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WATER

REQUIREMENT
STUDY

( CHAPTER 2 )

DR ROSLINDA SESWOYA
1. Amount of water required
2. Water quality standard
3. Flow in stream and river
4. Water demand for urban supplies
5. Intake works
1. Amount of water required

• In Malaysia, water resources are State matters under the


Federal Constitution and policies on management,
regulation and development fall under the jurisdiction of
the states.

~Various Federal and State agencies are
responsible for water resources development and
management – mainly water supply, irrigation and
hydropower generation.
Water Authorities
Water Supply System
Malaysia, a country rich in water resources, receives a high
rainfall. The main rainy season in Malaysia occurred in :
• East - runs between November and February
• West - August (wettest period).

Average rainfall
• Peninsular Malaysia = 2500 mm
• East Malaysia = 5080 mm of rain.

Kuching = 5,423.0 mm ( 2016)


4,545.5 mm ( 2015)

Temerloh = 1,397.8 mm (2016)


1,193.2 mm (2015)

THE OFFICE OF CHIEF STATISTICIAN MALAYSIA DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS,


MALAYSIA 28 December 2017
• The use of surface water
resources in Malaysia to
meet water demand
requires
~ the storage of water in
times of excess capacity,
for release in times when
natural surface flows are
inadequate.

• In some states,
groundwater resources
have been developed to
meet the needs of smaller
communities and isolated
industries; generally
those without access to
piped supplies from
surface sources.
2. Water quality standard
The beneficial use of a freshwater
is determined s based on the
Water Quality Index (WQI)

WQI = 0.22(SIDO) + 0.19(SIBOD)


+ 0.16(SICOD) + 0.15(SIAN) +
0.16(SISS) + 0.12(SIpH)

The WQI serves as a basis for


environmental assessment of a
watercourse in relation to pollution
categorization and designated
classes of beneficial uses
Class Uses
I Conservation of natural environment.
Water Supply I – Practically no treatment necessary.
Fishery I – Very sensitive aquatic species.

IIA Water Supply II – Conventional treatment required.


Fishery II – Sensitive aquatic species.

IIB Recreational use with body contact.

III Water Supply III – Extensive treatment required.


Fishery III – Common, of economic value and tolerant species; livestock drinking.

IV Irrigation

V None of the above


In 2012, 34 rivers were categorized as being polluted, as shown below.
Out of these:-
19 rivers were classified as Class III
14 rivers as Class IV
1 and one river as Class V

Quality of Water Resources in Malaysia


By Yuk Feng Huang, Shin Ying Ang, Khia Min Lee and Teang Shui Lee
DOI: 10.5772/5896
parameters of pollutant loading that have significant impact on the river
quality, which include BOD, SS and NH3-N. Based on the monitoring results
in 2012 by DOE, in terms of river basin basis

• BOD Load
Klang River Basin ( state of Selangor) 142 tons per day,
Perak River Basin (State of Perak) 114 tons per day,
Sarawak River Basin (State of Sarawak) 30 tons per day,
Jawi River Basin (State of Pulau Pinang) 26 tons per day and
Muar River Basin (State of Johor) 24 tons per day.

• SS Load
Klang River Basin (360 tons per day)

• NH3-N load
Klang river basin (37 tons per day)

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) =sewage and discharges from agro-


based and manufacturing industries.
suspended solids (SS) = earthworks and land-clearing activities.
ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) = sewage that included livestock farming and
domestic sewage.
Water parameters to be monitored are tabulates in Table 3.1 ( page 3/15
and 3/15: MWA Design Guidelines
3. Flow in stream and river

Streamflows are of concern in water pollution, since treated


wastewater effluents are often disposed of by dilution in rivers
and streams; The greatest interest are low flows when the least
dilution capacity is provided.

The stream classification system of water-quality standards


establishes maximum allowable concentration of pollutants. For
example, ammonia nitrogen in warm-water streams is set at a
maximum allowable level of 3.5 mg/l.

