustion efficiency, i.e., the molar ratio of emitted
CO2 to the sum of CO and CO 2 (Chen et al., 2007). Due to
low burning efficiency, the emission of fine particles from
traditional wood stove combustion usually is accompanied
by CO, hydrocarbon, fine radicals, oxygenated organic and
particulate matter emission (Huboyo et al., 2014; Naeher et
al., 2005; Schei et al., 2004). However, Begum et al.
(2009) pointed out that the measured concentration
depends on where and when the monitoring takes place
and the significant temporal and spatial variation that may
exist within a house including room-to-room differences.
Indoor air pollution is associated with increased risk of
several acute and chronic health conditions, including
acute respiratory infections, pneumonia, tuberculosis,
chronic lung disease, cardiovascular disease, cataracts and
cancers (Smith et al., 2000; Balakrishnan et al., 2004;
Bruce et al., 2006; Dherani et al., 2008; Pope et al., 2010;
Po et al., 2011; Emmelin and wall, 2007). There are many
reports (Gao and Mann, 2009; Lee et al., 2005; Mann et
al., 2007) which collectively suggest that chronic
inhalation of biomass smoke may lead to inflammation and
oxidative stress which, in turn, can rise arterial blood
pressure. In India, middle-income and upper-income
households in urban area typically use electricity or other
greener fuels like liquid petroleum gas or natural gas.
However, lower-income households in rural area rely
primarily on biomass fuels (Begum et al., 2009). These
fuels include wood, twigs and dry leaves, animal dung and
agriculture residues such as straw, rice husks, bagasses
(fiber derived from sugar production).
Health danger posed by solid fuel smoke exposure varies
with housing and ventilation, energy technology (tripod,
oven, stove), pollutant concentration in the immediate
9
breathing environment and the time spent in the
environment (Barnes et al., 2005; Ezzati and Kammen,
2001; Ezzati et al., 2000; Qian et al., 2004; Smith et al.,
2000). Better ventilation, more efficient vented stoves and
cleaner fuels are the most important interventions to reduce
impact on health (WHO, 2002). Ventilation represents a
possibility but its effects on indoor air pollution are
complex. Simple cooking related practices that increase
ventilation may represent cost-effective option for poor
household in reducing the adverse health impact of
exposure to smoke from biomass fuel (Akunne et al.,
2006). However, this impact in reduction is not exactly
known and it is desirable to better understand it.
The objective of this work is to acquire knowledge about
the commonly used biomass at the cooking stoves that
causes indoor air pollution especially different gaseous
pollutions. This information will give a better scientific
understanding to the community of the future predictions
and also help to take necessary steps for the safe use of
biomass.
High concentrations of household air pollution (HAP) due
to biomass fuel usage with unvented, insufficient
combustion devices are thought to be an important health
risk factor in South Asia population. To better characterize
the indoor concentrations of particulate matter (PM 2.5) and
carbon monoxide (CO), and to understand their impact on
health in rural southern Nepal, this study analyzed daily
monitoring data collected with DataRAM pDR-1000 and
LASCAR CO data logger in 2980 households using
traditional biomass cookstove indoor through the Nepal
Cookstove Intervention Trial–Phase I between March 2010
and October 2011. Daily average PM2.5 and CO
concentrations collected in area near stove were 1,376
(95% CI, 1,331–1,423) μg/m 3 and 10.9 (10.5–11.3) parts
per million (ppm) among households with traditional
cookstoves. The 95th percentile, hours above 100μg/m 3 for
PM2.5 or 6ppm for CO, and hours above 1000μg/m 3 for
PM2.5 or 9ppm for CO were also reported. An algorithm
was developed to differentiate stove-influenced (SI) periods
from non-stove-influenced (non-SI) periods in monitoring
data. Average stove-influenced concentrations were 3,469
(3,350–3,588) μg/m 3 for PM2.5 and 21.8 (21.1–22.6) ppm
for CO. Dry season significantly increased
PM2.5concentration in all metrics; wood was the cleanest
fuel for PM2.5 and CO, while adding dung into the fuel
increased concentrations of both pollutants. For studies in
rural southern Nepal, CO concentration is not a viable
surrogate for PM2.5 concentrations based on the low
correlation between these measures. In sum, this study
filled a gap in knowledge on HAP in rural Nepal using
traditional cookstoves and revealed very high
concentrations in these households.
