Aircraft Equations of Motion:

Translation and Rotation!

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, !
MAE 331, 2016
Learning Objectives
•! What use are the equations of motion?
•! How is the angular orientation of the
airplane described?
•! What is a cross-product-equivalent matrix?
•! What is angular momentum?
•! How are the inertial properties of the
airplane described?
•! How is the rate of change of angular
momentum calculated?
Lockheed F-104
Reading:!
Flight Dynamics!
155-161!

Copyright 2016 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html 1

Review Questions!
!! What characteristic(s) provide maximum gliding
range?!
!! Do gliding heavy airplanes fall out of the sky faster
than light airplanes?!
!! Are the factors for maximum gliding range and
minimum sink rate the same?!
!! How does the maximum climb rate vary with altitude?!
!! What are “energy height” and “specific excess
power”?!
!! What is an “energy climb”?!
!! How is the “maneuvering envelope” defined?!
!! What factors determine the maximum steady turning
rate?!
2
 Dynamic Systems
Actuators

Sensors

Dynamic Process: Current state depends on Observation Process: Measurement may

prior state contain error or be incomplete
x = dynamic state y = output (error-free)
u = input z = measurement
w = exogenous disturbance n = measurement error
p = parameter
t or k = time or event index

dx(t) y ( t ) = h [ x(t),u(t)]
= f [ x(t), u(t), w(t), p(t),t ]
dt z (t ) = y (t ) + n (t )

Ordinary Differential Equations

Fall Into 4 Categories

dx(t) dx(t)
= f [ x(t), u(t), w(t), p(t),t ] = F(t)x(t) + G(t)u(t) + L(t)w(t)
dt dt

dx(t) dx(t)
= f [ x(t), u(t), w(t)] = F x(t) + G u(t) + L w(t)
dt dt
4
 What Use are the Equations of Motion?
•! Nonlinear equations of motion
–! Compute exact flight paths and dx(t)
motions = f [ x(t), u(t), w(t), p(t),t ]
dt
•! Simulate flight motions
•! Optimize flight paths
dx(t)
•! Predict performance = F x(t) + G u(t) + L w(t)
–! Provide basis for approximate dt
solutions

•! Linear equations of motion

–! Simplify computation of
flight paths and solutions
–! Define modes of motion
–! Provide basis for control
system design and flying
qualities analysis
5

Examples of Airplane Dynamic

System Models
•! Nonlinear, Time-Varying •! Nonlinear, Time-Invariant
–! Large amplitude motions –! Large amplitude motions
–! Significant change in mass –! Negligible change in mass

•! Linear, Time-Varying
•! Linear, Time-Invariant
–! Small amplitude motions
–! Small amplitude motions
–! Perturbations from a
dynamic flight path –! Perturbations from an
equilibrium flight path

6
 Translational Position!

Position of a Particle
Projections of vector magnitude on three axes

! x $ ! cos ' x $
# & # &
r = # y & = r # cos ' y &
#" z &% # cos ' &
#" z &%
" cos ! x %
$ '
$ cos ! y ' = Direction cosines
$ cos ! '
$# z '&

8
 Cartesian Frames of Reference
•! Translation
•! Two reference frames of interest –! Relative linear positions of origins
–! I: Inertial frame (fixed to inertial space)
•! Rotation
–! B: Body frame (fixed to body)
–! Orientation of the body frame with
respect to the inertial frame

Common convention (z up) Aircraft convention (z down)

Measurement of Position in
Alternative Frames - 1
•! Two reference frames of interest
–! I: Inertial frame (fixed to inertial
space)
–! B: Body frame (fixed to body)
Inertial-axis view

! x $
# &
r=# y &
#" z &%
rparticle = rorigin + 'rw.r.t . origin

•! Differences in frame orientations must

be taken into account in adding vector
components
Body-axis view
10
 Measurement of Position in
Alternative Frames - 2

Inertial-axis view

rparticleI = rorigin!BI + H IB "rB

Body-axis view

rparticleB = rorigin!I B + H BI "rI

11

Rotational Orientation!

