~ COMMON ENGLISH
aad ERRORS
\
1. INTRODUCTION
TO GRAMMAR:
GRAMMAR: A system of rules
setting forth the current standard of
usage of a given language.
BASIC UNIT OF GRAMMAR; Word
OTHER _ UNIT: Ol GRAMMAR;
Phrase, Clause, Sentence, Paragraph
WORDS ARE CLASSIFIED _INTO
DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH:
A. NAMING WORDS:
4._NOUN- word that names people,
places, things, qualities, actions,
ideas or relationships
Ex.: Peter, man, cat, book
2, PRONOUN: word that takes the
place of a noun
Ex.: he, she, it, they
B. ACTION WORDS:
3, _VERB- word that specifies an
action, state, feeling or existence
Ex.: write, play, appear
C.: MODIFYING WORDS:
4, ADJECTIVE- word that describes a
noun or pronoun
Ex.: beautiful, black, difficult
OKMA RESEARCH H-OUT 07-002
5. ADVERB- word that describes a
verb, adjective or another adverb
Ex.: quickly, slowly, fast
D. CONNECTING WORDS:
6. PREPOSITION word that relates a
noun or pronoun phrase or clause to
another word in the sentence. A
preposition always has an object.
Ex.: to the dance
of Bulacan
under the table
7. CONJUNGTION- _word _ that
connects words, phrases or clauses
Ex.: and, but, or, nor, consequently,
however, moreover,
furthermore, nevertheless,
therefore
E, EXPRESSIVE WORDS:
8.___ INTERJECTION- words that
express emotion
Ex.: alas, oh, wow
2. NOUNS:
RULE:
Nouns may either be SINGULAR
(one) or PLURAL (more than one) in
number. Most nouns are pluralized
by adding “s”, “’s”,"es" or “ie:
Some nouns do not follow this
general rule.Examples:
GENERAL RULE:
+
centavo- centavos
editor-in-chief. editors-in-chief
son-in-law- sons-in-law
‘spoonful- spoonfuls; spoonsful
cupful- cupfuls; cupsful
P-p’s
6- 6's
Miss- Misses
echo- echoes
EXCEPTIONS:
passerby- passersby
formula- formulae
forum: fora
basis- bases
analysis- analyses
crisis- crises
diagnosis- diagnoses
parenthesis- parentheses
criterion- criteria
memorandum. memoranda
curriculum. curricula
datum- data
medium- media
shelf- shelves
Mr.- Messrs.
Mrs.- Mesdames
focus: foci
alumnus- alumni (men)
alumna- alumnae (women)
datum- data
ox-oxen
fish- fish
sheep- sheep
news-news
3. PRONOUNS:
a. CASES OF PRONOUNS:
RULE:
“CASE” ‘is a change in the form of a
houn or pronoun to indicate its
relation to other words in a sentence.
Nouns and Pronouns have 3 Cases
-- SUBJECTIVE CASE, OBJECTIVE
CASE and POSSESSIVE CASE.
SINGULAR PLURAL
1% PERSON: tied
Nominative | we
Objective me us
Possessive my, mine our, ours
2°4 PERSON:
Nominative you you
Objective you you
Possessive your, yours your,yours
3" PERSO!
Nominative he, she, it they
Objective him, her, it them
Possessive his,her, their,
hers, its theirs
4. SUBJECTIVE __CASE-_These
pronouns function as SUBJECT and
PREDICATE NOUN!
Examples:
a) AS SUBJECT:
My brother, my sister and (J, me) were
brought up by a kind aunt.
b) AS PREDICATE NOUNS:
The winner is (she, her).
The winner Is (1, me).
2, OBJECTIVE _CASE- These
pronouns function as DIRECT
OBJECT, INDIRECT OBJECT and
IBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION,
eeauaiae:
a) AS DIRECT OBJECT
My mother spanked (he, him).
b) AS INDIRECT OBJECT
‘Ana baked (her, she) a cake.2) AS OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION
The manager had to choose between
(he and I, him and me).
3.__POSSESSIVE _CASE- These
pronouns indicate possession.
'
RULE:
Be careful to make a distinction
between POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS,
and CONTRACTIONS,
POSSESSIVE — CONTRACTIONS:
PRONOUNS:
your you're ( you are)
hers here’s (here is)
his he’s (he is)
its it’s (itis)
whose who's (who is)
their they're (they are)
Examples:
(its, It's) quite obvious that (your,
you're) the one who resembles (your,
you're) father and (their, they're)
uncle.
