Conditionals and Wishes

Real Conditionals

Conditional sentences express a choice and the possible consequences of that choice.

There are three types of conditional sentences: Real, Unreal and Unreal Past. The first type is
the easiest to learn. It involves a present choice and a future consequence.

If you drive north for three miles, you will get to Columbus.
If he doesn’t exercise, Fred will gain weight.
If you purchase a raffle ticket, you might win a car.

Real conditional sentences contain two parts, the if clause, and the result clause.

The if clause indicates the choice and is expressed in present tense. It indicates a choice and
can be either positive or negative. If statements can also imply the opposite choice and result.

If you study hard you will pass the test. (Choice and possible result)

If you don’t study hard, you could fail.

(Implied opposite choice and result)

The result clause indicates the consequence or possible consequence, and is expressed in
future tense or with modals can, could or might.

If clause Result clause

If you eat your spinach, you will grow stronger.

If I quit my job, I can spend more time with the kids.

If Troy moves to Hollywood, he might become a movie star.

Present unreal conditionals

Present unreal conditionals indicate a situation which is only imagined or in some-one's

mind. For instance:

I wish I had a pony. (I don’t really have a pony.)

If I had a pony, I would ride it every day. (I imagine what I would do.)
To form present unreal conditionals, use past tense in the if clause and would + verb in the
main clause.

A: What would you do if you had a million dollars?

B: If I had a million dollars, I would invest it in the stock market.

A: What would you do if you didn’t have to come to school today?

B: If I didn’t have to come to school, I would go to the amusement park.

For present unreal conditionals, it is common to use were in place of all forms of “be” in the
if clause (regardless of the subject).

If I were you, I would get a lawyer.

If I were a lawyer, I would not charge you.

If she were a lawyer, Sheila would be rich.

Sometimes could can be used in place of would in the main clause:

If I had more free time, I could travel around the world.

Past Conditionals

Past conditionals are used when talking about decisions or actions that you wish had been
different. They indicate hypothetical situations from the past using “if” statements.

To form the past conditional, use past perfect in the “if” clause. Verbs in the main clause will
depend on whether you are referring to the present or the past.

For example*

I wish I hadn’t drunk so much last night. Now I feel terrible.

If I hadn’t drunk so much last night, I wouldn’t feel so terrible now.
(past action and present consequence)

I wish I hadn’t drunk so much last night. I felt terrible then.

If I hadn’t drunk so much last night, I wouldn’t have felt so terrible.
(past action and past consequence)

I wish I had left home sooner. I was late for the party last night.
If I had left home sooner, I wouldn’t have been late for the party.
(past action and past consequence)
 I wish I had left home sooner. Now I am stuck in traffic.
If I had left home sooner, I wouldn’t be stuck in traffic.
(past action and present consequence)

Present Wishes

Present wishes indicate something that is “contrary to fact.” That is, wishes are something
that is untrue but desired. For example,

I wish that I had a sports car. (The truth is I don’t have a sports car.)

(I’m really not a doctor.)

I wish that I were a doctor.

For present wishes, the past tense is used in the that clause, because it indicates a situation
that is only imagined. Sometimes the word that is omitted.

She wishes (that) she had a diamond ring.

He wishes (that) he were rich.

To express possibility (can) and future intention (will), use the modals could and would
respectively.

She wishes that she could sing.

They wish that she would stop.

When a “be” verb is required, the word were is used, regardless of the subject.

We wish you were here.

I wish (that) I were taller.

Past Wishes

Past wishes indicate things we imagine would have been different in the past, although we
cannot change them. For past wishes, use the past perfect in the that clause.

I wish (that) I had gone to Cincinnati (I really didn’t go.)

He wishes that he had been elected chairman. (He wasn’t elected.)

They wish they had won the lottery.

(They didn’t win.)
Hope vs. Wish

Wish is most commonly used in hypothetical (or imagined) situations:

I wish that I had a dog. (I don't really have a dog, but if I did, I would be happy.)
I wish (that) you were here. (Unfortunately, you're not, and I miss you.)

Sometimes wish is used in greeting and expressions of goodwill:

(S V IO DO)
We wish you a "Merry Christmas."
They wished him "Happy Birthday."
Wish me luck.

Hope can also be used in expressions of goodwill, but the grammar is slightly different:

I hope (that) you have a Merry Christmas. (some time in the future)
I hope (that) you had a nice Birthday. (some time in the past)

Hope can be used to specify a desired outcome. For future hopes, the possibilities remain
open, but for past hopes, the outcome has usually been determined already.

I hope you can come to the party on Saturday. (future possibility)

I was hoping that you would come to the party.
I had hoped to see you at the party on Saturday. (but you didn't make it)

I hope to get an A on the exam. (but I didn't)

I hope it doesn't rain tomorrow.
He hopes to be elected President.
She hoped you wouldn't find her. (it is still possible)
(although it might)
(it could happen)
(but you probably did)

Wish and hope are also used in certain types of requests and pleasantries. In such situations,
wish carries a more definite and formal tone.

I wish to see the doctor. (right now)

I hope to see you again. (anytime in the future)

Infinitive and the -ing form

Go + Ving

Some activities are commonly expressed in English by the phrase Go + Ving. See the list
below.

go camping go hiking go fishing go hunting

go swimming go diving go surfing go snorkeling

go water skiing go scuba diving go wind surfing

go skiing go snowboarding go (ice) skating

go shopping go bowling go roller skating

go jogging go running go rollerblading go skateboarding

go sky diving go parachuting go parasailing

Examples:

A: Would you like to go skiing this weekend?

B: No, I’d rather go ice skating.

A: Did you go bowling last night?

B: Actually, I went shopping instead.

Common mistakes:

I want to camping on Saturday. (Incorrect)

I want to go camping on Saturday. (Correct)

They went to jogging this morning. (Incorrect)

They went jogging this morning. (Correct)

I like to swimming. (Incorrect)

 I like to swim. (Okay)

I like swimming. (Okay)

I like to go swimming. (Okay)

I like going swimming. (Okay)

Gerunds

Gerunds are defined as the –ing form of a verb. They have several functions.

1. Used as subjects and complements

Skiing is my favorite sport.

Hiking can be very strenuous.

Seeing is believing

2. Used as objects following prepositions and prepositional expressions

Thanks for tending my children.

The job consists of typing, filing, and answering the phone.

3. Used as objects following certain verbs*.

The children enjoyed watching the parade.

Ms. Terrell avoided paying her taxes until it was too late.

Gerunds can sometimes take objects of their own:

Roland is afraid of making mistakes.

Sandy is considering leaving New York.

*These verbs are commonly followed by gerunds.

admit advise anticipate appreciate attempt avoid

begin can't help complete consider delay deny
discuss dislike enjoy finish forget go
hate hesitate imagine intend keep like
 love mention mind miss neglect postpone
practice prefer quit recall recollect recommend
regret remember resent resist risk start
stop suggest threaten tolerate try understand

Infinitives

Infinitives are defined as to + base form of the verb. They have several functions.

1. Used as subjects and subject complements.

To know me is to love me.

To live in Hawaii is my lifetime dream.

2. Used as objects following certain verbs*.

I wanted to tell you how much I appreciated your gift.

He hesitated to ask the embarrassing question.

3. Used as a shortened form of in order to.

You must take this medicine (in order) to get well.

I went to the bank to cash a check.

Infinitives can sometimes take objects of their own.

We hope to find the person who did this.

I was asked to make a dessert for the potluck dinner.

*These verbs are commonly followed by infinitives.

afford agree appear arrange ask attempt

beg begin care choose claim consent
decide demand deserve desire expect fail
forget go happen hate hesitate hope
intend know how learn like love manage
mean need neglect offer plan prefer
prepare pretend promise refuse regret remember
seem start stop struggle swear tend
threaten try volunteer wait want wish

To V or Not To V
The word “to” is often confusing in English. It can be used as part of a modal expression,
infinitive or as a preposition.

Note the usage of “to” in the following sentences.

To V To V ing

I used to live in Utah. I am used to living in Utah.

I am supposed to go. I am opposed to going.

I hope to see you. I look forward to seeing you.

Modal expressions are always followed by the base form of the verb.

ought to be to

have to be able to

have got to be supposed to

used to be going to

Similar expressions are followed by infinitives (to + V)

need to V be allowed to V

want to V be inclined to V

hope to V be reluctant to V

happen to V be willing to V

mean to V be happy to V

tend to V be afraid to V

care to V be required to V

wish to V be delighted to V

would like to V be compelled to V

Many prepositional combinations using “to” are followed by gerunds.

look forward to V ing be accustomed to V ing

 resort to V ing be addicted to V ing

submit to V ing be opposed to V ing

confess to V ing be limited to V ing

give in to V ing be dedicated to V ing

admit to V ing be commited to V ing

with regards to V ing be used to V ing

Adjectives

Adjectives

Adjectives are used to describe nouns. They give more details or information about the nouns
they are associated with.

A: Tell me about your boyfriend

B: Well, he is tall, dark, and handsome.

A: Sounds like mine.

Adjectives can be used to answer the questions What kind (of) or Which one?

A: Hi. I'm calling about the car you're selling?

B: It's a great car. (It's) in excellent condition.

A: What kind of seats does it have?

B: They're very comfortable seats, (soft, plush, just like a sofa.)

A: Uh. I think I'll sleep on it.

A: Hand me a book.

B: Which one do you want?

A: The red book. The red one.

Adjectives come before the nouns they modify (not after).

Three happy hippies lived in the Heartquake Hotel.

WRONG: Three hippies happy lived in the Heartquake Hotel.

Adjectives can also be used with linking verbs to describe the subject of a sentence.

When used in this manner, the adjective(s) come after the linking verb.

My mother is tall and slender.

WRONG: My mother tall and slender. (No linking verb.)

Seem, become, appear, and verbs of perceptioncan also be used as linking verbs. Note how
they are used with adjectives in the following. Can you identify the linking verbs and the
adjectives?

The journey seemed long. (It appeared strenuous and boring.)

You smell nice today. What kind of cologne are you wearing?

A: What do you want to do this weekend? Bowling? Shopping? A movie?

B: Bowling sounds good.

CAUTION/BE CAREFUL:

Tom looked greedy. (He appeared to be a greedy person.)

The adjective greedy is used to describe Tom.

Tom looked greedily at the pie on the table.

(He saw it and wanted it for himself.)

The adverb greedily is used to describe Tom's action.

Adjectives are the same for all nouns. They do not change for plurals.

Example: Three tired tigers tried to tie a triangular tie.

Not: Not three tireds tigers.

Adjective Order

When several adjectives modify the same noun, there is a particular order they
must follow in English. Certain adjectives come before others. (Not all have to
be used in the same sentence.)

See the chart below.

Quanti-fier Article Number Quality Shape Color Origin Material

Posses-sive Sequence Size
Demons-trative

the, a, an
Some of this, that
All of my, his three wonderful round red Laos metal
Both second clean square yellow Italian ceramic
next large flat black French wood

Examples:

Some of the hungry gentlemen

The last great civilization

Ten big round metal rings

The beautiful Japanese ceramic vase

Either of the small green apples

My three lovely daughters

An interesting wooden statue

The third red plastic container

Nouns, pronouns

Collective Nouns

Some nouns can be used with either “singular” or plural “verbs,” depending on whether the
speaker is referring to them as a one group or individually.

Examples of collective nouns are:

group family committee team management

The committee has not made a decision (It will submit one conclusion as a
yet. group.)

The committee have not made a decision They are still arguing among
yet. themselves.)

The team is posing for a photograph. (as a group)

The team are signing autographs. (as individuals)

Be careful when using collective nouns with pronouns.

The Jones family is having a reunion this Sunday. It meets every summer.

The Jones family are going home on Monday. They all live in different states.

Count/Non-Count Nouns

Count nouns have two forms: singular and plural. They can be used with numbers and
quantifying expressions such as many, several, and few.

One potato two potatoes several potatoes few potatoes

When used as subjects in present tense sentences, count nouns require the –s form of the verb
in the singular and the base form of the verb in the plural.

The dog sleeps. The dogs sleep. The bear has large claws.

Non-count nouns have only one form. When used as subjects in present tense sentences, non-
count nouns require the –s form of the verb.

Juice contains many vitamins. Honesty is the best policy.

Some nouns can be either count or non-count.

Job experience is essential. Some experiences can be funny.

Milk contains calcium. Two milks, please. (informal)

Both count and non-count nouns can be quantified. That is, they can be used with expressions
which divide them into parts or groups which can be counted. For example,

Two apples Two bags of apples

One cookie A box of cookies

milk Two cartons of milk

sugar A cup of sugar

Sometimes a non-count noun is used to indicate a “group” of items, whereas individual items
within the group are countable. For example,

Non-count Count

Money dollars, bills, fives, cents, dimes, coins

Time years, months, days, hours, minutes

Clothing dresses, pants, shirts, socks, shoes

Furniture tables, chairs, sofas, lamps

Luggage suitcases, briefcases, bags, carry-ons

Singular vs. Plural

English nouns can be classified as count (singular and plural) and non-count.