12
 Direction Cosine
Matrix

" cos ! 11 cos ! 21 cos ! 31 %

$ '
H BI = $ cos ! 12 cos ! 22 cos ! 32 '
$ cos !
13 cos ! 23 cos ! 33 '
# &
•! Projections of unit vector
components of one reference
frame on another
•! Rotational orientation of one
reference frame with respect
to another
•! Cosines of angles between rB = H BI rI
each I axis and each B axis
13

Properties of the Rotation Matrix

B B
" cos ! 11 cos ! 21 cos ! 31 % " h11 h12 h13 %
$ ' $ '
H BI = $ cos ! 12 cos ! 22 cos ! 32 ' = $ h21 h22 h23 '
$ cos !
13 cos ! 23 cos ! 33 ' $ h h h33 '
# & I # 31 32 &I

rB = H BI rI s B = H BI s I
Orthonormal transformation
Angles between vectors are preserved
r s
Lengths are preserved

rI = rB ; sI = sB
!(rI ,s I ) = !(rB ,s B ) = x deg

14
 Euler Angles
•! Body attitude measured with respect to inertial frame
•! Three-angle orientation expressed by sequence of
three orthogonal single-angle rotations

Inertial ! Intermediate1 ! Intermediate2 ! Body

•! 24 (±12) possible
sequences of single-axis
rotations
•! Aircraft convention:
3-2-1, z positive down
! : Yaw angle
" : Pitch angle
# : Roll angle
15

Euler Angles Measure the Orientation of

One Frame with Respect to the Other
•! Conventional sequence of rotations from inertial to body frame
–! Each rotation is about a single axis
–! Right-hand rule
–! Yaw, then pitch, then roll
–! These are called Euler Angles

Yaw rotation (!) about zI Pitch rotation (") about y1 Roll rotation (#) about x2

Other sequences of 3 rotations can be chosen; however,

once sequence is chosen, it must be retained 16
Reference Frame Rotation from Inertial
to Body: Aircraft Convention (3-2-1)
Yaw rotation (!) about zI axis

! x $ ! cos' sin' 0 $ ! x $ ! x I cos' + yI sin' $

# & # &# & # &
0 & # y & = # (x I sin' + yI cos' r1 = H1I rI
# y & = # ( sin' cos' &
#" z &% # 0 0 1 &% #" z &% I #" zI &
1 " %
Pitch rotation (") about y1 axis

! x $ ! cos' 0 ( sin ' $ ! x $

# & # &# y & r2 = H12 r1 = !" H12 H1I #$ rI = H 2I rI
# y & =# 0 1 0 &# &
#" z &% #" sin ' 0 cos' %& #" z &%
2 1

Roll rotation (#) about x2 axis

! x $ ! 1 0 0 $! x $
# & #
0 cos ' sin '
&# & rB = H 2B r2 = !" H 2B H12 H1I #$ rI = H BI rI
# y & =# &# y &
#" z &% # 0 ( sin ' cos ' & #" z &%
B " % 2
17

The Rotation Matrix

The three-angle rotation matrix is the product of 3
single-angle rotation matrices:

H BI (! ," , # ) = H 2B (! )H12 (" )H1I (# )

# 1 0 0 & # cos) 0 " sin ) & # cos* sin* 0 &

% (% (% (
= % 0 cos ! sin ! (% 0 1 0 ( % " sin* cos* 0 (
% 0 " sin ! cos ! ( %$ sin ) 0 cos) (' % 0 0 1 ('
$ ' $

% cos! cos" cos! sin" # sin !(

' *
= ' # cos $ sin" + sin $ sin ! cos" cos $ cos" + sin $ sin ! sin" sin $ cos! *
' sin $ sin" + cos $ sin ! cos" # sin $ cos" + cos $ sin ! sin" cos $ cos! *
& )
an expression of the Direction Cosine Matrix
18
 Rotation Matrix Inverse
Inverse relationship: interchange sub- and superscripts
rB = H BI rI
rI = ( H BI ) rB = H IB rB
!1