These standards must be keyed to a specific quantity of flow to


determine the amount of pollutant that can be discharged to the
watercourse without exceeding the specified concentration.
The 1-in-10-year 7-consecutive-day low flow is the value that is
commonly adopted for assessing the flow in a stream or river.

What is 1-in-10-year 7-consecutive-day low flow ?


A 7-day low flow for a stream is the average flow measured during
the 7 consecutive days of lowest flow during any given year.

The 7-day 10-year low flow is a statistical estimate of the lowest


average flow that would be experienced during a consecutive 7-day
period with an average recurrence interval of ten years.

Because it is estimated to recur on average only once in 10 years it is


usually an indicator of low flow conditions during drought.
Streamflow records listing the lowest
mean discharge of Seven Consecutive
days for each year from 1984 to 2005*

Example 1
Determine the 1-in-10-
year 7-consecutive-day
low flow for a
streamflow records
listing the lowest mean
discharge of Seven
Consecutive days for
each year from 1984 to
2005*
Solution:

1. Arrange the minimum annual flows from historical


records in order of severity, that is, from highest to lowest
flow.
2. Assign a serial number m to each of the n values:1,2,3, ... , n.
3. Compute the probability plotting position for each serial
value as m divided by n + 1.
4. Plot flow on the vertical logarithmic scale and the
corresponding probability value along the horizontal axis.
5. Draw the best-fit line through the plotted data.
6. The frequency curve in logarithmatic probability paper is read
by entering the diagram from either the top or bottom, the
return period or probability, and reading the corresponding
low flow on the vertical scale
For a return period of 10
years, or probability of 90
percent, the minimum
flow is 22.6 cu ft/sec.

In other words, during


one 7-day period every
10 years, the lowest
average flow for those 7
days is expected to be
22.6 cu ft/sec, no other
7-day period having a
lower flow

Ninety percent of the


flows during 7-day
intervals are expected to
be greater than this
value.
Logarithmic probability paper is used because the
hydrologic extremes, floods and droughts, are skewed
and do not follow a normal symmetrical distribution.

The break in the line drawn in logarithmatic probability


paper indicates that drought flows did not occur during
the 5 years when the low flows were greater than
40cu ft/sec.

The importance of understanding the concept of low


flows for wastewater dilution is illustrated by the fact that
the average flow in this stream throughout the period of
record was 178 cu ft/sec.
If the waste assimilative capacity were to be based
on average flow rather than the calculated low flow,
excessive pollution of the stream would occur a
considerable portion of the time.

On the other hand, using the lowest daily flow, in this


case 18.1 cu ft/sec, leads to extreme conservation in
the opinion of many authorities.
Exercise 1

Determine the1 to 10 years, seven consecutive day low-flow using the


following data:

Year cu ft/sec Year cu ft/sec Year cu ft/sec


1953 62.7 1963 89.6 1973 77.4
1954 15.1 1964 149.0 1974 88.4
1955 54.1 1965 121.0 1975 36.1
1956 27.4 1966 108.0 1976 23.0
1957 48.4 1967 81.4 1977 123.0
1958 52.9 1968 98.0 1978 136.0
1959 39.0 1969 191.0 1979 159.0
1960 42.4 1970 188.0 1980 186.0
1961 123 1971 271.0 1981 135.0
1962 145 1972 191.0 1982 117.0
4. Water demand for urban supplies

Water demand is based on population served, per


capita consumption, service factor, industrial and
other special demands.

In estimating water demand, various other factors


should be taken to account directly or indirectly.
These other factors include:
i) unaccounted-for-water,
ii) unsatisfied demand,
iii) increase in per capita consumption over time
due to improvement in living standards,
iv) increase in service factor over time and
v) maximum day demand.
4.1 Planning horizon and staged development

The study of water demand for any urban water


supply scheme should cover a period of at least 20
years with projections made at 5 year intervals.

Planning on a horizon shorter than 20 years will not


allow the planner to take full advantage of the
potential of the water source selected or to make
provisions for full and economical development of
infrastructure, treatment facilities and distribution
systems.
On the other hand, planning on a horizon longer than
20 years may introduce a great deal of inaccuracy
due to the lack of information of long term
development of the area served.