The singular form is used when considering the noun as a single item (count) or entity (non-
count).

brick dog airplane person foot water sugar truth education

The plural form is used when considering more than one of the same item. Non-count nouns
do not have a plural form.

bricks dogs airplanes people feet

Things to be aware of: Regular plurals

Most plurals are formed by adding –s or –es to the singular noun:

boys cars pens pills pronounce /z/

cats rocks tips chiefs pronounce /s/

kisses watches boxes dishes pronounce /Iz/

In some cases, there are special spelling rules that need to be considered when forming the
plural.

knives hobbies quizzes

Irregular plurals

Some nouns take on a different form in the plural:

women teeth mice children people

Non-count nouns

Non-count nouns do not have a plural form; however, some nouns can be used in both the
count and non-count sense:

I have a lot of experience. I have a lot of experiences.

Third-person singular –s

Singular and non-count nouns (in the third person) require the –s form of the verb in the
present tense.

The girl loves painting.

My dog likes to eat meat.

Johnny lives next door to Jenny.

Milk contains nutrients.

Tommy has two hobbies.

Jerry is from Colorado.

Singular count nouns require an article (the, a, an) unless

they are “proper” nouns

Mr. Jones went to Arizona.

they are preceded by a possessive

My mother loves my father.

they are preceded by this, that, each, every, either, neither, or one.

Each man contributed one dollar.

(Wrong: Apple is on table.—articles are required)

The/An apple is on the table. (right)

Plural nouns and singular non-count nouns do not require an article in the “generic” sense:

Water is important for plants.

However, they require articles (the, some) in most other cases.

Please put some wine in the glasses.

Plurals and Nationalities

Why do we say but we say

The Russians are here.* The Chinese are here.*

The Koreans are here.
The Americans are here
The Italians are here.
The New Zealanders are here
The Pakistanis are here.
The Japanese are here.
The British are here.
The Swiss are here.
The French are here.
The Portuguese are here.

It’s mostly phonetic. That is, it depends on the final sound of the word.

Words ending in Words ending in

-an, -ian, -er, -i -ese, -ish, -iss, -ch

require an –s in the plural do not change

Languages (no article)

Russian is easy. Chinese is easy.

Korean is easy. Japanese is easy.
 Italian is easy. French is easy.

Generalizations**

Russians are friendly The Chinese are friendly.

Koreans are friendly.
New Zealanders are friendly.
Chinese people are friendly.
The Japanese are friendly.
Japanese people are friendly.
The French are friendly.
Frenchmen are friendly.

*If you are talking about a specific group (of Russians, etc.), the article the must be used.

Most of the Italians (in this class) are female.

Most of the Japanese (in the restaurant) are from Kyoto.

**If you are talking generally, no article or preposition is needed.

With 's' Most Americans speak English. Not: Most of Americans

No 's' Most Vietnamese live in Asia. Not: Most of Vietnamese

Noun and Verb Phrases

Noun Phrases are groups of words that can function as subjects or objects in sentences.

They may take on various forms:

Water is important for survival. (Single words)

Mr. Jones spoke to Dr. James. (Proper names)

The boy ate an apple. (Nouns and articles)

My friend works with her father. (Nouns and possessives)

The young girl wore a long, white dress. (Nouns and adjectives)

Some of the kids ate all of the cake. (Nouns and quantifiers)

The man with the gun frightened the people in the (Nouns and prep. phrases)
bank.

The woman who lives there is my aunt. (Nouns and relative clauses)

The dogs sleeping on the deck should be left alone. (Nouns and phrases)

Whoever wrote this is in trouble. (Noun clauses)

 Pronouns and similar words can also function as subjects and objects:

He gave the money to us.

Someone left this.
Give me one of each.

Verb Phrases

Verb phrases are groups of words that express action or state of being. They take on
various forms.

The men live in the dormitory. (Single verbs)

He stayed at the Hi Hat Hotel. (Past tense verbs)

I am learning many new things. (Progressive verbs)

She has been there before. (Perfect verbs)

They have been working here five years. (Perfect progressive verbs)

I could use some assistance. (Verbs and modals)

The trip was approved by the professor. (Passive verbs)

Do you want some more pie? (Verbs in questions)

Other words can be added to enhance verb phrases:

The mayor works here. (adverbs)

Neil is not a candidate. (negatives)

They live in the suburbs. (prepositional phrases)

She'll leave whenever she wants. (adverbial clauses)

Don't talk while eating. (phrases)

Pronouns

Pronouns are used in place of nouns. They enable speakers to refer to something or someone
without having to repeat its name.

Example:
 Mr. Jones lives in Kentucky. He frequently travels to Memphis to see his wife. She is
a lawyer and only sees him on weekends.

The subject and object pronouns in English are as follows:

Subject Object

I Me
You You
He Him
She Her
It It
We Us
They Them

Use subject pronouns when the pronoun refers to the doer of the action or the main topic
(subject) of the sentence.

Henry hit a baseball over the fence.

He didn’t know where it would land.
It went right through Mrs. Crabby’s window.
She was furious. She called Henry’s parents and told them what happened.
Henry had to pay for the window with his hard-earned money.
He wasn’t too happy about that, but he learned a lesson.
Now, he only plays baseball at the ball park.

Use object pronouns when the pronoun refers to the receiver of the action or is the object of a
prepositional phrase.

Ms. Lindon met her husband in a gold mine.

The first time she saw him, she was in love.
He also liked everything about her.
He asked her to marry him the next day.
Many friends joined them in the wedding celebration.

Reminders: Do not use subject pronouns in the object position or vice versa.
WRONG: Give the balloon to he.
Correct: Give the balloon to him.

WRONG: Her is the one I want to see.

Correct: She is the one I want to see.
Remember to use he/him when referring to males and she/her when referring to females!
WRONG: Mary lived on a farm. He had a little lamb.
Correct: Mary lived on a farm. She had a little lamb.

WRONG: Mr. Smith has gone to Washington. I'll give her the message.
Correct: Mr. Smith has gone to Washington. I'll give him the message.

Possessives
Possessives take many forms in English.

Pronouns in the possessive case can be used as adjectives to modify nouns or stand alone as
subjects, objects or complements. For example,

My book is on the table. (used to modify a noun)

Mine is on the table. (used as a subject)

I put mine in the refrigerator. (used as an object)

The red one is mine. (used as a complement)

See the table below.

Pronouns as adjectives Pronouns as subjects, objects and complements

mine
my his
his hers
her its (not common)
its yours
your ours
our theirs
their

The possessive is formed by adding ‘s to singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s.
Such possessives can be used as modifiers, or they can stand alone.

It is John’s bicycle.
Those are the children’s toys.
Jack’s is the white one.
I’m going to Joe’s.

With plural nouns ending in –s, only an apostrophe (‘) is used to form the possessive.

The girls’ bicycles are in the repair shop.

All the students’ books were stolen.

There is/are

There is/There are is a common phrase in English, used to indicate that something “exists” or
is in a certain location. The main subject follows the verb when there is/are is used.

There is an apple on the table.

 There are some apples on the table.

Other forms of “be” can also be used with there is/there are.

There will be a party at Bill’s house on Saturday.

There were four witnesses at the crime scene.

There have been two robberies in the last five months.

Contractions are possible, but they are mostly used informally in speech.
There’s a fly in my soup.

There’re plenty of oranges left.

There’ll be a lot of people in attendance.

There’s is by far the most common contraction, and it is sometimes used inadvertently with
plural subjects by native speakers.

There’s ten people outside!

Common mistakes

Since the expression there is/are usually has no equivalent in other languages, students
sometimes use have instead.

(Incorrect)
Have a lot of food on the table.
(Incorrect)
It has a lot of food on the table.
(Incorrect)
There have a lot of food on the table.
(Correct)
There is a lot of food on the table.

Noun Clauses

Noun clause used as an object

He said something.

SVO What did he say?

He said that he was sick.

Noun clause used as a subject

Something is your business.

SV What is your business?

Whatever you do is your business.

Someone is still in the cafeteria.

SV Who is in the cafeteria?

Whoever ate my lunch is still in the cafeteria.

The subordinator may take the "subject" or "object" position in a noun clause.

Note the usage of the following:

Henry loves Mary. (S V O) Mary is the "object" of the sentence.

Mary is the "subject" of the sentence.

Mary loves Jim. (S V O)
Relative clause (subordinator in obj.
position)
The person who(m) Lee loves is a secret.
Relative clause (subordinator in subj.
position)
The person who loves Tim is a secret.
Noun clause (subordinator in obj. position)

Who(m) Henry loves is a secret. Noun clause (subordinator in subj.

position)

Who loves Tim is a secret.

Subordinators which are used in noun clauses:

(Some of these words are also used in Grammar: Relative Clauses and Grammar: Wh -
Questions.)

that which how much

what where how many

who when how long

whoever how how far

whatever why how often

whether if whose

Remember to preserve word order in noun clauses:

I don’t know who he is.

Whoever she is is not important.

Whatever is in the box is a mystery.

Can you tell me what he is doing?

She doesn't undestand why he is leaving.

I wonder how much that costs.

Do you know how long it will take?

Verbs
Regular Verbs

(see Complete list of Irregular Verbs)

base -s form past past participle -ing form notes

call calls called called calling

clean cleans cleaned cleaned cleaning

look looks looked looked looking 1

talk talks talked talked talking 1

end ends ended ended ending 2

wait waits waited waited waiting 2

kiss kisses kissed kissed kissing 3

wash washes washed washed washing 3

live lives lived lived living 4

love loves loved loved loving 4

beg begs begged begged begging 5

sin sins sinned sinned sinning 5

play plays played played playing

stay stays stayed stayed staying

cry cries cried cried crying 6

study studies studied studied studying 6

die dies died died dying

tie ties tied tied tying

Notes:
1. Pronunciation differences in past/past participle after /p, s, k, f/ sounds

2. Pronunciation differences in past/past participle after /t, d/ sounds

3. Spelling and pronunciation differences in –s form after /s, sh, ch, z/ sounds

4. Dropping of “silent e” with –ing endings

5. Doubled consonants after “short” vowel sounds

6. Spelling differences when “y” is preceded by a consonant

Irregular Verbs

ABCDEFGHK

LMNPQRSTUW

Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle

A
arise arose arisen
awake awakened / awoke awakened / awoken

B
backslide backslid backslidden / backslid
be was, were been
bear bore born / borne
beat beat beaten / beat
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bet bet / betted bet / betted
bid bid / bade bidden
bid bid bid
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast / broadcasted broadcast / broadcasted
build built built
burn burned / burnt burned / burnt
burst burst burst
bust busted / bust busted / bust
buy bought bought
C
cast cast cast
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
clothe clothed / clad clothed / clad
come came come
cost cost cost
creep crept crept
cut cut cut

D
daydream daydreamed / daydreamtdaydreamed / daydreamt
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
disprove disproved disproved / disproven
dive dove / dived dived
dive dived / dove dived
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamed / dreamt dreamed / dreamt
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
dwell dwelt / dwelled dwelt / dwelled

E
eat ate eaten

F
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fit (tailor, change size)fitted / fit fitted / fit
fit (be right size) fit / fitted fit / fitted
flee fled fled
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
forbid forbade forbidden
forecast forecast forecast
forego forewent foregone
foresee foresaw foreseen
foretell foretold foretold
forget forgot forgotten / forgot
forgive forgave forgiven
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
G
get got gotten / got
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown

H
hang hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hew hewed hewn / hewed
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt

K
keep kept kept
kneel knelt / kneeled knelt / kneeled
knit knitted / knit knitted / knit
know knew known

L
lay laid laid
lead led led
lean leaned / leant leaned / leant
leap leaped / leapt leaped / leapt
learn learned / learnt learned / learnt
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
lie (not tell truth) lied lied
light lit / lighted lit / lighted
lose lost lost

M
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood
mow mowed mowed / mown

P
partake partook partaken
pay paid paid
plead pleaded / pled pleaded / pled
proofread proofread proofread
prove proved proven / proved
put put put

Q
quick-freeze quick-froze quick-frozen
quit quit / quitted quit / quitted

R
read read (sounds like "red") read (sounds like "red")
rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run

S
saw sawed sawed / sawn
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sew sewed sewn / sewed
shake shook shaken
shave shaved shaved / shaven
shear sheared sheared / shorn
shed shed shed
shine shined / shone shined / shone
shoot shot shot
show showed shown / showed
shrink shrank / shrunk shrunk
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sink sank / sunk sunk
sit sat sat
slay (kill) slew / slayed slain / slayed
slay (amuse) slayed slayed
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
sling slung slung
slink slinked / slunk slinked / slunk
slit slit slit
smell smelled / smelt smelled / smelt
sneak sneaked / snuck sneaked / snuck
sow sowed sown / sowed
speak spoke spoken
speed sped / speeded sped / speeded
spell spelled / spelt spelled / spelt
spend spent spent
spill spilled / spilt spilled / spilt
spin spun spun
spit spit / spat spit / spat
split split split
spoil spoiled / spoilt spoiled / spoilt
spread spread spread
spring sprang / sprung sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stink stunk / stank stunk
strew strewed strewn / strewed
stride strode stridden
strike (delete) struck stricken
strike (hit) struck struck / stricken
string strung strung
strive strove / strived striven / strived
sublet sublet sublet
sunburn sunburned / sunburnt sunburned / sunburnt
swear swore sworn
sweat sweat / sweated sweat / sweated
sweep swept swept
swell swelled swollen / swelled
swim swam swum
swing swung swung

T
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
telecast telecast telecast
tell told told
test-drive test-drove test-driven
test-fly test-flew test-flown
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trodden / trod

U
understand understood understood
undertake undertook undertaken
undo undid undone

W
wake woke / waked woken / waked
waylay waylaid waylaid
wear wore worn
weave wove / weaved woven / weaved
wed wed / wedded wed / wedded
weep wept wept
wet wet / wetted wet / wetted
whet whetted whetted
win won won
wind wound wound
withdraw withdrew withdrawn
withhold withheld withheld
withstand withstood withstood
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written

Problems with Verbs

1. Subject – Verb Agreement

Third person singular -s

That man live in California. (wrong)

That man lives in California. (correct)

2. Wrong tense

Watch for key “time words” and phrases

Yesterday I go to the dance. (wrong)

Yesterday I went to the dance. (correct)

3. Passive and non-passive expressions

Extra “be”

What was happened last night? (wrong)

What happened last night? (correct)

Omitted “be”

I concerned about my grades. (wrong)

I am concerned about my grades. (correct)

4. Modal usage

Insertion of “to”
 I had better to go. (wrong)
I had better go. (correct)

Non-base form after modal

I could played basketball. (wrong)

I could play basketball. (correct)

5. Wrong word choice

I have met Johanna for five years. (wrong)

I have known Johanna for five years. (correct)

Choosing the Correct Verb Tense

1. Does Tense = Time ?

Not Always

2. Situation and Time Words determine Time

3. Time chooses Tense (not the other way around)

4. Present Time (Now)

Present Continuous Tense

I am eating my dinner right now.