(Whose, Who's) recipe is (his, he’s)
baker going to use for (your, you're)
birthday cake?
(Your, You're) invited to a party.
RULE:
In an elliptical clause (an unfinished '
clause) beginning with “as” or
“than”, supply the missing words in
order to find out the proper Case for
the pronoun.
Examples:
We shall not talk with one as arrogant
as she (as she is).
My mother loves my brother more
than me (more than she loves me).
She reads faster than_1 (than | read).
I can do it as well as they (as they
can doit).
1 should see you more frequently
than her (than | should see her).
RULE:
In an appositive, the subsequent
pronoun (appositive) follows the
Case of the antecedent noun or
‘pronoun,
Examples:
We are all going he, she and I.
(Subjective Case)
Ana wants to ask a favor from them-—
Roger, him and her, (Objective Case)
RULE:
if a sentence has 2 or more clauses,
one must isolate the clause
containing the Relative Pronoun and
determine its function in said clause,
independent of the other clause, in
order to determine its proper Case-—
whether subjective case (who),
objective case (whom) or possessive
case (whose).
Examples:
The man (who, whom) did the
mischief is innocent.
Maria is the officer (who, whom) the
principal talked with.
This is the person (who, whom) we
can trust).
When you went there, (who, whom)
did you submit your application to?
RULE:
The Relative Pronouns “who” and
“whom” refer to a person, The
relative pronoun “which” refers to a
thing, The relative pronoun “that”
refers to a person or a thing.Examples:
The student who came yesterday was
looking for you.
The book which 1 bought is
expensive.
The actor that you are looking for is
here,
The gift that I gave is expensive.
ULE:
Compound Personal Pronouns are
simple pronouns combined with
“self” in order. fo refer_back or to
intensify their antecedents.
Examples:
1 found myself in hot water.
She sewed the dress herself.
iw
ULE:
Compound Personal _ Pronouns
should never be used if there is no
antecedent noun or pronoun to refer
back to.
Examples:
Her brother and (herself, she, her)
will go.
Grandmother sent brother and.
(myself, |, me) gifts on our birthdays.
RULE:
There is no such Compound
Personal Pronoun as ‘“theirself”.
“themself” or “theirselves”.
AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND
ANTECEDEN’
RULE:
‘A subsequent pronoun must agree
with its antecedent noun or pronoun
in NUMBER, GENDER and PERSON.
If two or more antecedent pronouns
or nouns are joined by “or” or “nor”,
the subsequent pronoun agrees with
the nearer antecedent _noun or
pronoun.
Examples:
Neither the students nor Ricky would
admit that he cared to come.
He likes anything or anybody who
can help him.
He likes anybody or anything which
can help him.
Either Gina or Eric will be spanked by
his mother.
Neither Erle nor Gina will be spanked
by her mother.
Neither Francis nor Pearl has ever
seen (his, her, their) father before.
Francis and Pearl are going to visit
(his, her, their) grandmother today.
4, VERBS:
A. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT:
RULE:
A verb must agree with its subject in
NUMBER, whether SINGULAR (one)
‘or PLURAL (more than one).
Most nouns are pluralized by adding
4g”, 5" , tes” or “ies”. On the other
hand, most verbs are singularized by
adding\
Examples:
v That girl walks to school everyday.
Those girls walk to school everyday.
The echoes vibrate inside the cave.
The echo vibrates inside the cave.
RULE:
A verb agrees with its subject, not
with its predicate noun.
Examples:
Cebu’s main product is mango chips.
The main part of this machine (is.
are) the large rollers.
The large rollers (is, are) the main
part of this machine.
RULE:
A verb agrees with a delayed subject.
Examples:
In front of the people stands a mango
tree.
Beneath the trees flutters a butterfly.
RULE:
After the expletive “there”, the verb is
singular or plural, depending on the
number of the subject that follows.
Examples:
There comes Pablo with his other
brothers.
There were a boy and a girl who
dropped by.
RULE:
A verb does not agree with a word or
words which intervene between it
and the subject.
Examples:
A new list of rules (has been, have
been) issued.
Each of the students (requires.
require) attention.
One of the children (is, are ) expected
to go.
You, the moderator, (Is, are)
‘supposed to guide the discussion.
One man, not the people, is guilty.
RULE:
‘A Collective Noun has a singular verb
when the group acts as a unit.