In the Malaysian context and with the circumstances


applicable to most urban centres in the country, a
planning horizon of 20 years is the optimum and
should be used unless circumstances justify a shorter
or longer planning horizon.
Although the planning horizon of any scheme is 20 years,
for economic reasons implementation of construction of
facilities may be staged or phased in two or more stages
especially for the bigger schemes. In the staging of
construction, the stage 1 facilities should be adequate to
meet the water demand for a minimum period of another
ten years.

Not with standing this recommendation on staging of


water supply development, a scheme may be
implemented in one stage if considered desirable or
deemed necessary or the water source has the potential
only to cater for a period slightly longer than 10 years
based on the water demand projection.
4.2 Basic formula for water demand estimation
4.3 Population projection ( Pn)
The population projection should be carried out at 5
year intervals to cover a 20 year period, in making
assumptions on growth rates, reference should be
made to historical data based on previous census
and the Demographic Section of the Economic
Planning Unit of the Prime Minister's Department
(EPU) should also be consulted.

If an assumed population growth rate is not expected


to be sustained throughout the 20 year planning
period, different growth rates may be assumed for
different parts of the period.
It should be noted that' it would not be practical to expect
changes in growth rates in 5 years.

In the case of historical data indicating negative growth rates for


any particular part of the study area, the increase in water
demand there would be due solely to increases in the service
factor and per capita consumption.

Projections of population should be made on a mukim by mukim


basis and hence water demand estimation should be made on
such basis.

In projecting population growth a high and low growth rate should


be assumed. Based on this assumption, two water demand
curves will be generated. The median of these two water demand
curves should be used for water demand estimation.
Example 2

Identify P design (Pn) for District A and District B for year


2020 using design period of 8, 13 , 18 , 23 , 28, 33 and 43
year using the following data:

District Growth rate Growth rate Population at the


( upper limit) ( low limit) beginning of the year
zero, Po
A 3.0% 1.5 % 73000 in year of 1980
B 2.8% 1.3% 34000 in the year of 1980

Complete it by yourself !
Solution :
1) Calculate Pn for design period n of 8, 13, 18, 23, 28, 33
38, and 43 year
District A

Po r ( upper limit ) r ( lower limit ) n (1 + r)^ n - upper limit (1 + r)^ n - lower limit
73000 0.03 0.015 8 1 1
13 1 1
18 2 1
23 2 1
28 2 2
33 3 2
38 3 2
43 4 2

Pn ( upper limit ) Pn ( lower limit) Pn (median) year


92474.2 82234.0 87354.1 1988
107203.0 88589.3 97896.1 1993
124277.6 95435.9 109856.7 1998
144071.8 102811.5 123441.7 2003
167018.7 110757.2 138888.0 2008
193620.5 119317.0 156468.7 2013
224459.2 128538.3 176498.7 2018
260210 138472 199341 2023
2) Plot graph of Pn ( people on Y axis) versus design
period ( year on x axis)-

Population forecast for District A up to year 2018


300000.0

Pn (upper limit)
250000.0 pn ( lower limit)
Pn (median)

200000.0 Pn

150000.0

100000.0

50000.0

0.0
1988 1993 1998 2003 2008 2013 2018 2023

3) From graph, identify (Pn) of year 2020 ( refer to yellow


4.4 Per capita consumption (C)

Per capita consumption should be classified under three


categories. The guideline below gives a range of per
capita consumption for each of the three categories:-

urban - 230 to 320 litres/head/day,


semi-urban - 180 to 230 litres/head/day,
rural- 135 to 180 litres/head/day.

urban = communities with population exceeding 10,000


in number.
Semi-urban = areas at the periphery of urban
boundries where living standards and
water usage is between urban and rural
standards
In selecting a figure to be used in the estimation of water
demand for an urban area for year zero, the planner
should take into consideration the present size of the
urban centre, the existing per capita consumption, the
degree of unsatisfied demand and the per capita
consumption of other similar sized urban centres without
suffering. from a high degree of unsatisfied demand.