Present Tense for “non-action” verbs

I want some chocolate ice cream.

5. Future Time

Future with “will”

I will leave tomorrow

Future with “be going to”

I am going to leave tomorrow.

Future Continuous tense

I will be leaving tomorrow.

Future with Present Continuous tense

 I am leaving tomorrow

Future with Present tense

I leave tomorrow.

6. Past Time

Facts: Use Simple Past Tense only

I ate my breakfast at 7:00 this morning.

Relationship between two times.

I had eaten my breakfast when my roommate left.

Relationship between events.

I was eating my breakfast when the telephone rang.

The Verb "Be"

The verb “be” takes on different forms in the present and past.

Present Contraction Past

am 'm was
I
is 's was
He
is 's was
She
is 's was
It
are 're were
You
are 're were
They
are 're were
we

The verb “be” indicates existence, temporary condition or permanent status.

It is really hot today.

Grady’s not here right now.
Greg and Tim are engineers.
Trudy was sick yesterday.
Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean.

The base form is be, the past participle is been, and the –ing form is being

I’ll be back tomorrow.

He has been a doctor since 1998.
She is being nice today.
The verb “be” is also used in progressive tenses, passives and prepositional collocations:

Progressive tenses:

He is writing a letter to his brother.

Jeff was cleaning the house this morning.
The Holleys have been living there since April.

Passive voice:

The people were surprised by the news.

Craig was stopped by the policeman.

Prepositional collocations:

Tracy is fond of chocolates.

Cassie is not afraid of snakes.
I’m interested in making money.

Non-Action Verbs

Some verbs cannot be used in the progressive tenses. They are called non-action verbs.

Non-action verbs indicate state, sense, desire, possession, or opinion. The most common non-
action verbs are:

be* seem appear* (existence)

look* sound* smell* taste* feel* (senses)

like want prefer love* (desire)

have* own possess (possession)

think* believe consider* (opinion)

Note the usage in the following sentences:

Mr. Tactful is seeming like a nice guy. (Wrong!)

Mr. Tactful seems like a nice guy. (Correct)

This salad is tasting delicious. (Wrong!)

This salad tastes delicious. (Correct)

 I am liking banana cream pie. (Wrong!)

I like banana cream pie. (Correct)

Some verbs have both action and non-action meanings. They are indicated by an asterisk* in
the table above. The situation determines whether the action or non-action form of the verb is
used.

Those flowers look beautiful. (Non-action)

Flora is looking out the window. (Action)

I think that’s a great idea. (Non-action)

I am thinking about my upcoming speech. (Action)

We have a brand new car. (Non-action)

We are having a party this weekend. (Action)

Craig is a real estate agent. (Non-action)

Billy is being naughty today. (Action)

Noun and Verb Phrases

Noun Phrases are groups of words that can function as subjects or objects in sentences.

They may take on various forms:

Water is important for survival. (Single words)

Mr. Jones spoke to Dr. James. (Proper names)

The boy ate an apple. (Nouns and articles)

My friend works with her father. (Nouns and possessives)

The young girl wore a long, white dress. (Nouns and adjectives)

Some of the kids ate all of the cake. (Nouns and quantifiers)

The man with the gun frightened the people in the (Nouns and prep. phrases)
bank.

The woman who lives there is my aunt. (Nouns and relative clauses)
 The dogs sleeping on the deck should be left alone. (Nouns and phrases)

Whoever wrote this is in trouble. (Noun clauses)

Pronouns and similar words can also function as subjects and objects:

He gave the money to us.

Someone left this.
Give me one of each.

Verb Phrases

Verb phrases are groups of words that express action or state of being. They take on
various forms.

The men live in the dormitory. (Single verbs)

He stayed at the Hi Hat Hotel. (Past tense verbs)

I am learning many new things. (Progressive verbs)

She has been there before. (Perfect verbs)

They have been working here five years. (Perfect progressive verbs)

I could use some assistance. (Verbs and modals)

The trip was approved by the professor. (Passive verbs)

Do you want some more pie? (Verbs in questions)

Other words can be added to enhance verb phrases:

The mayor works here. (adverbs)

Neil is not a candidate. (negatives)

They live in the suburbs. (prepositional phrases)

She'll leave whenever she wants. (adverbial clauses)

Don't talk while eating. (phrases)

Action Vs. Status

Some English “action” verbs refer to events or actions that happen at a specific time, usually
only once. These verbs cannot be used with “how long” or expressions of duration. “Status”
verbs must be used to indicate conditions which exist over periods of time.

Some common
I got married last May. (The ceremony occurred last
action/status pairs
May.)
are as follows:
I was single last April. (Status previous to last May)
Action/Event (one time occurrence) Status/Condition (long
(present or past) time)
I am married now. (Current status)
(present or present perfect)
become
How long have you gotten married? (Wrong!)
be
get married
How long have you been married? (Correct)
get engaged be married
get divorced be engaged
I met Mr. Carter last week. (We saw each other the first
be divorced
time.)
graduate
be out of school
I have met Mr. Carter for one week. (Wrong! I only met him
die
once.)
be dead
meet
I have known Mr. Carter for one week. (Correct)
learn know
find out know
Nathan became a doctor in 1998. (That’s when he received his
know
degree.)
buy/purchase
get/aquire have
Nathan has become a doctor for two years. (Wrong!)
have/own
fall asleep
Nathan has been a doctor for two years.
fall in love be asleep
(Correct)
be in love
I graduated last August.
(That’s when the ceremony
occurred.)
For example,
How long have you graduated?
(Wrong!)
How long have you been out of school?
(Correct)
) The baby fell asleep two hours ago.
(Changed from “awake” to
“asleep”)
The baby has fallen asleep for two hours.
(Wrong!)
The baby has been asleep for two hours
(Correct)
I found out the news yesterday.
(Specific time)
I have found out the news since yesterday.
(Wrong!)
I have known the news since yesterday.

(Correct)
This is the complete list of Irregular Verbs in English. Click on the letter A-Z
to find words you need.
(see a list of Regular Verbs

Causative Verbs

Certain verbs can be used to express a causal relationship between the subject and object in a
sentence. Some of them require a “to” while others do not. Note the following patterns:

With “to” Without “to”

S + V + O + to V (O) S + V + O + V (O)

I allowed Jim to clean up the mess. I let Jim clean up the mess.

I asked Jim to clean up the mess. I had Jim clean up the mess.

I told Jim to clean up the mess. I made Jim clean up the mess.

I persuaded Jim to clean up the mess.*

*Other verbs which use this pattern are require, command, force, remind, and urge. The verb
help can be used with or without “to”: Help Jim (to) clean up the mess.

Some verbs use the pattern, S + V that S + V (the second verb is in the base form)

I insisted that Laura do her homework. (not “does”)

I suggested that Laura do her homework.

I recommended that Laura do her homework.

*Other verbs which can be used with this pattern are ask, require, and demand.

The most common error with causatives is using “to” unnecessarily. For example,

We made Kevin to finish his supper. (Incorrect)

 We made Kevin finish his supper. (Correct)

They suggested Irene to take music lessons. (Incorrect)

They suggested that Irene take music lessons. (Correct)

Verbs of Perception

Set 1 Set 2 Set 3

(action) (non-action) (non-action)

listen to hear sound

look at see* look

touch feel* feel

smell smell smell

taste taste taste

Set 1 verbs indicate that the perceiver is “focusing” on a specific object. They can be used in
the progressive.

He is listening to the radio.

They are looking at the picture.

She is smelling the flowers.

Set 2 verbs indicate general perception and are non-progressive.

He hears a noise. (Not: He is hearing…)

They see flames. (Not: They are seeing...)

She smells smoke.

Set 3 verbs indicate appearance. (It “seems”…) They are non-progressive.

That sounds like thunder. (describes the object, not the perceiver)
 This looks terrible.

It smells fishy.

*When feel is used to describe emotions, the progressive is sometimes used.

I feel great today. I am feeling great today.

I feel cold today. (physical feeling is usually non-

. progressive)

*See can sometimes be used in expressions in the progressive.

She is seeing the doctor.

He is seeing another woman.

Special Usage of Certain Verbs of Perception

Some verbs of perception see, look at, hear, listen to, and feel, along with watch and sense
can be used with objects followed by other verbs (base form or gerunds, but not infinitives).

Note the examples below:

We heard you leave. (Okay. Emphasis on our hearing.)

We heard you leaving. (Okay. Emphasis on your leaving.)
We heard you to leave. (Incorrect!)

Other examples:

I saw her go.

Look at that man run!
Sylvesterlistened to the canary sing.
We watched them play basketball.
We watched them playing basketball.
Trudy can feel the wind blowing against her skin.
Mr. Todd sensed the lion approaching.

Semantic Verb Pairs

Some verbs can be used to express an action, others to express status or condition. These
verbs often come in pairs and are usually mutually exclusive. One is used to indicate a single
occurrence, while the other indicates a situation which is or has been in existence for a long
period of time.

See examples below.

Action Status/condition.
 I met John last September. I have known him since last September.
(Not: I have met John since September.)

I got married in June. I have been married for one month.

(Not: I have gotten married for one month.)

Some common semantic verb pairs are as follows:

Action Status/condition
(When did you… ?) (How long have you .. “past participle”... ?)

Meet know
Arrive be (here)
Become be
Graduate be (a graduate/out of school)
Learn know
Hear about know/be aware of
Find out know/be aware of
Put on wear
Get dressed be dressed
Get married be married
Get engaged be engaged
Get divorced be divorced
Go to sleep/Fall asleep be asleep
Fall in love be in love
Wake up/Get up be up/awake
Catch fire be on fire

Adverbs

Adverbs

Adverbs are used to describe actions. They may come before or after a verb, but not between
a verb and its object.

Mrs.Jenner sang softly. (Most common word order.)

Mrs. Jenner softly sang. (Also possible.)

Mrs. Jenner softly sang a lullaby.

Mrs. Jenner sang a lullaby softly.

Mrs. Jenner sang softly a lullaby. (Not correct.)

Adverbs may come between a main verb and its auxiliaries.

Mrs. Jenner is softly singing a lullaby.

Mrs. Jenner softly is singing a lullaby. (Not correct.)

Mrs. Jenner has been softly singing that lullaby for a long time.

Some time and frequency adverbs are “movable.” That is, they can be placed at various points
in a sentence.

Yesterday I visited the dentist.

I visited the dentist yesterday.

Jack Prompt is here already.

Jack Prompt is already here.

Caution:
Even though some adverbs can be used in certain sentence positions, others can not.

I yesterday visited the dentist. (Not okay.)

I already visited the dentist. (Okay.)

Already I visited the dentist. (Not okay.)

Adverbs such as quite, very, really, extremely, and absolutely are used to modify adjectives
and other adverbs.

They come directly before the words they describe.

Greg is quite happy with his new boss.

Sue eats very slowly.

You’re absolutely right!

Many adverbs can be formed by adding –ly to adjectives:

Carl is a quick runner.

Carl runs quickly.
Some adverbs are identical to adjectives in form. Others are completely different.

Carl is a fast runner. (Adjective) Jill is a good student. (Adjective)

Carl runs fast. (Adverb) Jill studies well. (Adverb)

Be careful with words like hardly and lately, which have no relation to the adjectives/adverbs
hard and late.

Frequency Adverbs

The most common frequency adverbs in English are:

Always 100% of the time

Frequently about 90% of the time

Usually about 80% of the time

Often about 70% of the time

Sometimes about 50% of the time

Occasionally about 40% of the time

Seldom about 20% of the time

Rarely about 10% of the time

Never about 00% of the time

Note: The percentages here are rough estimates only.

Frequency adverbs can be placed at various points in the sentence, but are most commonly
used before the main verbs and after be verbs.

I always come to work on time.

They are seldom home when we call.

He’s usually eating breakfast at this time.

She’s never been to Maine.

A: Do you come here often?

B: Yes. I’m here occasionally.

A: What do you usually do here?

B: Sometimes I just sit and ponder the meaning of life.

Note: The adverbs seldom, rarely, never and hardly ever are considered negative.

A: Do you always carry a briefcase?

B: (Yes,) I usually do.

No, I usually don’t.

No, I rarely do.

No, I hardly ever do.

Other frequency adverbs and expressions are as follows:

Every day/week/month

Every other day/week

Once a week/month/year

Twice a year/day, etc.