2.8 billion people use solid fuels as their primary cooking
fuel; the resulting high levels of household air pollution
(HAP) were estimated to cause more than 4 million
premature deaths in 2012. The people most affected are
among the world's poorest, and past experience has shown
that securing adoption and sustained use of effective, low-
emission stove technologies and fuels in such populations
is not easy. Among the questions raised by these challenges
are (i) to what levels does HAP exposure need to be (data not supplied). The correlation study revealed that
reduced in order to ensure that substantial health benefits carbon monooxide is positively correlated with ozone
are achieved, and (ii) what intervention technologies and (r = 0.435, p < 0.008) and negatively with humidity
fuels can achieve the required levels of HAP in practice? (r = −0.609, p < 0.000) inside the kitchen. On the other
New WHO air quality guidelines are being developed to hand CO2 was negatively related to temperature
address these issues. (r = −0.442, p < 0.007) and humidity positively related to
temperature (r = 0.395, p < 0.017). In living room only
O3 was significantly related to temperature
Evidence on health risks from HAP suggest that (r = 0.438, p < 0.008) and humidity positively related to
controlling this exposure could reduce the risk of multiple temperature (r = 0.450, p < 0.006) (Table).
child and adult health outcomes by 20–50%. The new Table: Correlation between gaseous component,
integrated exposure–response functions (IERs) indicate temperature and humidity in living and kitchen rooms.
that in order to secure these benefits, HAP levels require to
be reduced to the WHO IT-1 annual average level
(35 μg/m 3 PM2.5), or below. The second review found that,
in practice, solid fuel ‘improved stoves’ led to large
percentage and absolute reductions, but post-intervention
kitchen levels were still very high, at several hundreds of
μg/m 3 of PM2.5, although most solid fuel stove types met the
WHO 24-hr average guideline for CO of 7 mg/m 3. Clean
fuel user studies were few, but also did not meet IT-1 for
PM2.5, likely due to a combination of continuing multiple
stove and fuel use, other sources in the home (e.g. kerosene
lamps), and pollution from neighbours and other outdoor
sources. Conclusions: Together, this evidence implies there
needs to be a strategic shift towards more rapid and
widespread promotion of clean fuels, along with efforts to
encourage more exclusive use and control other sources in
and around the home. For households continuing to rely on
solid fuels, the best possible low-emission solid fuel stoves
should be promoted, backed up by testing and in-field
evaluation.

Study result revealed that fuel used by the villagers was

mostly wood followed by twigs, coal cake, dung, straw, and
dry leaf. However, use of gas stove was quite low (data not
supplied). The use of greener fuel basically depends on
their economic condition. About 30% of the
inhabitant/population cooked their food one time per day
and 20% population cooked two times per day. However,
this cooking frequency also depends on their family
strength and nature of job. There is one type of family
where all members including child go to work place early
in the morning (6–6.30 AM) after preparing their dinner
and when they return from their work place they used food
prepared in the morning. Similarly another type of family
who cooked its food as before used the same in morning
hours, but after returning from their work place they
cooked for their dinner. Study results also demonstrated
that about 70.58% population cooked inside a room. That
means they have no specific kitchen and 26.47%
population cooked outside their room. However, 2.90%
population used to cook in both inside and outside the Aethalometer and Levogluscan were the main methods
room. Majority of the population (65%) spends 2–3 h/day used to estimate wood smoke. Particulate matter was from
for cooking and only 10%, 20% and 5% population cooked wood types used as decorative or secondary heating. Both
are good methods as there was temporal correlation and
estimated PM from wood burning. Wood combustion
their food 4–5 h/day, 2 h/day and ⩾5 h/day, respectively experiments in Denmark showed that the highest diameters
of particles were 400-500 Nm. Particulate matter was also
considerably higher during winter.

Statistics showed that respiratory problems in children
were more common in homes with wooden stoves due to
the release of particulate air pollutants upto PM10 in the
air
Mechanical air filters are a very viable alternative which
can solve numerous respiratory problems
The association between the levels of fine PM2.5 and
PM10, and wood combustion in this study was less
definite. But the study suggested that peaks detected in the
levels of particles were linked to the increase of local wood
burning. Another recent study comparing the origin of fine
particles (PM2.5) at a number of different sites in Europe
found a link between biomass burning and increases in fine
particulate matter in the winter. This study attributed 50-70
per cent of winter carbon pollution to biomass burning.
IV. CONCLUSION
Research is recommended in the areas of identification and
quantification of toxics in source emissions and ambient
air, atmospheric transport and chemistry, exposure level
assessment, the development of improved in vitro
bioassays, biomarker development, the development of
more accurate epidemiological methodologies, and risk
quantification techniques.