Per capita consumption should be increased at 5 year


intervals until year 20. The target to be set for year 20 will
depend on the projected size of the urban centre.

In selecting the target per capita consumption for the year


20 consideration should be given to the same factors
affecting the selection of the appropriate per capita
consumption for year zero.
The guideline given under this paragraph on per capita
consumption is deemed to include normal commercial
and industrial use, domestic use and unaccounted-for-
water losses.

If there is provision in the development plans for specific


industrial areas, additional water demand for such use
should be added to the estimation.

Light industries = 22,000 litres/hectare/day


Heavy industries = 45,000 litres /hectare /day

Engineers also adopt the following figures for industry water demand;

Heavy Industry = 65,000 l/ha/day (6,000 gal/acre/day)


Medium Industry = 50,000 l/ha/day (4,500 gal/acre/day)
Light Industry = 33,000 l/ha/day (3,000 gal/acre/day)
4.5 Servis factor ( F)

The service factor reflects the potential percentage


of population served.

A service factor of 0.9 means that the distribution


system covers adequately 90% of the area and the
population located in that area can get easy access
to public water supply.

A 0.9 service factor does not necessarily mean that


90% of the population have service connections.
In estimating the water demand the existing service factor for
urban and rural areas should be assumed for year zero and
the service factor should be increased at 5 year intervals until
it reaches the target service factor in year 20.

The planner should use his judgement in selecting the target


service factor for year 20 taking into consideration
Government policy and the expected water supply
development budgets in future development plans of the State
Government.

Table gives an indication of average service factors State by


State for the whole country but for planning of a particular
water supply scheme serving for example a district, service
factors
selected for urban and rural areas vary from mukim to mukim
The planner should use his judgement in selecting targets for
service factors for estimation of water demand.

Engineers also adopt F equals to 1.0 considering that water is supplied to all
the houses/building
4.6 Provision for additional water demand (Dn)

The most considered is the fire follow requirement as in


JKR Standard
Average Total Flow Spanning Maximum No. Of. Hydrant
L/min) (Meters ) Outlets Used
Simultaneously

Class A Risk

Large buildings, shopping complexes, high rise 4100 90 3@ 1370 L/min


buildings, large industrial estate, warehouse and
ports.

Class B Risk
2700 90 2 @ 1370 L/min
Congested areas with buildings up to 5 storeys.

Class C Risk
1370 90 1
Shophouse up to 3 storey, light industry

Class D Risk
1140 120-terrace 1
Residential terrace house, detached, semi detached 150-detached /
semi detached

Class E Risk
680 180 1
Others
4.7 Maximum Day Demand ( MDD)

Water consumption changes with the seasons, the days of the


week, and the hours of the day.

Fluctuation are greater in small own in large communities and


during short rather than long periods of time
Average Daily Demand ( ADD)

Design basis for water treatment facilities and pump is based on max
daily flow ( maximum day demand- MDD ) at the design year.

There is a relation ship between MDD with average daily demand


(ADD) as below
MDD = factor x AD

Example 3

Given ADD= 2.14 MLD ( million liter per day) and MDD = 3.21 MLD,
calculate the factor

Factor = MDD/ADD
= 3.21 MLD/ 2.14 MLD
= 1.5
Uniform Technical Guidelines for Water Reticulation and Plumbing, SPAN 2017
Peak hourly demand ( PHD)

Observe all the peaks for all the days throughout the year and note
the curve with the highest that is sustained for one hour or so. Record
the peak ( m3/day)

The highest peak represents the peak hourly demand (PHD),


Let say PHD = 5.35 MLD

Peak hourly demand = factor x ADD


Factor = 5.35 MLD/2.14 MLD
= 2.5

Design basis for distribution pipes is based on PHD

Storage volume for fire fighting is based on expected fire flow and fire
duration
Example 4

A new shop lot comprises of 24 units of shop house (3 storey).


Calculate water demand

Solution

Water demand of 24 shop houses (3 storey)


= 24 x 4100 L /day (from slide 42)
= 98,400 L/day
Population Equivalent -PE

One method for calculating expected flow rates is to calculate a


design parameter called the "population equivalent" (PE) of a
catchment and convert this to a flow rate.