(Every) once in a while

Every so often

These expressions are used at the beginning and end of sentences, not before main verbs.

Every once in a while I visit my grandmother in Minnesota.

I visit my grandmother in Minnesota every once in a while.

I every once in a while visit my grandmother in Minnesota. (Incorrect)

Regularly (according to schedule)

Normally (commonly nowadays)

Traditionally (commonly in the past)

These words can come at various points in the sentence.

I regularly floss my teeth.

I floss my teeth regularly.

 Traditionally, that was considered child’s play.

I normally get up around 6 o’clock.

Normally, I get up around 6 o’clock.

Adverbs and Prepositions

Adverbs are words or groups of words which tell time, place, frequency or manner.

I ate my lunch yesterday. She went there.

I ate at that restaurant last week. She went downtown.

Prepositions are usually followed by objects in prepositional phrases. They can also
be used to indicate time, place, frequency, duration, reason, manner, or to show
contrast.

I ate my lunch at noon. She went to the store.

I ate in the cafeteria. She walked into the house.

*Do not use adverbs as objects of prepositions.

Incorrect: Correct:
I went to somewhere. I went somewhere.
I was busy at last night. I was busy last night.
John works in downtown. John works downtown.
She came to home on yesterday. She came home yesterday.

Be careful with words such as home, downtown, today, next/last week, etc. which are
sometimes used as adverbs and sometimes used as nouns.

As adverbs As nouns
I will go back tomorrow. Tomorrow is another day.
She went home last night. They built a home in Oregon.
Next week I will travel to Iowa. Next week is my vacation.

Intensifiers

Intensifiers are adverbs that enhance adjectives and adverbs. In English, they come
before the words they modify.

Examples:

It’s quite hot today.

Ms. Stress is really busy right now.

He’s my very best friend.

I’m a little tired today.

That was a pretty good shot.

Sam just got a brand new car.

I know her fairly well.

It's extremely hot outside.

You're absolutely right!

Prepositions

Prepositions

Prepositions indicate relationships between words or ideas. Most prepositions deal with
location and are easy to learn.

above below over under

inside outside around through

beside beyond behind in front of

near nearby by next to

up down toward along (side)

before* after* during since*

with without within until*

into out (of) off upon

between among except but*

like as than about

despite in spite of beneath underneath

*These can also be used as conjunctions.

Some prepositions, however, have more than one meaning and can be very confusing.
 in on at

to from for of

Generally, in, on and at indicate location. See also: Prepositions of Location

To and from imply movement toward or away from something. However, to can also function
as part of an infinitive. See also: Infinitives.

To and for can introduce indirect objects. See also: Indirect Objects

For and since can also indicate duration. See also: Present Perfect Progessive

Of is used in partitives (all of, some of . . .) and other expressions. See also: Quantifiers

Many prepositions are also used in expressions. See also: Grammar: Preposition Collocations
with "Be"; Verb and Preposition Collocations

Prepositions of Location

The most common prepositions of location are

in outside (of)

on between

at beside

by beyond

near in front of

nearby in back of

above behind

below next to

over on top of

under within

up beneath

down underneath
 around among

through along

inside against

These prepositions are most commonly followed by "the" and a noun. Both the speaker and
the listener likely know which object is being referred to.

Examples,

The keys are on the table. (We both know which table.)
The post office is next to the bakery. (Not: next to bakery)

Occasionally, prepositions can be used with "a/an." This usually indicates that the speaker
knows of the place, but the listener does not.

For example,

I live by a river. (You probably don't know which one.)

I live by the river. (You know the river I'm talking about.)

Prepositions: In, On, and At

Prepositions: In, On, and At (with specific times and places)

The prepositions in, on, and at can be used to indicate time and place. Notice
how they are used in the following situations:

Preposition Time Place

In Year, Month, Country, State, City
In 1999, In December In Japan, In Utah, InTaipei
On Day, Date Street
On Saturday, On May 1 On Main Street, On 1st Ave.
At Time Address
At 8:00, At 7:30 At 815 East Main Street

In many languages, there is only one preposition for the above situations. In
English there are three. Just remember that in usually indicates the “largest”
time or place, and at usually indicates the “smallest” time or place.

Examples:
 A: Where’s your office?

B: In Taipei, Taiwan.

A: Really? What part of Taipei?

B: It’s on Chung Shan North Road.

A: I know that area. Where exactly is it?

B: It’s at 105 Chung Shan North Road, next to the bookstore.

C: When is the wedding?

D: It’s in June.

C: What day?

D: It’s on Saturday, the 25th.

C: What time?

D: It starts at 6:00.

Prepositions with articles and locations

When talking about locations, use at to indicate the general vicinity or area, and in to indicate
inside the building, enclosed area, etc. For example:

at the swimming pool (on site) in the swimming pool (in the
pool itself i.e. in the water)

at the post office/bank (general) in the post office/bank (inside the

building)

at the zoo (visitors—general area) in the zoo (animals in their cages)

at school in the classroom

Sample sentences:

I met my wife at the theater. (while watching a movie)

I spilled my drink in the theater (on the floor of the building)

 She works at the library on Wednesdays.

She found a rare coin in the library (building).

Dr. Jones works at the hospital every day.

John was in the hospital for a week with a broken leg.

For school, prison, and church, the is used to indicate the building. No article indicates the
general situation. Note the following:

"practice"/situation building

in school (studying, listening to teacher, etc.) in the school (building)

in jail/prison (staying there as a criminal) in the jail/prison (temporary)

in church (praying, listening to a sermon, etc.) in the church (building)

Where’s Dad?

in church (attending services) in the church (fixing the windows)

at church at the church

in prison (He committed a crime.) at the prison (visiting his friend)

Prepositions and Time Words

General

In (year, month) In 1989, in December

On (day, date) On monday, on Dec. 14, 2001
At (time) At 7:00, at 8:30
During (decade, long time period) During the 1960s, during the 20th Century

Specific Time: “When?” (Use simple tenses.)

When did you eat your breakfast? I ate my breakfast at 9:00.

When were you born? I was born in 1979.
When is your birthday party? My birthday party is on Friday.
When will you graduate? I wil graduate in June.
Ongoing Action

Mr. Barnes is watching television now.

While he was watching television, the phone rang.
He will be watching television tonight when his wife gets home.

Duration: "How Long?"

How long have you been in the

I have been here since 1999/for two years.
U.S.?
How long were you in California? I was in California for three weeks.
How long will you be in Maine? I will be there for a month.

Completed Action

I have finished my homework already. (before now)

After I had finished my homework, I started to cook dinner.
I will have finished my homework, when I start to cook dinner.

Notes:

In + (amount of time) usually refers to

I will see you in two days (from now).
the future:
But it can also indicate a length of time: I finished the job in two hours.

Ago follows time word(s) and is used to indicate the amount of time before the present:

I called her two weeks ago. She returned my call five minutes ago.

Words indicating actions occurring at the “same” time (or nearly the same time)

When When I was in high school, I had a car.

As soon as As soon as I got to the theater, I looked for a seat.
Once Once I finish my geometry, I will start studying chemistry.
The moment (that)The moment (that) I saw her, I knew who she was.

Words indicating actions occurring at “different” times

Before Before my husband left, I had already packed his bags.

 After After she eats her dinner, Ms. Warner will go shopping.
By the time I get to Denver, I will have traveled 200
By the time
miles.
Until I cleaned the house until my wife came home.

Prepositions and Subordinators

Be careful with the following words:

During is a preposition. It cannot be used as a subordinator

X During I was a child, I lived in Denmark

During my childhood, I lived in Denmark.
While I was a child, I lived in Denmark.

In spite of/Despite are prepositions. They cannot be used as subordinators.

X In spite of I was very young, I still got the job.

In spite of my youth, I still got the job.
Although I was very young, I still got the job.

Before, After, and Until can be used as either prepositions or subordinators.

Do not go outside after it is dark.

Do not go outside after dark.
I worked until 9:00 this evening.
I worked until my replacement showed up.

For and Since have many uses.

For as a coordinating conjunction.

I cannot tell a lie, for that would be dishonest. (for means because)

For in phrases of duration

He lived in New Jersey for five years.

For to indicate “on behalf of”

He fixed the TV for his daughter.

 For to indicate intended recipient

I bought this for you.

For to indicate occasion

I bought this for Christmas.

For to indicate cost

I bought this for $399.

For to indicate purpose

I bought this for fun.

Since to indicate duration

I have been in Toledo since last Tuesday. (preposition)

I have been in Toledo since I was a child. (subordinator)

Since to indicate reason

Since I have nothing else to do, I will attend your party.

Yet can be used as a conjunction or an adverb.

She hasn’t arrived yet.

He worked hard, yet he wasn’t able to complete the job on

Verb and Preposition Collocations

The following is a list of verbs and prepositions which commonly appear together.

accuse (someone) of ([doing] something)

add (something) to (something else)
admire (someone) for ([doing] something)
agree on (topic)
agree with (someone)
apologize to (someone) for ([doing] something)
apply to (a place) for (something)
approve of (something)
argue with (someone) about (topic)
arrive at (a building, room, site, event)
arrive in (a city, country)
ask (someone) about (someone/topic)
ask (someone) for (something)
believe in (something)
belong to (someone)
blame (someone) for ([doing] something)
borrow (something) from (someone)

care about (someone/something/topic)

comment on (topic)
compare (something) to/with (something else)
complain to (someone) about (something)
concentrate on ([doing] something)
congratulate (someone) for/on ([doing] something)
consist of (some things)
consent to ([doing] something)
contribute to (something)
count on (someone) to (do something)
cover (something) with (something else)

decide on (topic)
depend on (someone) for (something)
discuss (something) with (someone)
distinguish (something) from (something else)
dream about/of (someone/something)

escape from (somewhere)

explain (topic) to (someone)
excuse (someone) for ([doing] something)

forgive (someone for ([doing] something)

get rid of (something)

graduate from (a place)

happen to (someone)
help (someone) with (something)
hide (something) from (someone)

insist (up)on (something)

introduce (someone) to (someone else)
invite (someone) to (an event)

keep (something) for (someone)

matter to (someone)

object to (something)

participate in (something)
pay (price) for (something)
pray for (someone/something)
prefer (something) to (something else)
prevent (someone) from ([doing] something)
prohibit (someone) from ([doing] something)
protect (someone) from (something)
provide (someone) with (something)

recover from (something)

rely (up)on (someone/something)
remind (someone) of (something)
rescue (someone) from (something)
respond to (someone/something)

save (someone) from (something)

search for (something)
separate (something) from (something else)
scold (someone) for ([doing] something)
smile at (someone) for ([doing] something)
speak to/with (someone) about (topic) /br>stare at (something/someone)
stop (someone) from ([doing] something)
subscribe to (something)
substitute (something) for (something else/someone)
subtract (something) from (something else)
succeed in ([doing] something)
suffer from (something)

take advantage of (someone/something/ situation)

take care of (something/someone)
talk to/with (someone) about (topic)
thank (someone) for ([doing] something)
travel to (somewhere)

vote for (someone)

vouch for (someone)

wait for (someone/something)

wish for (something)
work for (company/something/someone)

Preposition Collocations with Be

be absent from be absolved of be accepted as/to

be according to be accused of be accustomed to
be acquainted with be adamant about be addicted to
be affected by be afraid of be after
be alarmed at be aligned with be (all) set for
be amazed at/by be an authority on be angry about/at/with
be annoyed at/with be anxious about be appropriate for
be armed with be around be arrested for
be ashamed of be associated with be astonished at/by
be at it (again) be attached to be attracted to
be aware of be away from
be back (from) be bad at be bad for
be banned from be based (up)on be behind (schedule)
be bent on be biased about be big on
be blamed for be blessed with be bored with
be bound for

be capable of be carried away about/withbe caught up in

be centered around be certain of be charged with
be classified as be clear about be clear to
be clever at be close to be cluttered (up) with
be a combination of be compared to be compensated for
be composed of be comprised of be concerned about/with
be confident of be confused about be congratulated for/on
be connected to/with be conned into be considerate of
be considered for be content with be contrary to
be convenient for/to be convinced of be convicted of/for
be coordinated with be covered with be crammed into
be crazy about be credited with be criticized for/as
be crowded with

be dedicated to be delighted with be dependent (up)on

be devoted to be different from/than be disappointed about/at/in/with
be discouraged about be discriminated against be disgusted with
be disillusioned with be disqualified for be disposed of
be distinguished from be divided into be divorced (from)
be done with be down be down on/with
be dragged into be dressed (up) in be drunk with/on

be east of be elected as/to be eligible for

be embarrassed about/at be encouraged by be entailed in
be engaged to/in be entrusted with be envious of
be equal/equivalent to be equipped with be estranged from
be evicted from be excited about be expelled from

be faithful to be faced with be familiar with/to

be famous for be fanatic(al) about be fascinated with
be fed up with be filled with be finished with
be fired for/from be followed by be fond of
be for the sake of be fraught with be free from/of
be friendly to/with be frightened by/at be full of
be furnished with