Because transformation is orthonormal

Inverse = transpose
Rotation matrix is always non-singular
T
$% H BI (! ," ,# ) &' = $% H BI (! ," ,# ) &' = H IB (# ," , ! )
(1

T
H IB = H BI
( ) = H BI
( ) = H1I H12 H 2B
!1

H IB H BI = H BI H IB = I 19

Checklist!
"! What are direction cosines?!
"! What are Euler angles?!
"! What rotation sequence is used to
describe airplane attitude?!
"! What are properties of the rotation
matrix?!

20
 Angular Momentum!

21

Angular Momentum
of a Particle
•! Moment of linear momentum of differential
particles that make up the body
–! (Differential masses) x components of the
velocity that are perpendicular to the
moment arms

dh = ( r ! dm v ) = ( r ! v m ) dm
" !x %
$ '
! = $ !y '
= #$ r ! ( v o + " ! r ) %& dm $ '
$# ! z '&
•! Cross Product: Evaluation of a determinant with unit vectors (i, j, k)
along axes, (x, y, z) and (vx, vy, vz) projections on to axes

i j k
r!v= x y z = yvz " zvy i + ( zvx " xvz ) j + xvy " yvx k
( ) ( )
vx vy vz
22
 Cross-Product-
Equivalent Matrix
i j k Cross product
r!v= x y z = yvz " zvy i + ( zvx " xvz ) j + xvy " yvx k
( ) ( )
vx vy vz

% (
# yv " zv
z y ) &
( # 0 "z y & # vx &
( = r! v = % z (% (
= % ( zvx " xvz ) % 0 "x ( % v y (
% (
% "y x 0 ( vz (
%
%$ (
% xv " yv
y x ) (
('
$ ' %$ '(

" 0 !z y %
$ '
Cross-product-equivalent
matrix r! = $ z 0 !x '
$ !y x 0 '
# & 23

Angular Momentum of the Aircraft

•! Integrate moment of linear momentum of differential particles over the body

# hx %
xmax ymax zmax
) *
h = ' #$ r ! ( v o + " ! r ) %& dm = ' ' ' ( r ! v ) ( (x, y, z)dx dy dz = ) hy *
Body xmin ymin zmin ) h *
)$ z *&
( (x, y, z) = Density of the body
•! Choose the center of mass as the rotational center
Supermarine Spitfire

h= " ( r ! v ) dm + "
Body
o
Body
$% r ! ( # ! r ) &' dm

= 0( " $% r ! ( r ! # ) &' dm
Body

=( " ( r ! r ) dm ! # ) ( " ( r!r! ) dm##

Body Body 24
 Location of the Center of Mass
# x &
1
xmax ymax zmax % cm (
rcm = ! r dm = ! ! ! r" (x, y, z)dx dy dz = % ycm (
m Body xmin ymin zmin % (
$ zcm '

25

The Inertia Matrix!

26
 The Inertia Matrix
" !x %
h=! # r! r! " dm = ! # r! r! dm " = I"
" $
! = $ !y
'
'
Bo dy Bo dy $ '
$# ! z '&

where # 0 !z y & # 0 !z y &

% (% (
I = ! " r! r! dm = ! " % z 0 !x ( % z 0 !x ( dm
Body Body %
!y x 0 ( % !y x 0 (
$ '$ '
# (y 2 + z 2 ) !xy !xz &
% (
= " % !xy (x 2 + z 2 ) !yz ( dm
Body % (
%$ !xz !yz (x 2 + y 2 ) ('