For residential areas the population equivalent is calculated as


five per dwelling and is a direct measurement of the population in
an area

However for commercial areas it is calculated from the floor area,


which is considered to be proportional to the number of people
using a premises during the day. In this case it does not reflect
the population living in an area.
Type of Establishment Population Equivalent
Residential 5 per house

Commercial :
Includes offices, shopping complex,
3 per 100m2 gross area
entertainment / recreational centres,
restaurants, cafeteria and theatres

School / Educational Institutions :


0.2 per student
- Day schools / Institutions
1 per student
- Fully residential
0.2 per non-residential student
- Partial residential
1 per residential student
Hospitals 4 per bed
Hotel with dining and laundry facilities 4 per room
Water
Factories, excluding process water 0.3 per staff
consumption
Market (Wet Type) 3 per stall
Market (Dry Type) 1 per stall 225 L/cap.day
Petrol kiosks / Service stations 15 per toilet
Bus Terminal 4 per bus bay
Taxi Terminal 4 per taxi bay
Mosque / Church / Temple 0.2 per person
Stadium 0.2 per person
Swimming Pool or Sports Complex 0.5 per person
Public Toilet 15 per toilet
0.2 per passenger/day
Airport
0.3 per employee
Laundry 10 per machine
Prison 1 per person
Golf Course 20 per hole

Malaysian Standards 1228 (MS1228)


Example 5

Calculate water demand ( full design capacity) for the development


consisted of

Residential area = 19000 unit


Restaurant = 30000 m2
School = 10000 students
School fully residential = 2000 students
Hospital = 500 beds
Hotels = 1200 rooms
Factories = 4000 staffs
Wet market = 100 stalls
Petrol kiosk = 50 bays
Bus terminal = 20 bays
Solution

Item PE
Residential area 225 L/cap.d x 5 cap/unit x 19000 unit = 95000
Restaurant 3 PE/100 m2 x 30000 m2 = 900
School 0.2 PE/ student x 10000 student = 2000
School fully residential 1 PE/ student x 2000 student = 2000
Hospital 4 PE/bed x 500 beds = 2000
Hotels 4 PE/room x 1200 room = 4800
Factories 0.3 PE/staff x 4000 staff = 1200
Wet market 3 PE/stalls x 100 stalls = 300
Petrol kiosk 18 PE/service bay x 50 bays = 900
Bus terminal 4 PE/ bay x 20 bays = 80
PE = 109, 180  110,000

Water demand = 110000 PE x 320 L/PE.day = 35.2 MLD  0.41 m3/s

( slide 33)
Much lesser than 0.63 m3/s ( slide 18)
5. Intake works
An intake structure is required to withdraw water from a river, lake or
reservoir.

Intakes divided into two categories : 1) river intake and 2) lake and
reservoir intake

Tower in Sg Selangor Dam


A) River intake

• Constructed well upstream from points of discharge of sewage


and industrial waste
• Preferable locations will have deep water, a stable bottom and
favorable water quality
• Locations will have protection against floods, debris and river
traffic
• For fluctuating river beds intake pumps are mounted on
carriages to move

B) Lake and reservoir intakes

• Sited with due reference to sources of pollution, prevailing winds


and surface currents
• Reservoir intakes lie closer the bank in the deepest part of the
reservoir; often incorporated in to the impounding structure itself
5.1 Quantity of water to be abstracted at intake

The quantity of water to be abstracted a an intake for a conventional


treatment with sedimentation tanks and rapid gravity filters depends
on:

(a) The output required of the treatment plant (Q)


(b) The water required for in-plant use, usually 5% of the output
required of the treatment plant, and
(c) Water required for uses (q): for example water for washing band
screens, water for sand ejection, staff quarters, etc
(d) A factor of safety for inderterminate factors such as hydraulic
structural consideration. This should be of the order of 50% of
the required out put: also allowance which is included in the
50% of the required output must be added for pump losses and
fluctuation (deterioration) after initial services; losses through
screen and strainers etc.