be glad to be good at be good to

be gone to/with be grateful for/to be guilty of

be half-hearted about be hailed as be happy about/with

be hard on be headed for/to/toward be hired as/for
be hitched to

be immersed in be imposed (up)on be impressed by/with

be in be in accordance with be in agreement with
be an indication of be an issue of be in back of
be in bed with be in cahoots with be in charge of
be in common with be in conjunction with be in contact with
be in control of be in danger of be in exchange for
be in favor of be in front of be in honor of
be in hope(s) of be in love with be in need of
be in on be in place of be in possession of
be in proximity to be in reference to be in regard to
be in response to be in return for be in search of
be in store for be in sync with be in tandem with
be in the habit of be in the middle of be in the midst of
be in the vicinity of be in time for be in touch with
be in trouble with/for be in tune with be incensed with
be inducted into be inferior to be infested with
be informed about be innocent of be insecure about
be insistent (up)on be interested in be into
be involved in be irritated at/with be isolated from

be jealous of

be kind of be kind to be knowledgeable about

be known as/for

be labeled as be leery of be left of/with

be less than be limited to be located at/near
be lower than

be mad at/about be made of/from be married to

be a matter of be the matter with be mean to
be meant to be a measure of be mindful of
be more than

be named as/after be next to be nice to

be notorious for be north of be nuts about

be obedient to be oblivious about/to be obsessed with

be obvious to be off be okay with
be on be on behalf of be on the brink of
be on the edge of be on the verge of be on time for
be on to be on top of be open about/for/to
be opposed to be opposite from be oppressed by
be out be out of be out of concern for
be out of contact with be out of sync with be out of touch with
be outraged about be outspoken about be over with

be parallel to be partial to be patient with

be a pattern of be pegged as be perturbed at/about
be pleased with be polite to be popular with
be praised for/about be precious to be preoccupied with
be prepared for be prohibited from be promoted to
be provided with be proud of be psyched about
be punished for be put off by

be qualified for be a question of

be ready for be regarded as be related to

be relevant to be relieved of be remembered for
be rescued from be reserved for be responsible for
be retired from be rid of be rife with
be right to be riled up (about) be roped into
be rude to

be satisfied with be saved from be scared of

be selected as/for be sensible about be separated from
be set on be shocked at be short of
be sick of/about be a sign of be similar to
be soft on be sorry about/for be sort of
be south of be specialized in be spoken for
be startled at be strange to be a stranger to
be stressed out about be stuck on/with be stunned at
be subject to be sufficient for be suitable for
be superior to be sure of be surprised at/about
be suspected of be suspended from be a symbol of

be taken aback by/at be taken in by be tantamount to

be tapped as/by be terrified of/with be there for
be a threat to be through with be ticked off about
be tired of be tuned (in)to be to the left of
be to the right of

be uncalled for be under arrest be under fire for

be under investigation forbe up against be up front with
be up in arms about be up on be up to
be upset about/with be uptight about be used for
be used to be useful to

be valued as/at be vindicated of

be wary of/about be west of be whipped into

be wiped out be with it be with reference to
be with respect to be worked up about be worried about
be wrapped up in be wrong with

Modal Verbs

Basic Modals

Modal auxiliary verbs are used to moderate the main verb, that is to enhance or restrict the
verb to a certain context.
The most common modal auxiliaries in English are:

can may mightmust

couldshouldwill would

Notice the usage of modals in the following sentences:

I pay my taxes. General declaration of fact. Paying taxes is something I normally do.

I can pay my taxes. Expresses ability. I have the means (funds) to pay.

I might pay my Expresses possibility, but not certainty. Maybe I will pay; maybe I won't.
taxes.
I will pay my taxes. Expresses future intent. I resolve to do it at some later time.

I should pay my Expresses mild obligation. It is required, and I expect to comply.

taxes.
I could pay my Expresses possibility. If I have nothing else to do with the money, I might
taxes. pay taxes.

I would pay my (In this case), expresses reservation. If I had the money (but I don't). . .
taxes.
I must pay my Expresses strong obligation. I am required and have to comply.
taxes.

Modals are followed by only the base form of the verb and are not used alone unless there is
a clear connection to a main verb.

He must to finish his homework.WRONG

He must finish his homework. RIGHT

Jack could heard the bell. WRONG

Jack could hear the bell. RIGHT

Penny will going to the movie. WRONG

Penny will go to the movie. RIGHT

There are many ways to make requests in English. The most common involves using the
imperative and modals. See the examples below:

Using the Imperative

The imperative is the simple form of the verb. The

subject of an imperative sentence is understood as "you" although it is usually not spoken.
 Open the door. (You) open the door.

Will you help me? Yes, I will (help you).

Pick up your toys. (You) pick up your toys.

Please help me. (You) please help me.

The imperative is often used by persons of authority when speaking to subordinates, e.g.
parent to child.

Using Modals

To show respect and politeness, most people use modal

expressions when making requests. For example:

Will you...? Will you open the door for me?

Would you...? Would you open the door for me?

Would you please...? Would you please open the door (for me)?

Could you (please)...? Could you (please)...? Could you (please) open the door?

Could you possibly...? Could you possibly open the door?

Would you kindly...? Would you kindly open the door?

Would you mind (Ving )...? Would you mind opening the door?

Would you be so kind as to...? Would you be so kind as to open the door?

Common Problems with Modals

1. Using "to" unnecessarily:

Incorrect Correct

They going to meet us at the theater. They are going to meet us at the theater.

He should to eat his dinner. He should eat his dinner.

I had better to go now. I had better go now.

You must not to use that pencil. You must not use that pencil.
2. Using anything but the base form after a modal:
John could heard the bell.
John could hear the bell.
Penny will going to the
Penny will go to the movie.
movie.
3. Using double modals:
You should ought to speak
You ought to speak English. /should speak
English.
She might be able to help me.
She might can help me.
4. Omitting "be" in certain modal expressions:
They going to meet us at the theater. They are going to meet us at the theater.

Jack supposed to take his medicine. Jack is supposed to take his medicine.
5. Using wrong word order in questions:
How I can help you?
How can I help you?
Where I should go for the
Where should I go for the meeting?
meeting?

Past Modals

Past modals come in two forms. The first type is the easiest and usually requires only a
simple word change:

I can drive. (present ability)

I could drive when I was 16.
I have to go to California.
I had to go to California.
Lenny will pay tomorrow.
Lenny said he would pay tomorrow.
(past ability)
(present obligation)
(past obligation)
(future intention)
(future reported from the
past)

Past modals with "have"

Some past modals can be formed by using have + the past participle of the main verb
immediately after the modal. (should have, could have, would have, etc.)

However, since modals express possibility, intention, obligation, etc., they do not always
indicate a definite tense. Therefore, when using past modals with have, special meanings need
to be considered.

I should go to the funeral. (I feel an obligation to go later.)

I should have gone to the funeral. (I didn't go. Now I regret it.)
(It's a future possibility.)
Lex might take Karen to the airport.
Lex might have taken Karen to the airport. (He may be on his way there now.)
Lex could have taken Karen to the airport. (Most likely he didn't.)
Lex would have taken Karen to the airport.(He didn't. He had an excuse.)
Otis didn't come to work yesterday. (past fact)
He had to take care of his children. (past obligation)
His children must have been sick. (conjecture about the past)

Common Modal Usage

Using Simple Tenses and Modals

To state facts

Present Past Modal

Lions live in Africa. Dinosaurs roamed the earth Mr. Jones can juggle.
for millions of years.
Water consists of hydrogen My grandmother passed He couldn’t swim at age
and oxygen. away last March. 10.

To express opinions

(I think) smoking is a That was delicious. Gambling should be

disgusting habit. banned in the US.
The Internet is more useful I thought she gave an He must really like ice
than the library. excellent performance. cream.
I think it was a beautiful You should have left
concert. earlier.

To indicate actions which occur every day or on a regular basis

I get up at 7:30 every day. When I was in high school, I have to be at the office at
I got up at 6:30. 7.
My father drives to work on My mother rode the bus They used to take the
Tuesdays. until she bought a car. subway.

With frequency adverbs

Jerry always comes to class At camp, she usually ate You should never be late
on time. breakfast before 7:00. for work.
Using Modals in various situations

Requesting Asking Possibility Hinting Other

Permission

Can you help me? Can I help you? I can use some I can help you.
help.

Could you help Could I help you? I could use some I could help you.
me? help.

May I help you? I may need some I may help you.

help. (probably)

I might need some I might help you

help. (probably)

Will you help me? I will need some I will help you.

help. (most likely)

Would you help I would need some I would help

me? help. you.

(I guess I probably
can’t

do it by myself.)

Would you mind Would you mind if

helping me? I helped you?

Modals Chart

Modal Past Modal Negative Negative Past

Can Could Can't Couldn't
Cannot Could not
Could Could have Could not Couldn't have
Could not have
Will Would Won't Wouldn't
Will not Would not
Would Would have Wouldn't Wouldn't have
Would not Would not have
May May have May not May not have
Might Might have Might not Might not have
Should Should have Should not Should not have
Must Had to Must not Must not have
Must have Mustn't
Ought to Ought to have Ought not to Ought not to have
Have to Had to Don't have to Didn't have to
Has to Doesn't have to Did not have to
Have got to
Has got to
Be going to Was/were Is/are/am/not going to Wasn't/weren't going to
Be supposed to Isn't/aren't/am not supposed to Wasn't/weren't supposed to
Be able to Was/were able to Isn't/aren't able to Wasn't/weren't able to
Be to Was/were to Is/are/am/not to Wasn't/weren't to
Need to Needed to Doesn't need to Didn't need to
Needs to Needn't
Had better Had better not
Used to Didn't use to
Be about to Was/were about to Is/are/am not about to Wasn't/weren't about to
Would rather Would rather have Would rather not Would rather not have

This, my, some, a lot of, etc.

This, That, These, Those

Demonstratives are used to point out a particular item. They are as follows:

This (indicates something close to the speaker)

That (indicates something away from the speaker)

These (indicates some things close to the speaker)

Those (indicates some things away from the speaker)

Example:

A: What is this? (pointing to something held in the speaker’s hand or near the speaker)
B: A pencil.

A: What is that? (pointing to something at a distance from the speaker)

B: A tree.

Remember that demonstratives are used in reference to the speaker. (What is near “you” may
not be near “me” and vice versa.)

A: What’s that you’re holding?

B: This is an egg. Here, catch!
A: Oops.
B: That’s a mess.

A: What are these (holding up a pair of slippers)

B: Those are slippers.

Be sure to use this/that with singular and non-count nouns and these/those with count nouns.

This orange is sour. These oranges are sweet.

That truck is full. Those trucks are empty.

This milk is fresh.

Sometimes demonstratives can be used as pronouns (to refer to a particular noun.)

Give me that! Whose are these?

Give me that (spoon). Whose are these (socks)?

This and that can also be used with one. However, these and those are more commonly used
alone.

I want this one. I want these. (not these ones)

I’ll take that one. I’ll take those.

On the telephone, this and that are used differently in British and American English to
identify callers.

Example:

Receiver: Hello.
 Caller: I was wondering if you would be interested in
buying . . .

Receiver: Who is this? (American)

Who is that? (British)

(Both expressions are used to ask the caller to identify

himself/herself.)

Caller: This is Mr. Fuller from the Acme Brush Company.

(Same for both British and American English)

Caller: Hi Jack. Long time no see!

Receiver: Is this Bob? What a surprise! (American)

Is that Bob? What a surprise! (British)

Quantifiers

All or none

All (of) the people are here. 100% are here.

Not all (of) the people are here.
All (of) the people are not here.
None of the people are here.
Not any of the people are here.
Less than 100%
Not well defined. Could be “not all” or “none”
0% Focus on "people" (are)
0% Focus on "each" individual (is)

Some, Most, Many, Several, Few, A Few, A lot of

Some (of the) people are here. Focus: positive

Some (of the) people are not here. Focus: negative
Most of the people are here.
Most of the people are not here. Focus: positive
Many (of the) people are here. (uncommon)
Many (of the) people are not here
Not many (of the) people are here. Focus: positive
Several (of the) people are here (uncommon)
A few (of the) people are here.
Few (of the) people are here. Focus: negative. More people were expected.
A lot of (the) people are here. Focus: positive
 A lot of (the) people are not here.
Not a lot of (the) people are here. Focus: positive. At least some are here.
Focus: negative. More people were expected.
Three (of the) people are here. Focus: positive
Three (of the) people are not here.
Half of the people are here. Focus: negative
Half of the people are not here. Focus: negative. More people were expected.
Focus: positive
Focus: negative

Focus: positive 50% are here.

Focus: negative 50% are absent.

Both, neither, one

Both (of the) people are here. 100% are here.

One of the people is here. Focus: positive
One of the people is not here Focus: negative
Neither of the people is here. Focus: negative
Neither of the people are here. Focus: 100% are absent. (Very informal)

In questions

Are all of the people here? Yes, all of them are.

Some of them are. Most of them are.
No, none of them are. No, not many of them are.

No, only some of them are.

Are most of the people here?
Yes, some of them are. Yes, most of them are.
Are any of the people here? No, none of them are.

Answers may differ depending on the questions:

Is anyone here? Yes, I am.

(X) No, Jim isn’t here.

Even if only one person is here, the answer is

positive.
(One person can answer for the whole group.)

The answer can be negative only if 0% are here.

For 1-100%, the answer is positive.
Is everyone here? (X) Yes, I am.
 Yes, we (all) are.

No, Jim isn’t here.

If even one person is not here, the answer is
negative.
(One person cannot independently speak for the
group.)

The answer can be positive only if 100% are here.

For 0-99%, the answer is negative.

Other possibilities:

Everyone but/except Bill is here.

Most of us are here.
Almost all of us are here.

Some and Any

Some is usually used to indicate positive substance. Any is used in questions and negatives.
For example,

There is some bread on the table.