Also, we see that torrefication is a very viable solution as it
reduces the percentage of PM 2.5 and PM 10 particles and
also gives a higher gross calorific value, thus giving more
energy by burning less wood.
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[77] Urban Air Pollution and Lung Cancer in Stockholm
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[78] Air pollution abatement performances of green
infrastructure in open road and built-up street canyon
environments e A review K.V. Abhijith, Prashant Kumar,
John Gallagher, Aonghus McNabola, Richard Baldauf,
Francesco Pilla, Brian Broderick, Silvana Di Sabatino,
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[79] Modelling the effectiveness of urban trees and grass
on PM2.5 reduction via dispersion and deposition at a city
scale A.P.R. Jeanjean, P.S. Monks, R.J. Leigh
[80] Air pollution in cities, Helmut Mayer Meteorological
Institute, University of Freiburg, D-79085 Freiburg,
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[81] URBAN PARTICULATE POLLUTION REDUCTION BY FOUR
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A.F. SPEAK, J.J. ROTHWELL, S.J. LINDLEY, C.L. SMITH
[82] Emission factors of wood and charcoal-fired
cookstoves. Authors: S.C. Bhattacharya, D.O.Albina,
P.Abdul Salam
[83]Organic aerosol mass spectral signatures from wood-
burning emissions: Influence of burning conditions
and wood type.Authors: S. Weimer, M. R. Alfarra, D.
Schreiber, M. Mohr, A. S. H. Prévôt, U. Baltensperger
[84]Particulate Emission Factors for Small Wood and Coal
Stoves.Authors: Samuel S. Butcher & Michael J.
Ellenbecker
[85]The impact of domestic wood burning on personal,
indoor and outdoor levels of 1,3-butadiene, benzene,
formaldehyde and acetaldehyde. Authors: Pernilla
Gustafson , Lars Barregard , Bo Strandberg and Gerd
Sällsten
[86]Enhanced human IgE production results from exposure
to the aromatic hydrocarbons from diesel exhaust: Direct
effects on B-cell IgE production Hiroshi Takenaka, MD, a
Ke Zhang, MD, a David Diaz-Sanchez, PhD, a Albert
Tsien, MD, a Andrew Saxon, MD a'b'c Los Angeles, Calif.
[87]Patterns of domestic exposure to carbon monoxide and
particulate matter in households using biomass fuel in
Janakpur, Nepal* S.E. Bartington a, *, I. Bakolis b, h, i, D.
Devakumar c, O.P. Kurmi d, J. Gulliver b, G. Chaube e,
D.S. Manandhar e, N.M. Saville c, A. Costello c, D. Osrin
c, A.L. Hansell b, f, J.G. Ayres g
[88].Characterization of hazardous and odorous volatiles
emitted from scented candles before lighting and when lit
Jeong-Hyeon Ahn, Ki-Hyun Kim∗, Yong-Hyun Kim, Bo-
Won Kim Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Hanyang University, Seongdong Gu,
Wangsimni Ro 222, Seoul 133-791, South Korea
[89]Assessment of somatic complaints inenvironmental
health Caroline E.W.Herra,b, _, AnjaZurNiedena,
InesKopkaa, TobiasRethagea, UweGielerc, Thomas
F.Eikmanna, NikolaosI.Stilianakisd,e
[90]Air quality in a school with dampness and mould
problems Célia Alves & Márcio Duarte & Marina Ferreira
& Artur Alves & Adelaide Almeida & Ângela Cunha
Received: 21 November 2014 /Accepted: 12 January
2015 /Published online: 21 January 2015 Springer
Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015
[91]Association between respiratory health and indoor air
pollution exposure in Canakkale, Turkey Sibel Mentese a,
*, Nihal A. Mirici b, Muserref T. Otkun c, Coskun Bakar d,
Elif Palaz a, Deniz Tasdibi a, Sibel Cevizci d, Osman
Cotuker a a Department of Environmental Engineering,
Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale 17020,
Turkey
[92]Association of carbon dioxide with indoor air
pollutants and exceedance of health guideline values
Olivier Ramalho a, *, Guillaume Wyart a, Corinne Mandin
a, Patrice Blondeau b, Pierre-Andr_e Cabanes c, Nathalie
Leclerc d, Jean-Ulrich Mullot e, Guillaume Boulanger f,
Matteo Redaelli f a Department of Health and Comfort,
Scientific and Technical Center for Building (CSTB),
University of Paris-Est, 84 Avenue Jean Jaur_es BP2, F-
77447 Marne- La-Vall_ee Cedex 2, France
[93]Thermal Characterization of Biomass Smoke Particles
Tihomir Novakov* and Craig E. Corrigan Energy and
Environment Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory,
One Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, California 94720, U.S.A.