A Collective Noun has a plural verb
when the group acts separately.
Examples:
The team is happy.
The team wear their uniforms.
RULE: -
Phrases beginning with the words “in
the company of”, “including”, “with”,
“together with”, “in_addition to”, “as
well_as”, “no less than”, “and not”
and “but not” which come between
the subject and the verb do not affect
the number of the verb.
Examples:
The professor, together with his
students, eats in the cafeteria daily.The ‘plaintiffs, including their lawyer,
were cited for contempt.
The steak with onions tastes good.
Jimmy and not his brothers deserves.
full credit for the job.
RULE:
Quantities and sums, or multiples of
numbers expressing a single idea
require a singular verb.
Examples:
Forty meters is the length of this
pool.
Ten pesos is too much to pay for a
booklet.
Five minutes is enough time for this
exercise.
Rue
Fractions or nouns beginning with “a.
portion of”, ‘a part of” and fa number
of’ have a singular verb if the object
of the “of the...” phrase that follows
is' singular, and vice-versa.
Examples:
One sixth of the cake was eaten.
Half of the students are going.
A portion of the bread is already
stale.
A portion of the offerings are going to
be spent on the church construction.
RULE :
When “all” means everything, it has a
singular verb.
Ex: Allis not lost when hope
lingers. !
When “all” stands for a_group of
individuals, it has a plural verb.
Ex.: All were required to sign a
paper.
RULE:
When “none” refers to a noun which
is not countable, it has a singular
verb.
Ex.: None of the rice was left.
When “none” refers to a countable
noun, it has a plural verb.
Ex.: None of the students were ~
present.
RULE:
An adjective which functions as a
noun requires a plural verb.
Ex.: The poor are blessed.
The rich are humbled.
RULE:
When “or”, “nor”, “neither...nor” and
“either...or’ connect two subjects,
the verb agrees with the nearer
subject. «
Examples:
Either the professor or his students
are coming.
Neither the students nor their
professor is coming.
schemes was
Neither of his
acceptable.RULE:
Relative Pronouns (e.g, who, whom,
which) with plural antecedents
require plural verbs and vice-versa.
Examples:
The guest who_is coming hails from
Australia.
The guests who are coming hail from
Australia.
She is one of the most active
members who have been with us.
He was one of the candidates who
were able to fulfill their pledges.
RULE:
Verbs in the Subjunctive Mood are
always plural,
(See discussion under “MOODS OF
VERBS”.)
Examples:
I wish. were a king.
I demand that the defendant vacate
the land.
It is important that she read this
article.
It is necessary that he talk with her.
I move that the President cancel the
resolution,
if she were a man, she will be a
lawyer.
MOODS OF VERBS:
RULE:
MOODS of verbs denote the way in
which the statement is tegarded by
the writer-- whether as a fact, an
impossibility or a command! request.
Verbs may be in the INDICATIVE
MOOD, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD or
IMPERATIVE MOO!
4. INDICATIVE MOOD- Verbs in the
Indicative Mood state a fact or aska
question regarding a fact. It is also
used in a conditional clause
beginning with “if? or “unless” when
‘one is sure that the condition states a
fact.
Examples:
The book is on your study table.
(Statement of Fact)
Where are the books? (Question of
Fact)
If he is sick (and the statement is
probably true), he should be
excused. (Condition states a fact)
2, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD: Verbs in
the Subjunctive Mood are always
plural. Verbs in the Subjunctive Mood
are used to express the following:
a. State a wish or desire
Ex.: I wish were a king.
b, State a demand
Ex.: { demand that the defendant
vacate the land.
c. State a necessity
Examples:
it is important that she read this
article.
It is necessary that he talk with her.
It Is expected that every citizen obey
the laws.d, State a motion
Ex.: | move that the President cancel
the resolution. '
e. State an impossible supposition or
an uncertainty/ a doubtful situation
Examples:
if she were a man, she will be a
lawyer.
Assuming Albert Einstein were alive,
will he be as popular?
She would not have been jailed were
‘she completely honest (and the
‘statement is probably false).
RULE:
A sentence which has a conditional
clause that begins with an “if or
“unless” uses a verb in the Indicative
Mood if the condition is probably true
and the Subjunctive Mood if the
condition is probably false _or
impossible.
Example:
INDICATIVE MOOD- If he is sick (and
the statement is probably true), he
should be excused.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD- If he were
you (and the statement is probably
false. / impossible), he would
probably be rich by now.