I would like some more meat.

Do you have any towels?

There aren’t any more oranges.

Some and any can also be used as parts of indefinite pronouns: something, somebody,
anything, anyone.

Is anyone home?

There isn’t anything in the oven.

Something is wrong.

Be careful when using some and any alone in sentences.

I don’t have some. (Incorrect)

I don’t have any. (Correct)

Some can also be used in certain types of questions, such as offers and requests. For example,

Would you like some more pie?

 Could I have some candy?

Necessity or Obligation

Sample sentences from the article:

Each of us has to finish two thick books….
…he was expected to complete…

Have to / Has to / Had to

Be expected to

These words express necessity or obligation. They usually indicate that someone else has
imposed conditions on us. For example:

I have to take out the garbage. (It’s something I must do now. My mother told me to do it.)
I am expected to take out the garbage. (It’s a regular responsibility, a daily chore that my
parents have given me.)

A related expression is be supposed to.

I am supposed to clean my room. (I’m required to do it.)

In the negative, these expressions have different meanings. For example:

I don’t have to go to the dance this weekend. (There is no obligation. I can choose to go or
not.)
I’m not expected to go to the dance this weekend. (There is no expectation. People will be
surprised if I do go.)
I’m not supposed to go to the dance this weekend. (I’m prohibited from going. It would
probably be rude for me to go.)

Most/Almost

Most can be followed directly by a noun or by the phrase "of the."

However, it cannot be followed by "of" or "the" alone.

Almost* is usually followed by a number or quantifier (90%, all).

The quantifier can be followed by the phrase "of the," but not "of" or "the" alone.

XX Most of Koreans live in Asia. (Wrong!)

OK Most Koreans live in Asia. (The majority of the world’s Korean people.)

OK Most of the Koreans in this class are male. (Only those in the class.)

XX Almost Japanese people eat rice. (Wrong!”)

OK Almost all Japanese (people) eat rice.

XX Almost of Japanese students like sushi. (Wrong!)

OK Almost all of the Japanese (in this class) like sushi.

*Almost means "not completely" and can also be used before verbs and adverbs.

He almost finished his homework.

We're almost there!

Dangling Modifiers

Modifying words and phrases should be as close as possible to words they modify.

I only have two dollars. (Better)

I have only two dollars.

The man likes the woman from Florida. (The woman is from
Florida.)
The man from Florida likes the woman. (The man is from
Florida.)

The dog belongs to Jerry that bit my son. (Wrong)

The dog that bit my son belongs to Jerry. (Correct)

I saw a UFO looking out my window. (Wrong)

Looking out my window, I saw a UFO. (Correct)

Be aware that introductory phrases imply that the main subject is the doer of the action.

(My aunt called from the

shower.)
While taking a shower, my aunt called.
(I was in the shower when
While I was taking a shower, my aunt called.
she called.)

See also: Introductory Phrases

Other Grammar Topics

Article

Singular count nouns cannot stand alone in a sentence.

Apple is on table. (Wrong!)

They must be preceded by one of the following:

1. An article (the, a, an)

An apple is on the table.

The professor gave us a test.

2. A number or quantifier (one, another, the other, each, every, either, neither)

One man was in Chicago.

The other man was in Saint Paul.

Neither man was with his wife.

Either man could be in trouble.

Note: Never use the and another, each, every, neither, either together:

The another man was in Milwaukee. (Wrong!)

3. This, that, some*

This artist created that painting.

Some woman came to see you. (*unidentified subject)

4. A possessive pronoun or noun.

It is my bicycle now.
It was John’s bicycle.

Note: Do not use articles and possessives together.

The Mary’s bicycle was stolen. (Wrong!)

Proper nouns have their own article usage.

Don Smith lived next door to Dr. Zimbango.

The Empire State Building is in New York City.

Non-count and plural nouns can be used without articles only in the “generic” sense:

Cats are enemies of dogs.

Water is essential for survival.

Article Chart

Specific Non-Specific Generic

(This one, that one) Any one
(This/that group) Any group In general
 Which one? One of many
Which ones? One of many groups
Count The apple An apple *
Singular The bird A bird *
The child A child
Count The apples Some apples Apples
Plural The birds Some birds Birds
The children Some children Children
Non-count The water Some water Water
The information Some information Information
Specific articles are used with nouns which have been identified previously.
(The speaker and the listener both know which thing/person/substance/idea is
being referred to.)

The teacher is coming up the stairs.

(Both listener and speaker know which teacher and which stairs.)

Give me the red shirt. (I know which one you are talking about.)

Non-specific articles are used with nouns that have not been identified
previously (by both the speaker and the listener.) They are used with items that
have not been singled-out yet. (Note: As soon as the items are identified, they
require a specific article.)

I want a candy bar. (Any candy bar will do.)

Which one do you want? (Asking for specification)

The one on the right. (I choose that one.)

Give me some milk. (Any milk is fine.)

I need some new shoes. (But I haven’t decided which ones to buy yet.)

I bought some shoes at Valmart. (I know which shoes, but you don’t.)

These are the shoes that I bought. (Now we both know which ones.)

Non-count and plural nouns are used without articles in the generic sense.

Cats are afraid of dogs. (in general)

Water is necessary for survival.

*However, singular count nouns cannot stand alone in a sentence, so an article

(usually a or an) is used.

Oranges contain Vitamin C. (generally)

 Orange contains Vitamin C. (incorrect)

An orange contains Vitamin C. (okay)

Comparatives

Use –er to compare one syllable adjectives and adverbs as well as two-syllable adjectives
ending in –y.

A horse is bigger than a dog.

He is shorter than his brother.
I’m busier today than I was yesterday.
I can run faster than you can.

My house is smaller.
It’s the lesser of two evils.

Use more or less to compare most other adjectives and adverbs.

She is more helpful than her sister.

Mr. Gallant is more courageous than his cousin.
Craig is less practical than Kay.

Celine sings more beautifully than Barbara.

For better or worse

Use better and worse for comparisons with good or well.

That’s a good movie, but this one is better.

Actually, I think that one is worse.

Use as . . . as to show similarity

He’s as quick as his brother.

This chair is not as comfortable as that one.

Superlatives

Use the …-est to indicate the superlative of one-syllable adjectives and adverbs as well as
two-syllable adjectives ending in –y.

He’s the fastest man alive.

That’s the funniest clown I’ve ever seen.
Ben works the hardest of them all.

Use the best or the worst as the superlative of good or well.

 This is the best deal I can offer you.
That was the best time I’ve ever had.
It was the worst dinner I’ve ever cooked.
I like this one (the) best.

Use the most + adjective/adverb to indicate the superlative of longer adjectives and adverbs.

He’s the most wonderful man I’ve met.

That was the most difficult exam I’ve ever taken.
Chris sings the most beautifully of them all.

Used To

The expression used to is commonly used when talking about past habits. It means
"something was true in the past, but it is not anymore." For example,

I used to live in Toronto, but I don’t anymore. Now I live in Vancouver.

I used to ride a bicycle to school, but I don’t anymore. Now I drive a car.

I used to be married, but I’m not anymore. Now I’m divorced.

Using Time Expressions

Present

We usually eat breakfast before my father leaves for work.

Simple Past

Before my father left for work, we ate breakfast.

We ate breakfast before my father left.

After my father left for work, we ate breakfast.

When my father left for work, we ate breakfast.

As soon as my father left for work, we ate breakfast.

When my father left for work, we were eating breakfast.

While we were eating breakfast, my father left for work.

We ate breakfast until my father left for work.

Past Perfect/Past Perfect Continuous

We ate breakfast after my father (had) left for work.

We (had) eaten breakfast before my father left for work.

We had been eating breakfast when my father left for work.

Future/Future Continuous/Future Perfect

We will eat breakfast after my father leaves for work.

We will be eating breakfast when my father leaves for work.

When my father leaves for work, we will have eaten breakfast.

Present Perfect/Present Perfect Continuous

We have (not) eaten breakfast since my father left for work.

We have been eating breakfast since my father left for work.

Reported Speech

Reported Speech comes in two forms: direct quotes and indirect quotes. For direct quotes, the
original speaker’s exact words are used within quotation marks. For indirect quotes, the
original words are paraphrased and no quotation marks are used.

George said, “I cannot tell a lie.” (Direct quote)

George said that he couldn’t tell a lie. (Indirect quote)

Molly asked, “May I have a cookie?” (Direct quote)

Molly asked if she could have a cookie. (Indirect quote)

In conversation, the past tense is normally used when reporting what someone else has said.
However, present tense is also possible.

Grandpa said (that) he would come to visit us next week.

Calvin told me that he was from North Carolina.

I heard that you were a computer programmer.

Maria says you come from Florida.

In formal situations, both present and past tense are widely used.

Dr. Sownso states that . . .

The research shows that . . .

Mr. Tracy concluded (that) . . .

In their study, Meyers and Blake claim . . .

According to Dr. Bill, . . .

Tag questions

Tag questions are used when seeking confirmation of what one believes to be true. They
restate, in question form, the previously spoken sentence. For example,

He is an engineer. Isn’t he?

(Positive statement, negative tag)
They’re not from Colorado. Are they?
(Negative statement, positive
tag)
Zack is really tired. Isn’t he?
(Positive statement, negative tag)

(Positive statement, negative tag)

She is going to Taiwan, isn’t she?
You have never been to Las Vegas. Have you?
The Rays are playing the Jays. Aren’t they?
You went to the supermarket. Didn’t you?
Zane doesn’t live in Missouri. Does he?
Ms. Zeller has a new car. Doesn’t she?
(Negative statement, positive
tag)
(Positive statement, negative tag)
(Positive statement, negative tag)
(Negative statement, positive
tag)
(Positive statement, negative tag)

In tag questions, the corresponding pronoun and the first verb of the corresponding yes/no
question are used. Also, notice that with positive statements, negative tag questions are used
and vice versa. See also: Grammar: Yes/No Questions

Common mistakes:

You are the zookeeper. Yes? (Incorrect)

You’re the zookeeper. Aren’t you? (Correct)

You come from Canada. No? (Incorrect)

You come from Canada. Don’t you? (Correct)

You’re the boss. Are you? (Incorrect--in most

situations)
You’re the boss. Aren’t you? (Correct)
 Simon is from Singapore. Isn’t it? (Incorrect)
Simon is from Singapore. Isn’t he? (Correct)

Some modals can be used in tag questions: can, will, would, could, should and must.

Mr. James will be at the ceremony. Won’t he?

They couldn’t do it. Could they?

Note: When the subject is “I” and the statement is in present tense, aren’t is commonly used
for tag questions.
(Common usage)
I’m the winner. Aren’t I?
(Formal)
I’m the winner. Am I not?

Too/Enough

Too and Enough are used with adjectives and indicate degree. Too means more than
necessary, and it precedes the adjective. Enough means sufficient and usually follows the
adjective.

He is too old to ride the Merry-Go-Round.

She has too much money.
(NOT: enough tall)
Tony was tall enough to play on the basketball team.
They were smart enough to pass the test. (NOT: enough smart)

Enough can also be used with nouns. In such cases, enough usually precedes the word it
modifies.

I have enough money for the CD player.

I don’t have enough (money) for the computer.
There aren’t enough people to make a team.

In some cases, enough can stand alone.

I have had enough of this nonsense.

Enough is enough!

Common problems include using very in place of too or enough.

She is very young to drink alcohol. (Wrong)

She is too young to drink alcohol. (Correct)

He is not very tough to play football. (Wrong)

He is not tough enough to play football. (Correct)
When vs. How Long

When and How Long indicate different things. When usually indicates a specific point in
time, or something that is considered as a specific point. How long indicates a period or
length of time, with a beginning and ending point.

(Asks for specific time)

When did you move to Arizona?

I moved here in 1997.

(Asks for length of time.)
How long have you lived in Arizona?

I have lived here since 1997.

Notice that with when and how long, different tenses and different verbs are often used.

When did you buy that car? (simple past tense)

I bought it two months ago. ("buy” indicates action)

How long have you owned that car? (present perfect tense)

I have owned it for two months. ("own” indicates possession)

“Actions” usually happen at a point in time, whereas things such as “possession,” “status”
“condition” “awareness” refer to something that continues over a period of time. (See:
Grammar: Action vs. Status.)

For example,

action status/condition
(When did you….?) (How long have you …?)

meet your best friend known your best friend

get that new watch had that new watch
become a lawyer been a lawyer

A common mistake is using an “action” verb to indicate something that exists over a period of
time.

How long have you bought that car? Incorrect!

How long have you had that car? Correct

In the above statement, the present perfect tense is used to indicate that you still have the car
now. How long can also be used to indicate conditions that existed totally in the past.

(You do not live there now.)

How long did you live in Denver? (from 1997 to 1999)
 I lived in Denver for two years.

Compare the following:

A. Wholly in the past B. Ongoing at the present

How long were you in Florida. How long have you been in Florida?

I arrived there in May. I arrived here in May.

I left there in July. I am still here.

I was there for two months. I have been here since May.

It / That Constructions

Sometimes It is used to fill the subject position of a sentence, even though it carries little or
no meaning.

It is raining outside.
It was John who turned out the lights.

It was nice of you to call.

It would be better if you didn’t say things like that.
It doesn’t matter if you don’t bring a gift.
It isn’t necessary to tell her.

When certain adjectives (important, imperative, necessary, essential) are followed by that, the
base form of the verb is used in the “that” clause.

It is important that you arrive on time.