[94]Bruce N, Pope D, Rehfuess E, et al. WHO indoor air
quality guidelines on household fuel combustion
[95]Chemical emissions from e-cigarettes: Direct and
indirect (passive) exposures Francis J. Offermann Indoor
Environmental Engineering, San Francisco, CA, USA
[96]Clark ML, Peel JL, Balakrishnan K, et al. Health and
household air pollution from solid fuel use
[97]Contribution of indoor-generated particles to
residential exposure C. Isaxon a, *, A. Gudmundsson a,
E.Z. Nordin a, L. L€onnblad b, A. Dahl a, G. Wieslander c,
M. Bohgard a, A. Wierzbicka a AErgonomics and Aerosol
Technology, Lund University, 22100 Lund, Sweden
[98]Development of land-use regression models for metals
associated with airborne particulate matter in a North
American city Joyce J.Y. Zhang a, Liu Sun a, Olesya
Barrett b, Stefania Bertazzon b, Fox E. Underwood b,
Markey Johnson a, * a Air Health Science Division,
HECSB, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
[99]Building and Environment. The International Journal
of Building Science and its Applications Editor-in-Chief:
Qingyan (Yan) Chen, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Indiana, U.S.A.
[100]Editorial - special issue on Indoor pollutants,
chemistry and health Selected papers presented at Indoor
Air 2014 conference in Hong Kong
[101]Effects of early life exposure to outdoor air pollution
and indoor renovation on childhood asthma in China
Qihong Deng a, b, *, Chan Lu a, c, Cuiyun Ou a, Weiwei
Liu a, b a School of Energy Science and Engineering,
Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
[102]Exposure to particulate matter and ozone of outdoor
origin in Singapore Elliott T. Gall a, b, *, Ailu Chen a, b,
Victor Wei-Chung Chang a, b, **, William W Nazaroff b, c
a School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue,
Singapore 639798, Singapore
[103]Global analysis of peroxy radicals and peroxy radical-
water complexation using the STOCHEM-CRI global
chemistry and transport Model M.A.H. Khan a, M.C.
Cooke a, 1, S.R. Utembe a, 2, A.T. Archibald a, 3, R.G.
Derwent b, M.E. Jenkin c, W.C. Morris a, N. South a, J.C.
Hansen d, J.S. Francisco e, C.J. Percival f, D.E. Shallcross
a, * a Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of
Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol
BS8 1TS, UK b rdscientific, Newbury, Berkshire, UK
[104]Home environment in relation to allergic rhinitis
among preschool children in Beijing, China: A cross-
sectional study Lifang Wang a, b, Fang Qu a, c, Yinping
Zhang a, Louise B. Weschler a, d, Jan Sundell a, * a
Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University,
Beijing, 100084, China
[105]Impact of dwelling characteristics on concentrations
of bacteria, fungi, endotoxin and total inflammatory
potential in settled dust Michal Spilak a, *, Anne Mette
Madsen b, 1, Sofie M. Knudsen a, 2, Barbara Kolarik a, 3,
Erik Wind Hansen c, 4, Marie Frederiksen a, 5, Lars
Gunnarsen a, 6a Danish Building Research Institute,
Department of Construction and Health, Aalborg
University, Aalborg, Denmark
[106]Indoor air quality in passive and conventional new
houses in Sweden Sarka Langer a, b, *, Gabriel Bek€o c,
Erica Bloom d, Anna Widheden a, Lars Ekberg e, f a IVL
Svenska Milj€oinstitutet AB, P.O. Box 53021, SE-400 14
G€oteborg, Sweden
[107]Indoor environmental problems and health status in
water-damaged homes due to tsunami disaster in Japan
Kenichi Hasegawa a, *, Hiroshi Yoshino b, U. Yanagi c,
Kenichi Azuma d, Haruki Osawa e, Naoki Kagi f, Naohide
Shinohara g, Asako Hasegawa h a Department of
Architecture and Environment Systems, Akita Prefectural
University, Akita, Japan
[108]Modeled effects of an improved building insulation
scenario in Europe on air pollution, health and societal
costs Jakob Hjort Bonlokke1,*, Gitte Juel Holst1, Torben
Sigsgaard1, Ulrik Smith Korsholm2, Bjarne
Amstrup2,Iratxe Gonzalez-Aparicio2,3 et Jens Havskov
Sorensen2
[109]Outdoor infiltration and indoor contribution of UFP
and BC, OC, secondary inorganic ions and metals in
PM2.5 in schools I. Rivas a, b, d, e, f, *, M. Viana a, T.