INDICATIVE MOOD. She has to take
the test unless she is sick (and the
statement is probably true).
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD- Unless she
were a man (and the statement is
probably false/ impossible), she will
have to take a pap smear test.
3, IMPERATIVE MOOD: Verbs in the
Imperative Mood — express a
command or a request. Verbs in the
Imperative Mood are always in the
present-plural form.
Examples:
Close the door. (Command)
Please come on time so that we can
leave early. (Polite command)
Join our club and invite your friends
too. (Request)
. TENSES OF VERBS:
‘TENSE of verbs indicates the time of
the action or state being expressed
by a verb. The basic Tenses of
verbs are the following:
|. SIMPLE TENSE:
a. PRESENT TENSE: The action takes
place at the present time/ at the time
of speaking.
Ex.: | study in school everyday.
b, PAST TENSE- The action took
place In the past.
Ex.: I studied in school yesterday.
¢. FUTURE TENSE- The action will
take place in the future.
Ex. I will study in school tomorrow.
2. PERFECT TENSE:
a. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE- The
action began in_the past_and_is
completed/ perfected or continuing at
the time of speaking.Examples:
1 have studied in ICA for ten years
now.
Since last month, | have gone to the
museum only twice.
b. PAST PERFECT TENSE- The
action jan_in_the and is
completed or perfected before
another past action. Thus, the
sentence must have_2 verbs and the
earlier_verb is in the Past Perfect
Tense.
Examples:
The guests had left already when
she arrived.
The meeting had begun when she
enteré
Your telegram came soon after | had
mailed my letter to you.
1 had_rung the doorbell for five
minutes before the doorman opened
it.
By the time we arrived, the meeting
had turned into a gossip session.
Miss Santos suddenly realized that
she had forgotten her key.
c, FUTURE PERFECT TENSE- The
future action will be completed or
perfected before a future time,
Examples:
Before 9:00 tomorrow morning, we
shall_have studied for 9 hours
already.
By the time we get home, he will have
already slept.
He will have left for Visayas before
we get our pay.
The textbook will_have been printed
before the schoolyear opens.
RULE:
Do not shift verb tenses within a
sentence unnecessarily if the 2 verbs
occurred during the same time.
Examples:
While many suffer from hunger, some
rich people (waste, wasted, will
waste) food.
When I was a young girl, | (am, was,
will be) afraid of dogs.
when she
The meeting began
entered.
A graphic illustration of “TENSES” is
found below:
PAST PERFECT
PRESENT PERFECT
D. VERB FORMS:
RULE:
Just as verbs have a Simple Tense
and a Perfect Tense, they also have a
Simple Tense Form and a Perfect
Tense Form.Examples: 1
SIMPLE PRESENT- study
PRESENT PERFECT- have studied
SIMPLE PAST- studied
PAST PERFECT- had studied
SIMPLE FUTURE- will study; shall
study
FUTURE PERFECT- will have studied;
shail have studied
RULE:
Regular Verbs in the Simple Past
Tense or the Past Perfect Tense
usually end in “d” or “ed”. However,
Irregular Verbs do not.
Examples of Irregular Verbs:
The cat (lied, lay) peacefully in the
warm sun yesterday afternoon.
The water had (rised, rose, risen) in
the river.
Baby fell asleep before he had
(drinked, drank, drunk) his milk.
The murderer had been (hanged,'
hung) long before he arrived.
The play had already (beginned,
began, begun) when we arrived.
We had been (showed, shown) some
rock specimens at the museum even
before the new specimens were
delivered.
The choir had (singed, sang, sung)
already when the visitors came.
After he had (dived, dove) off the
dock, he (swimmed, swam, swum)
quickly to the boat.
The balloons had (bursted, burst)
when he arrived.
He has (beared, bored, bore, borne)
the burden for several years now.
He has (loosed, loosened) the knot of
his shoelaces.
He has (wringed, wrunged, wrung)
out the clothes this morning.
RULE:
A verb phrase is composed of the
MAIN VERB and the AUXILIARY
VERB, Main Verbs accompanied by
the Auxiliary Verbs IS, ARE. WAS
and WERE are in the Past Participle
Form, and not the Simple Tense Form
or the Past Perfect Tense Form.
Examples:
She is seen in the movies.
He was bitten by a dog.
The squatters are_moved to a new
relocation site.