It is imperative that you be here tomorrow.
It is essential that he learn these things.

Appositives

Appositives involve renaming or giving more information about the subject or object, within
parentheses or commas. Appositives should come immediately after the nouns they rename.

My wife (Mary) is a doctor.

My wife, Mary, is a doctor.

His brother (who lives in New York) drives a bus.

His brother, who lives in New York, drives a bus.

Embedded questions

Embedded questions are questions within another statement or question. They function as
noun clauses and as such should generally follow statement, not question, order.
 What time is it? (question order)
I know what time is it. (Incorrect)
I know what time it is. (Statement order: S+ V)

Where did she go? (Question)

I don’t know where did she go. (Incorrect)
I don’t know where she went. (Correct)

What does he do for a living? (Question)

I wonder what does he do. (Incorrect)
I wonder what he does. (Correct)

Who is she? (Question)

Can you tell me who is she? (Incorrect)
Can you tell me who she is? (Correct)

When using adjectives as complements, it is okay to use question order for embedded
questions:

(Question)
Who’s hungry?
(Okay)
I wonder who is hungry.

In some cases, depending on the focus of the sentence, question order may be used:

Who is the doctor?

I know who the doctor is.

Who is a doctor?
I know who is a doctor (and who is not).

Inversions

When to Invert the Subject and Verb:

 Questions
 Negatives
 (Necessary) Prepositional Phrases of Place
 Conditionals
 Comparisons

1. Questions

He is a doctor. Is he a doctor? (Direct inversion)

He ate an apple. Did he eat an apple? (With “do”)

2.
3. Negatives
 He is a doctor.
Not only is he a doctor, (but) he is also a millionaire.

Not only did he eat an apple, (but) he also ate an orange.

He ate an apple.

4.
5. Prepositional Phrases of Place (Necessary)
On the table is a book. On the table (there) is a book.
6. The prepositional phrase is necessary here, because without it, the sentence would be
incomplete: (…is a book…is not a complete sentence.) Inversion is necessary.

At the restaurant, the food was too spicy. (inversion is not necessary)
7. Without the prepositional phrase, the sentence … the food was too spicy …is still
complete.

8. This structure is typically used with linking verbs (be, appear, seem, etc.) or words that
function as linking verbs.

In the doorway appeared two strangers.

In the doorway were two strangers.

On the table lies my textbook. On the table is my textbook.

(Action verb: no inversion necessary.)

In the kitchen, he ate an apple.

Parallelism

Parallelism means that words used in pairs or groups should all have the same gram-matical
form (verbs and verbs; nouns, nouns, and nouns; gerunds and gerunds, etc.) When using
words or phrases with coordinating conjunctions or in a series, make sure that they follow the
same grammatical structure.

For example,

Terry likes swimming and to dive. (Incorrect: not parallel)

Terry likes swimming and diving. (Correct)

Terry likes to swim and (to) dive. (Correct)

I’m taking history, math, and chemical. (Incorrect)

I’m taking history, math, and chemistry. (Correct)

Sometimes repeated words, such as auxiliary verbs, can be deleted in parallel constructions.

I have been to Paris and saw the Eiffel Tower. (Incorrect)

I have been to Paris and have seen the Eiffel Tower (Okay)
 I have been to Paris and seen the Eiffel Tower. (Better)

Is she coming to the party or go to a movie? (Incorrect)

Is she coming to the party or going to a movie? (Correct)

Parenthetical Statements

Statements in parentheses ( ) can be ignored when it comes to Subject-Verb agreement.

My husband (the doctor) works at Community Hospital.

My best friend (the one in the green shirt) wants to meet you.

Sometimes commas are used in place of parentheses:

His brother, John, lives in Sacramento.

My sister, who works in Miami, is visiting me this week.

Mr. Johnson, however, was not amused.

The teacher, along with her students, is coming to the party.

Prepositional phrases usually have no effect on Subject-Verb agreement.

The men in the car were shouting wildly.

The men in the cars were shouting wildly.

The books on the shelf next to the window are mine.

However, in some quantifying expressions, prepositional phrases do make a difference.

A lot of people are traveling to Belize these days.

A lot of milk was left in the refrigerator last night.

Some of the apples were rotten.

Some of the wine is too old.

None of the water is safe to drink.

Relative clauses can have an effect, depending on the meaning.

Mary is the one who takes care of applications.

Mary is one of the people who take care of applications.

 One of the men who live there is deranged.

Simple Present Tense

1A. Explanation
The simple present tense takes one of two forms depending on the subject.
Subject base form -s form
I, you eat
They, We go
Plural nouns work
He, She, It eats
Singular nouns goes
works
Non count-nouns

1B. Examples
Subjects followed by verb in base
Subjects with verb in –s form
form:
I like rice. She makes toys.
You look nice. He rakes leaves.
They think twice. It takes time.
We throw dice. Mom bakes pies.
Chefs use spice. Water slakes thirst.
The boys ring the doorbell. Jill loves dates.
Children sing on special occasions. Mr. Smith fills crates.
Some people bring gifts to parties. Grandpa washes plates.
Bees sting when they are disturbed. The dog jumps gates.

1C. Exercises
1. Jerry (come/comes) to school on time.

2. Jerry and Linda (come/comes) to school on time.

3. Ms. Jones (teach/teaches) geography.

4. The cat (sleep/sleeps) on the sofa every day.

5. Milk (cost/costs) two dollars a quart.

2A. Explanation

Use the simple present tense to indicate:

1. Routine actions

2. Facts

2B. Examples
Routine actions Facts
John brushes his teeth every morning. Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean.
 Some birds fly south for the
Carol usually drives to work.
winter.
Water consists of hydrogen and
The teacher grades homework on Fridays.
oxygen.

Note how the present tense is used in the following paragraph.

Mr. Lee is a bus driver. Every day he gets up at 7:00 a.m. and prepares for his
day. He showers, eats his breakfast, and puts on his uniform. His wife drives
him to the station where he checks in with his supervisor. Then, he gets on Bus
#405 and starts the engine. He pulls out of the parking lot and begins his route.
At his first stop, he picks up Mrs. Miller, who lives in a red house on the
corner of Main Street and Seventh Avenue. She works at the post office and
has to be to work by 9:00. At the next stop, the Bartlett twins get on the bus.
They attend class at Bayside Elementary. More children get on at the next
three stops, and they ride until the bus reaches their school. Mr. Lee enjoys
seeing the kids every day and is happy to see them again in the afternoon when
he drives them safely back home.

2C. Exercises
1. To practice the present tense, reread the above paragraph, then try to repeat
the main ideas in your own words. Be sure to use the -s form of the verb when
the subject of a sentence is singular. Have a partner listen to your speech and
check for correct usage of verbs.

2. Tell whether the present tense is appropriate in the following sentences.

1. Yesterday I go to Washington D.C. Correct Incorrect

2. Everyday, Mr. Johnson cleans his room. Correct Incorrect

3. They usually take the bus to the office. Correct Incorrect

4. Right now Susan eats her breakfast. Correct Incorrect

5. Melinda and Harry work in the bank. Correct Incorrect

Common Mistakes with the simple present tense

1. Not using the -s form with singular subjects:

(Correct)
Jack likes Chinese food.
(Incorrect
Jack like Chinese food.
)

2. Using the simple present tense when another tense is required.

Last night I watched television for two hours. (Correct)

 (Incorrect
Last night I watch television for two hours.
)

Audio - Click to Play

Related Grammar Topics

 Present Perfect
 Present Perfect Progressive
 Present Progressive

Grammar Exercises

More Grammar Topics

 Grammar Index

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Comments (16)

Tense
written by aju, August 21, 2009
Simple Present Tense
1A. Explanation
The simple present tense takes one of two forms depending on the subject.
Subject base form -s form
I, you eat
They, We go
Plural nouns work
He, She, It eats
Singular nouns goes
Non count-nouns
works

1B. Examples
Subjects followed by verb in base form: Subjects with verb in –s form
I like rice. She makes toys.
You look nice. He rakes leaves.
They think twice. It takes time.
We throw dice. Mom bakes pies.
Chefs use spice. Water slakes thirst.
The boys ring the doorbell. Jill loves dates.
Children sing on special occasions. Mr. Smith fills crates.
Some people bring gifts to parties. Grandpa washes plates.
Bees sting when they are disturbed. The dog jumps gates.

1C. Exercises
1. Jerry (come/comes) to school on time.
2. Jerry and Linda (come/comes) to school on time.

3. Ms. Jones (teach/teaches) geography.

4. The cat (sleep/sleeps) on the sofa every day.

5. Milk (cost/costs) two dollars a quart.

2A. Explanation

Use the simple present tense to indicate:

1. Routine actions

2. Facts

2B. Examples
Routine actions Facts
John brushes his teeth every morning. Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean.
Carol usually drives to work. Some birds fly south for the winter.
The teacher grades homework on Fridays. Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen.

Note how the present tense is used in the following paragraph.

Mr. Lee is a bus driver. Every day he gets up at 7:00 a.m. and prepares for his day. He
showers, eats his breakfast, and puts on his uniform. His wife drives him to the station where
he checks in with his supervisor. Then, he gets on Bus #405 and starts the engine. He pulls out
of the parking lot and begins his route. At his first stop, he picks up Mrs. Miller, who lives in a
red house on the corner of Main Street and Seventh Avenue. She works at the post office and
has to be to work by 9:00. At the next stop, the Bartlett twins get on the bus. They attend class
at Bayside Elementary. More children get on at the next three stops, and they ride until the bus
reaches their school. Mr. Lee enjoys seeing the kids every day and is happy to see them again
in the afternoon when he drives them safely back home.

2C. Exercises
1. To practice the present tense, reread the above paragraph, then try to repeat the main ideas
in your own words. Be sure to use the -s form of the verb when the subject of a sentence is
singular. Have a partner listen to your speech and check for correct usage of verbs.
2. Tell whether the present tense is appropriate in the following sentences.

1. Yesterday I go to Washington D.C.

2. Everyday, Mr. Johnson cleans his room.

3. They usually take the bus to the office.

4. Right now Susan eats her breakfast.

5. Melinda and Harry work in the bank.

Correct
Correct

Correct

Correct

Correct
Incorrect
Incorrect

Incorrect

Incorrect

Incorrect

Common Mistakes with the simple present tense

1. Not using the -s form with singular subjects:

Jack likes Chinese food.

Jack like Chinese food.
(Correct)
(Incorrect)

2. Using the simple present tense when another tense is required.

Last night I watched television for two hours.

Last night I watch television for two hours.
(Correct)
(Incorrect)

simple present tense.

written by saghir ahmed, August 22, 2009
Good effort, keep it up.
...
written by ricardo rivera, October 18, 2009
1C. Exercises

1. Jerry (come/comes) to school on time.

2. Jerry and Linda (come/comes) to school on time.

3. Ms. Jones (teach/teaches) geography.

4. The cat (sleep/sleeps) on the sofa every day.

5. Milk (cost/costs) two dollars a quart.

...
written by ricardo rivera, October 18, 2009
1. Yesterday I go to Washington D.C.

2. Everyday, Mr. Johnson cleans his room.

3. They usually take the bus to the office.

4. Right now Susan eats her breakfast.

5. Melinda and Harry work in the bank.

Correct Incorrect

Correct Incorrect

Correct Incorrect

Correct Incorrect

Correct Incorrect

...
written by Jesus Arenas, October 19, 2009
1C. Exercises

1. Jerry comes to school on time.

2. Jerry and Linda come to school on time.

3. Ms. Jones teaches geography.

4. The cat sleep on the sofa every day.

5. Milk costs two dollars a quart.

2. Tell whether the present tense is appropriate in the following sentences.

1. Yesterday I go to Washington D.C. Incorrect

2. Everyday, Mr. Johnson cleans his room. Correct

3. They usually take the bus to the office. Correct

4. Right now Susan eats her breakfast. Correct

5. Melinda and Harry work in the bank. Correct

...
written by De la cruz G. Sandra, October 20, 2009
1C. Exercises

1. Jerry comes to school on time.

2. Jerry and Linda come to school on time.

3. Ms. Jones teaches geography.

4. The cat sleep on the sofa every day.

5. Milk costs two dollars a quart.

2C. Exercises

1. Yesterday I go to Washington D.C. Incorrect

2. Everyday, Mr. Johnson cleans his room. Correct

3. They usually take the bus to the office. Correct

4. Right now Susan eats her breakfast. Correct

5. Melinda and Harry work in the bank. Correct

...
written by Krisztina Czibere, November 13, 2009
Hi Everybody!

Sorry to say that 2C./4. is incorrect.

Right now Susan eats her breakfast.
The correct sentence is:
Right now Susan is eating her breakfast.

Because it happens at that very moment. The "right now" time adverb shows it.

Hi
written by Rajan, November 27, 2009
Exercises
1)Jery comes to school on time.
2)Jery and Linda come to school on time

3)Ms.Jones teaches geography

4)The cat sleeps on the sofa every day.
5)Milk cost two dollars a quart.

...
written by suneetha, November 29, 2009
its good web site to learn english

hi
written by Fatima, December 08, 2009
1C. Exercise
1. Jerry (comes) to school on time.
2. Jerry and Linda (comes) to school on time.
3. Ms. Jones (teach) geography.
4. The cat (sleeps) on the sofa every day.
5. Milk (costs) two dollars a quart.