Thus, quantity of water to be abstracted at the intake = 1.55Q + q


If filter washwater and sludge from the sedimentation tanks are
treated and the supernatant reused, the allowance for water
required for in-plant use may be reduced to 2%; hence,

Quantity of water to be abstracted at the intake = 1.52Q + q

5.2 Reliability of source

For surface water source, the intake should be located such as that
it can abstract the amount of water specified in 5.1 from 1 in 50 year
7 day minimum flow.
If filter washwater and sludge from the sedimentation tanks are
treated and the supernatant reused, the allowance for water
required for in-plant use may be reduced to 2%; hence,

Quantity of water to be abstracted at the intake = 1.52Q + q

5.2 Reliability of source

For surface water source, the intake should be located such as that
it can abstract the amount of water specified in 5.1 from 1 in 50 year
7 day minimum flow.
5.3 Intake site selection

Engineers must carefully consider numerous factors in site selection


for a raw water intake. These factors include:

 water quality
 water depth
 stream or current velocities
 Foundation stability
 Access
 power availability
 Proximity to water treatment plant
 Hazards to navigation
 Environmental impact
Water Quality:
The intake-structure site should be selected to yield the best
quality water possible. Intakes should not be located in dead areas
(areas with little or no water circulation), near wastewater outfalls,
near large inflows of poor-quality water, or in areas susceptible to
hazardous chemical spills.

Water Depth :
The intake structure should be located in such a way that water
can be withdrawn from the full range of water levels. The range of
water levels should include the lowest expected drought level and
the extreme flood level in the water source.

Stream or Current Velocities:


Both the direction and magnitude of the stream or curent velocities
can have an impact on the operation of intakes. Water currents
flowing past intake structure and ports at velocities greater than
0.6 m/s (2 f/s) can cause eddy currents that will affect the hydraulic
function of the intake. Water velocity also affects the lateral stability
and foundation stability of the structure.
Proximity To Water Treatment Plant:
The cost of facilities to convey water from the source to the
treatment plant is related directly to the distance between the
source and the treatment plant. Therefore, during selection of an
intake site, the length of the conveyance system must be given
serious consideration.

Hazard to Navigation:
In many cases, particularly in major rivers, the water body may also
serve as a navigation channel. In these cases, intake structures
must be located and designed so that they do not pose a hazard to
navigation. Particular attention in this regard must be given to
submerged intakes, because they may pose a hidden hazard and
are more susceptible to accidents.
Environmental lmpact:
The greatest impact of raw water intake is on recreational uses in
a body of water. Typically, a clear zone of 61 m or more is required
around intake sites, to protect boaters from the hazards of the
intake and to protect the water quality near the intake. In many
cases, this zone severely limits recreational use in a small body of
water. Other environmental issues that must be considered are
impacts on wildlife habitats, endangered species, and historical or
archaeological sites.
5.4 Intake design consideration

A: Intake Velocities

 The velocity of water entering the intake port is the single


most important design value to be selected by an engineer.

 High intake velocities increase head loss, entrain suspended


matter, trap fish and other aquatic animals, and compound ice
problems.

 Low velocities require the intake port to be larger and so add


to the cost of the structure. Experience has shown that a
velocity below 8.0 cm/s allows fish and other aquatic animals
to escape, reduces frazil ice obstruction, and minimizes the
entrainment of suspended matter.
B : lntake-Port Location

 Lakes and reservoirs tend to be stratified. As a result, water


quality in each stratum may vary.
 Properly designed intake structures should provide water
treatment plant operators the flexibility to draw water from the
stratum with the best water quality. In order to achieve this,
multiple intake ports set at various levels are generally provided.
 Ideally, the vertical location of ports should be determined by
testing of water quality from various depths at the proposed
intake site.
 These tests should be performed during all seasons which
different lake or reservoir levels and climatic conditions.
 The top intake port should be located not less than 2 m below
the normal water surface so that floating debris will not be drawn
into the port.
 The bottom port should be located at least 1 m above the
bottom to prevent the suspension of bottom sediments.

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