Inertia matrix derives from equal effect of

angular rate on all particles of the aircraft
27

Moments and Products of Inertia

" (y 2 + z 2 ) !xy !xz % " I xx ! I xy ! I xz %
$ ' $ '
I = ( $ !xy (x + z )
2 2
!yz ' dm = $ ! I xy I yy ! I yz '
Body $ ' $ '
$# !xz !yz (x + y 2 )
2
'& $# ! I xz ! I yz I zz '
&
Inertia matrix
•! Moments of inertia on the diagonal
•! Products of inertia off the diagonal
•! If products of inertia are zero, (x, y, z) ! I xx 0 0 $
are principal axes ---> # &
# 0 I yy 0 &
•! All rigid bodies have a set of principal
axes
# 0
#" 0 I zz &&
%

Ellipsoid of Inertia

I xx x 2 + I yy y 2 + I zz z 2 = 1
28
 Inertia Matrix of an Aircraft
with Mirror Symmetry
" (y 2 + z 2 ) 0 !xz % " I xx 0 ! I xz %
$ ' $ '
I= ( $ 0 (x 2 + z 2 ) 0 ' dm = $ 0 I yy 0 '
Body $ '
$# !xz 0 (x 2 + y 2 ) '&
$
$# ! I xz 0 I zz ''
&

Nose high/low product

of inertia, Ixz

Nominal Configuration
Tips folded, 50% fuel, W = 38,524 lb
xcm @0.218 c
I xx = 1.8 ! 10 6 slug-ft 2
North American XB-70 I yy = 19.9 ! 10 6 slug-ft 2
I xx = 22.1! 10 6 slug-ft 2
I xz = "0.88 ! 10 6 slug-ft 2 29

Checklist!
"! How is the location of the center of
mass found?!
"! What is a cross-product-equivalent
matrix?!
"! What is the inertia matrix?!
"! What is an ellipsoid of inertia?!
"! What does the “nose-high” product of
inertia represent?!

30
 !is"rical Fac"ids
Technology of World War II Aviation
•! 1938-45: Analytical and
experimental approach to design
–! Many configurations designed and Spitfire
flight-tested
–! Increased specialization; radar,
navigation, and communication
–! Approaching the "sonic barrier
•! Aircraft Design
–! Large, powerful, high-flying aircraft
–! Turbocharged engines
–! Oxygen and Pressurization
B-17

P-51D 31

Power Effects on Stability and Control

Brewster Buffalo F2A
•! Brewster Buffalo: over-
armored and under-
powered
•! During W.W.II, the size of
fighters remained about the
same, but installed
GrummanWildcat F4F
horsepower doubled (F4F
vs. F8F)
•! Use of flaps means high
power at low speed,
increasing relative
Grumman Bearcat F8F
significance of thrust
effects

32
 World War II Carrier-Based Airplanes
Douglas TBD
•! Takeoff without catapult, relatively low
landing speed
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=4dySbhK1vNk
•! Tailhook and arresting gear Grumman TBF

•! Carrier steams into wind

•! Design for storage (short tail length, folding
wings) affects stability and control

Chance-Vought F4U Corsair

F4U

33

Multi-Engine Aircraft of World War II

Boeing B-17 Consolidated B-24 Boeing B-29

Douglas A-26

•! Large W.W.II aircraft had

unpowered controls:
–! High foot-pedal force
North American B-25
–! Rudder stability problems
arising from balancing to
reduce pedal force
•! Severe engine-out problem Martin B-26
for twin-engine aircraft
34
 WW II Military Flying Boats
Seaplanes proved useful during World War II

Martin PB2M Mars

Lockheed
PBY
Catalina

Martin PBM Mariner

Boeing XPBB Sea Ranger

Saunders-Roe SR.36 Grumman JRF-1 Goose

Lerwick

35

Managing Control Forces!

Chapter 5, Airplane Stability and
Control, Abzug and Larrabee!
•! What are the principal subject and scope of the
chapter?!
•! What technical ideas are needed to understand the
chapter?!
•! During what time period did the events covered in
the chapter take place?!
•! What are the three main "takeaway" points or
conclusions from the reading?!
•! What are the three most surprising or remarkable
facts that you found in the reading?!