Moreno a, L. Bouso b, d, e, M. Pandolfi a, M. Alvarez-
Pedrerol b, d, e, J. Forns b, d, e, g, A. Alastuey a, J. Sunyer
b, c, d, e, X. Querol a a Institute for Environmental
Assessment and Water Research (IDÆA-CSIC), C/ Jordi
Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
[110]Particle exposure during the 2013 haze in Singapore:
Importance of the built environment Jin Zhou a, b, Ailu
Chen a, Qingliang Cao a, Bin Yang a, b, Victor W.-C.
15
Chang a, b, *, William W Nazaroff b, c a School of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
[111]Partitioning of trace elements and metals between
quasi-ultrafine, accumulation and coarse aerosols in indoor
and outdoor air in schools M. Viana a, *, I. Rivas a, b, c, d,
g, X. Querol a, A. Alastuey a, M. _Alvarez-Pedrerol b, c, d,
L. Bouso b, c, d, C. Sioutas f, J. Sunyer b, c, d, e a Institute
of Environmental Assessment and Water Research
(IDAEA-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
[112]Personal Exposure to Household Particulate Matter,
Household Activities and Heart Rate Variability among
Housewives Ya-Li Huang1,2, Hua-Wei Chen3, Bor-Cheng
Han2, Chien-Wei Liu4, Hsiao-Chi Chuang5,6, Lian-Yu
Lin7, Kai-Jen Chuang1,2*
[113]Primary pollutants in schoolchildren's homes in
Wuhan, China Shengwei Zhu a, *, Wei Cai a, Hiroshi
Yoshino b, U. Yanagi c, Kenichi Hasegawa d, Naoki Kagi
e, Mingqing Chen f a School of Architecture and Urban
Planning, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
[114]Quantification of differences between occupancy and
total monitoring periods for better assessment of exposure
to particles in indoor Environments A. Wierzbicka a, *, M.
Bohgard a, J.H. Pagels a, A. Dahl a, J. L€ondahl a, T.
Hussein b, c, E. Swietlicki d, A. Gudmundsson a Division
of Ergonomics and Aerosol Technology, Lund University,
Box 118, SE-221 00, Lund, Sweden
[115]Recent developments of passive samplers for
measuring material emission rates: Toward simple tools to
help improving indoor air quality Guillaume Poulhet a, c,
S_ebastien Dusanter a, b, *, Sabine Crunaire a, Nadine
Locoge a, Pascal Kaluzny c, Patrice Coddeville a a Mines
Douai, SAGE, F-59508 Douai, France
[115]Source term estimation using air concentration
measurements and a Lagrangian dispersion model e
Experiments with pseudo and real cesium-137 observations
from the Fukushima nuclear accident Tianfeng Chai a, b,
*, Roland Draxler a, Ariel Stein a a NOAA Air Resources
Laboratory (ARL), NOAA Center for Weather and Climate
Prediction, 5830 University Research Court College Park,
MD 20740, USA
[116]Residential wood burning and air pollutionT. A.
Quraishi(Centre for Environmental Studies, University of
Tasmania, Box 252C, GPO Hobart, Tasmania
7001(Austria)
[117]WHO indoor air quality guidelines on household fuel
combustion: Strategy implications of new evidence on
interventions and exposureerisk functions Nigel Bruce a, b,
*, Dan Pope a, Eva Rehfuess c, Kalpana Balakrishnan d,
Heather Adair-Rohani b, Carlos Dora b a Department of
Public Health and Policy, University of Liverpool, UK
[118]Household Air Pollution from Coal and Biomass
Fuels in China: Measurements, Health Impacts, and
Interventions Junfeng (Jim) Zhang 1 and Kirk R. Smith 2

[119]An assessment of indoor environmental quality in

schools and its association with health and performance
Ulla Haverinen-Shaughnessy a, b, Richard J. Shaughnessy
a, *, Eugene C. Cole c, Oluyemi Toyinbo b, d, Demetrios J.
Moschandreas e

[120]Impact on fuel properties on emissions from

combustion of solid fuels in a fixed bed domestic stove-
EJS Mitchell,,JM Jones,A Williams.