The plates were broken.
RULE:
Main Verbs accompanied by the
Auxiliary Verbs DID, DO, DOES,
SHOULD, WOULD and WILL are in
the present-plural form even if the
subject is singular and even if the
action took place in the past.
Examples:
Does she (think, thinks) I'm joking?
She should (stop, stops) her habit of
making faces.
Did he (went, go, goes) to the party
yesterday?
He would (marry, marries) her soon.E. VOICES OF VERBS: |
RULE:
VOICES of verbs indicate whether
the subject is doing the action or not.
Verbs may either be in the PASSIVE
VOICE (if the subject Is not doing the
action) or the ACTIVE VOICE ( if the
‘subject is doing the action).
Examples:
She studies her lesson diligently.
(Active Voice)
Her lesson is studied diligently.
(Passive Voice)
RULE:
'
Do not shift voices within a sentence.
Examples:
WRONG: He wanted so much to top
the class that his lessons were
studied diligently.
CORRECT- He wanted so much to top ,
the class that he studied his lessons
diligently.
5. ADJECTIVES &
ADVERBS:
RULE:
Adjectives and adverbs have 3
DEGREES SIMPLE,
COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE---
to indicate a greater or lesser quality
as compared to two or more persons
or things.
Adjectives and adverbs in the
COMPARATIVE DEGREE __(which
compare 2 persons or things) are
the word
“ER.
usually preceded by
“MORE” or end with the suffix
Adjectives and adverbs in the
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE __(which
compare more than 2 persons or
things) are usually preceded by the
word “MOST” or end with the suffix
EST’,
Examples:
‘SIMPLE:
beautiful (adjective)
slowly (adverb)
pretty (adjective)
fast (adverb)
COMPARATIVE
‘more beautiful (adjective)
more slowly (adverb)
prettier (adjective)
fastest (adverb)
SUPERLATIVE
most beautiful (adjective)
most slowly (adverb)
prettiest (adjective)
fastest (adjective)
RULE:
Some aidjectives and adverbs have
irregular forms for the Comparative
Degree and the Superlative Degree.
Examples:
SIMPLE cComP. SUPER.
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
badly worse worst
RULE:
Avoid double Comparatives or
double Superlatives.
ulExamples:
WRONG: CORRECT:
more better _ better
most best best
more greater greater
RULE:
Distinguish among the adjectives
“this”, “these”, “that” and “those”.
Examples:
IE OBJECT IS NEAR:
This apple is rotten. (Singular)
These apples are rotten. (Plural)
IF OBJECT IS FAR:
That apple’ is rotten. (Singular)
Those apples are rotten. (Plural)
6. PREPOSITIONS:
RULE:
Use the preposition “on” to precede
the complete date which states the
month, day and year.
Ex: (On, In) June 5, 1972, Mr.
Reyes died.
Use the preposition “in” to precede
the incomplete date which states
only the month and the year, or only
the year, or only the month.
Examples: 1
(On, In) 1972, Mr. Reyes died.
(On, In) June 1972, Mr. Reyes died.
The schoolyear always begins (in.
on) June.
RULE:
Use the preposition “between” if
there are 2 persons involved. Use
the preposition “among” if there are
more than two persons involved.
Examples:
The money was divided (between.
among) Ana and Ed.
The money was divided (between,
among) the three heirs.
RULE:
Use the preposition “at” to precede
the complete address which states
the number, the street and the city.
Ex.: I live (in, on, at) 64 Katipunan
Road, White Plains, Quezon
City.
RULE:
Use the’ preposition “‘on” to precede
the name of the street.
Ex.: [ive (in, on, af) Katipunan Road.
RULE:
Use the preposition “in” to precede
the name of the city.
Ex, I live (in,on, at ) Quezon City.7. TIPS FOR INCREASING YOUR
FLUENCY IN ENGLISH:
TIP NO. 1:
PRACTICE , PRACTICE, PRACTICE. GET AN ENGLISH BUDDY.
TIP NO. 2:
DO NOT SPEAK IN TAGLISH. FILL UP THOSE BLANKS!
TIP NO. 3:
EXPAND YOUR VOCABULARY. FIND OUT THE MEANINGS OF DIFFICULT
WORDS IN THE DICTIONARY. LEARN AND USE A NEW WORD EVERYDAY
AND JOT IT DOWN.
TIP_NO. 4:
STUDY THIS HAND-OUT CAREFULLY.