36
 Rate of Change of
Angular Momentum!

37

Newton


s 2nd Law, Applied
to Rotational Motion
In inertial frame, rate of change of angular
momentum = applied moment (or torque), M

" mx %
dh d ( I!
! ) dI d! $
!! + I!! = M = $ my '
'
= = !+I = I!
dt dt dt dt $ m '
$# z '&

38
 Angular Momentum and Rate

Angular
momentum and
rate vectors are
not necessarily
aligned

h = I!
!

39

How Do We Get Rid of dI/dt in the

Angular Momentum Equation?
Chain Rule ... and in an inertial frame

d ( I!
!) !
= I!
! + I!! I! ! 0
dt
•! Dynamic equation in a body-referenced frame
–! Inertial properties of a constant-mass, rigid body are
unchanging in a body frame of reference
–! ... but a body-referenced frame is non-Newtonian 
or non-inertial
–! Therefore, dynamic equation must be modified for
expression in a rotating frame
40
 Angular Momentum
Expressed in Two
Frames of Reference
•! Angular momentum and rate
are vectors
–! Expressed in either the inertial
or body frame
–! Two frames related algebraically
by the rotation matrix

h B ( t ) = H BI ( t ) h I ( t ); h I ( t ) = H IB ( t ) h B ( t )
! B ( t ) = H BI ( t ) ! I ( t ); ! I ( t ) = H IB ( t ) ! B ( t )
41

Vector Derivative Expressed

in a Rotating Frame
Chain Rule Effect of
body-frame rotation
h! I = H IB h! B + H
! IB h B
Rate of change
Alternatively expressed in body frame

h! I = H IB h! B + ! I " h I = H IB h! B + !" I h I
Consequently, the 2nd term is

H
! IB h B = !" I h I = !" I H IB h B
# 0 "! z !y &
... where the cross-product % (
equivalent matrix of angular rate is !! = % ! z 0 "! x (
% (
%$ "! y !x 0 (
' 42
 External Moment Causes
Change in Angular Rate
Positive rotation of Frame B w.r.t.
Frame A is a negative rotation of
Frame A w.r.t. Frame B

In the body frame of reference, the angular momentum change is

h! B = H BI h! I + H
! BI h I = H BI h! I ! " B # hB = H BI h! I ! "" B hB
= H BI M I ! "" B I B " B = M B ! "" B I B " B

Moment = torque = force x moment arm

! m $ ! m $ ! $
# x & # x & # L &
M I = # my & ; M B = H I M I = # my & = # M &
B

# & # & # N &

#" mz &%I #" mz %&B " %
43

Rate of Change of Body-

Referenced Angular Rate due to
External Moment
In the body frame of reference, the angular momentum change is

h! B = H BI h! I + H! BI h I = H BI h! I ! " B # hB
= H BI h! I ! "" B hB = H BI M I ! "" B I B " B
= M B ! "" B I B " B
For constant body-axis inertia matrix

h! B = I B !! B = M B " !" B I B ! B
Consequently, the differential equation for angular rate of change is

!! B = I B "1 ( M B " !" B I B ! B )

44
 Checklist!
"!Why is it inconvenient to solve momentum rate
equations in an inertial reference frame?!
"!Are angular rate and momentum vectors
aligned?!
"!How are angular rate equations transformed
from an inertial to a body frame?!

45

Next Time:!
Aircraft Equations of Motion:
Flight Path Computation!
Reading:!
Flight Dynamics!
161-180!

Learning Objectives
How is a rotating reference frame described in an inertial
reference frame?
Is the transformation singular?
What adjustments must be made to expressions for forces and
moments in a non-inertial frame?
How are the 6-DOF equations implemented in a computer?
Damping effects
46
Supplemental
Material

47

Moments and Products of Inertia

(Bedford & Fowler)
Moments and products of inertia tabulated for
geometric shapes with uniform density
Construct aircraft moments and products of inertia from
components using parallel-axis theorem
Model in CREO, etc.

48