2C Exercise
1. Yesterday I go to Washington D.C.
Correct
2. Everyday, Mr. Johnson cleans his room.
Correct
3. They usually take the bus to the office.
Incorrect
4. Right now Susan eats her breakfast.
Correct
5. Melinda and Harry work in the bank.
Incorrect

Present Progressive / Continuous

The present progressive tense takes the form be + V ing.

The form of “be” is determined by the subject of the sentence.

He is singing.

She is listening.

They are sleeping.

I am going home.

In English, the present progressive is used to indicate actions happening at the time of
speaking, or right now.
Jake is speaking to his mother right now.

Please keep quiet. The baby is sleeping.

The present progressive can also be used to indicate actions occurring over a period
of time which includes the present.
I’m taking five classes at the university.

Grace is working at a chemical factory.

What are you doing these days?

The present progressive is sometimes used to indicate ongoing, developing, imminent

or future actions.
Ongoing

Don’t bother Mr. Grumpy while he is watching the football game.

Developing

I’m beginning to like this place!

Imminent

A: Honey, where are you?

B: I’m coming. Just let me put on my shoes.

Future (Note the presence of future time words.)

A: Are you going to the concert this weekend?

B: I wish I could, but I’m meeting an important client from Oklahoma.

Some non-action verbs do not occur in the present progressive tense. The simple
present is sufficient.
Past Simple

Explanation

1. The simple past tense is expressed with the past form of the verb and nothing else.

My grandfather died last year. (Correct)

My grandfather was died last year. (Incorrect)
My grandfather has died last year. (Incorrect)
2. The simple past tense refers to
a. action which occurred at a specific time in the past
b. completed action
c. past status
Examples
Specific past action Completed action Past status
She finally mailed the
I ate lunch at noon today. John was still single in
letter.
He drove to work 1995.
Jan finished her report
yesterday. Jane was a movie star.
on time.

Note the usage of the past tense in the following story.

Yesterday Mrs. Hubbard had a very rough day. In the morning, she went to the
kitchen and looked in the cupboard for some food for her dog, but the cupboard
was empty. Her poor dog stared up at her with its hungry eyes, and she knew
she had to do something quickly. She hurried to the grocery store to buy some
dog food, but unfortunately the store was out of her dog’s favorite brand, so
she had to catch a bus downtown. After buying the food, she waited for a half
hour in the rain to get a taxi. When she finally got home, her dog was sound
asleep on the living room sofa.

Common problems with the past tense

1. Using the present tense when the past tense is required.

Last week, Tonya fix her neighbor’s car. (Incorrect)

Last week, Tonya fixed her neighbor’s car. (Correct)
2. Using “was” with verbs in the past tense.
It was happened one night in September. (Incorrect)
It happened one night in September. (Correct)

Exercises

Exercise 1
Exercise 2

Irregular Verbs

ABCDEFGHK

LMNPQRSTUW

Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle

A
arise arose arisen
awake awakened / awoke awakened / awoken

B
backslide backslid backslidden / backslid
be was, were been
bear bore born / borne
beat beat beaten / beat
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bet bet / betted bet / betted
bid bid / bade bidden
bid bid bid
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast / broadcasted broadcast / broadcasted
build built built
burn burned / burnt burned / burnt
burst burst burst
bust busted / bust busted / bust
buy bought bought

C
cast cast cast
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
clothe clothed / clad clothed / clad
come came come
cost cost cost
creep crept crept
cut cut cut

D
daydream daydreamed / daydreamtdaydreamed / daydreamt
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
disprove disproved disproved / disproven
dive dove / dived dived
dive dived / dove dived
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamed / dreamt dreamed / dreamt
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
dwell dwelt / dwelled dwelt / dwelled

E
eat ate eaten

F
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fit (tailor, change size)fitted / fit fitted / fit
fit (be right size) fit / fitted fit / fitted
flee fled fled
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
forbid forbade forbidden
forecast forecast forecast
forego forewent foregone
foresee foresaw foreseen
foretell foretold foretold
forget forgot forgotten / forgot
forgive forgave forgiven
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen

G
get got gotten / got
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
H
hang hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hew hewed hewn / hewed
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt

K
keep kept kept
kneel knelt / kneeled knelt / kneeled
knit knitted / knit knitted / knit
know knew known

L
lay laid laid
lead led led
lean leaned / leant leaned / leant
leap leaped / leapt leaped / leapt
learn learned / learnt learned / learnt
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
lie (not tell truth) lied lied
light lit / lighted lit / lighted
lose lost lost

M
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood
mow mowed mowed / mown

P
partake partook partaken
pay paid paid
plead pleaded / pled pleaded / pled
proofread proofread proofread
prove proved proven / proved
put put put

Q
quick-freeze quick-froze quick-frozen
quit quit / quitted quit / quitted
R
read read (sounds like "red") read (sounds like "red")
rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run

S
saw sawed sawed / sawn
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sew sewed sewn / sewed
shake shook shaken
shave shaved shaved / shaven
shear sheared sheared / shorn
shed shed shed
shine shined / shone shined / shone
shoot shot shot
show showed shown / showed
shrink shrank / shrunk shrunk
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sink sank / sunk sunk
sit sat sat
slay (kill) slew / slayed slain / slayed
slay (amuse) slayed slayed
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
sling slung slung
slink slinked / slunk slinked / slunk
slit slit slit
smell smelled / smelt smelled / smelt
sneak sneaked / snuck sneaked / snuck
sow sowed sown / sowed
speak spoke spoken
speed sped / speeded sped / speeded
spell spelled / spelt spelled / spelt
spend spent spent
spill spilled / spilt spilled / spilt
spin spun spun
spit spit / spat spit / spat
split split split
spoil spoiled / spoilt spoiled / spoilt
spread spread spread
spring sprang / sprung sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stink stunk / stank stunk
strew strewed strewn / strewed
stride strode stridden
strike (delete) struck stricken
strike (hit) struck struck / stricken
string strung strung
strive strove / strived striven / strived
sublet sublet sublet
sunburn sunburned / sunburnt sunburned / sunburnt
swear swore sworn
sweat sweat / sweated sweat / sweated
sweep swept swept
swell swelled swollen / swelled
swim swam swum
swing swung swung

T
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
telecast telecast telecast
tell told told
test-drive test-drove test-driven
test-fly test-flew test-flown
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trodden / trod

U
understand understood understood
undertake undertook undertaken
undo undid undone

W
wake woke / waked woken / waked
waylay waylaid waylaid
wear wore worn
weave wove / weaved woven / weaved
wed wed / wedded wed / wedded
weep wept wept
wet wet / wetted wet / wetted
whet whetted whetted
win won won
wind wound wound
withdraw withdrew withdrawn
withhold withheld withheld
withstand withstood withstood
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written

Related Grammar Topics

 Noun and Verb Phrases

 Subject-Verb Agreement
 Action Vs. Status
 Causative Verbs
 Choosing the Correct Verb Tense
 Go + Ving
 Non-Action Verbs
 Problems with Verbs
 Regular Verbs
 Semantic Verb Pairs

Past Progressive / Continuous

Past progressive tense is used to indicate that an action was in progress when another
action occurred in the past.

Past progressive (was/were + Ving) refers to the action in progress, and simple past
tense refers to the "interrupting" action.

While I was eating dinner, the telephone rang.

The telephone rang while I was eating dinner.

When the telephone rang, I was eating dinner.

I was eating dinner when the telephone rang.

Past continuous can also be used to indicate only one action which occurred in the
past:

What was John doing yesterday?

He was working at the factory.

What were they doing yesterday afternoon?

They were playing soccer.

What were you doing last night?

I was studying English.

Present Perfect Simple

Present Perfect Tense can be used in three situations:

1. To indicate something that has happened at an indefinite time in the past.

I have seen that movie already.

She has left for California.

They have not eaten their dinner yet.

2. To indicate something which started in the

past and continues until now.

I have lived in New York for nine years.

We have been here since Friday.

He has played football since he was a child.

3. To indicate something which occurred recently.

I have been sick lately.

She hasn’t slept much recently.

Notes:

When speaking about a specific time, use past tense.

A: I have seen that movie already. (Non-specific time)

B: Oh really? When did you see it?
A: I saw it last week with Bob. (Specific time)

Some words should not be used in situation 2 (above)

I have met John for five years. (INCORRECT)

I have known John for five years. (CORRECT)
I met John five years ago. (CORRECT)
I have met John already. (CORRECT)

Sometimes, but not always, present perfect continuous can be used instead of present
perfect.

I have lived there for ten years. (Okay)

I have been living there for ten years. (Okay)
I have exercised a lot recently. (Okay)
I have been exercising a lot recently. (Okay)
I have seen that movie ten times. (Okay)
I have been seeing that movie ten times. (NOT Okay)

Present Perfect Progressive

The present perfect progressive expresses the meaning “until now” and makes the connection
between the past and present. Since it is progressive, it usually connotes an idea of continuity.
It is often used with prepositional phrases: for + amount of time and since + point in time.

I have been living in Minneapolis since 1999.

I have been living in Minneapolis for three years.

The present perfect progressive tense is made by placing have been (or has been)
immediately in front of the –ing form of the main verb.

The present perfect progressive can sometimes be interchanged with the present perfect tense
with little or no deviation in meaning.

Esther has worked there for nine years.

Esther has been working there for nine years.

However, in cases where the present perfect tense carries the meaning “before now” (non-
specific time in the past), the present perfect progressive cannot be used.

(Incorrect!
I have been seeing that movie five times already.
)
I have seen that movie five times already.
(Correct)

Past Perfect

Past perfect tense is used to indicate that one action occurred before another action in the
past. In other words, past perfect tense indicates the first of the two actions.*

For example,

When I woke up this morning, my roommate had left already.

After I had eaten my dinner, I went to see a movie.

Before I arrived at the theater, the movie had already begun.

Sometimes, when the meaning is clear from context, the simple past tense can be used.
After I had gone shopping, I stopped at the health spa.

After I went shopping, I stopped at the health spa.

The most common error with the past perfect is using it where it does not belong.

(Incorrect—no reference to other

When I was young, I had been a cowboy.
events)
When I was young, I was a cowboy.
(Correct)
Yesterday the Johnsons had opened their new business. (Incorrect)

Yesterday the Johnsons opened their new business. (Correct)

*In some very unusual cases, the past perfect tense can refer to the second past action.

Before I had finished my homework, the telephone rang.

(The telephone interrupted me before I finished my homework.)

Future Simple

In English the Future Time is expressed in a number of ways. The most common are with will
and be going to. See examples from the following sentences.

I will finish my homework in an hour.

I’m going to finish my homework in an hour.

With be going to, make sure the verb be agrees with its subject. I’m going to eat a whole
watermelon.

She’s going to eat a whole watermelon.

Actually, we’re going to eat a whole watermelon together.

In speech, the words going to are often pronounced “ gonna .”

Don’t forget the be verb.

A: What are you gonna do this weekend?

B: I’m gonna stay home and clean my carpet.

NOT: I gonna stay…

NOT: I’m gonna to stay…

What’s the difference between will and be going to?

Both can be used interchangeably in some cases. (Predictions and guesses)

My prints will be here tomorrow.

My prints are going to be here tomorrow.

Be going to is preferable for strong intentions or for describing the inevitable.

I’m going to give her a piece of my mind.

There’s no way they can score 21 points in 2 minutes. We’re going to win!

Will is the preferable form for making offers or expressing pop decisions.

A: Who will help me finish this chocolate cake?

B: I will.

A: I have two tickets left for the front row.

B: I’ll take them.

Sometimes future time can be expressed with either the present or present progressive tense.
In such cases, time words must be expressed or clearly implied.

I fly to Beijing tomorrow.

I’m flying to Beijing tomorrow.

Sorry I can’t attend the picnic on Saturday. I’m flying to Beijing.

Future Progressive

Future progressive tense is used to indicate action which will be taking place at some time in
the future.

For example,

I will be singing at Symphony Hall next month.

We’ll be leaving next Monday.

When you arrive, I’ll be cooking dinner.

The future progressive tense is formed by adding will be to the –ing form of the main verb.

She will be coming around the mountain in a few minutes.

She’ll be riding a white horse into town.

The future progressive tense is not as common as other tenses, and it can some-times be
replaced by simple future, present progressive or even simple present.

I’ll be leaving in a few minutes.

I’ll leave in a few minutes.

I’m going to leave in a few minutes.

I’m leaving in a few minutes.

I leave in a few minutes.

Future Perfect

The future perfect tense is not commonly used in English. It indicates that an action will be
completed in the future (usually before some other action or event).

I will finish my Russian course in June. In July, I will begin studying Chinese.

By the time I begin studying Chinese, I will have finished my Russian course.

When I finish this race, I will have run a total of five miles.

Before they leave for Miami, they will have visited Houston and New Orleans.

The important thing to remember is the time of completion. (Beginning time may vary.)

I started studying last year. I will have passed my exams when I graduate next June.

I am studying right now. I will have passed my exams when I graduate next June.

I will start studying next month. I will have passed my exams when I graduate next
June.

Choosing the Correct Verb Tense

1. Does Tense = Time ?

Not Always

2. Situation and Time Words determine Time

3. Time chooses Tense (not the other way around)

4. Present Time (Now)

Present Continuous Tense

I am eating my dinner right now.

 Present Tense for “non-action” verbs

I want some chocolate ice cream.

5. Future Time

Future with “will”

I will leave tomorrow

Future with “be going to”

I am going to leave tomorrow.

Future Continuous tense

I will be leaving tomorrow.

Future with Present Continuous tense

I am leaving tomorrow

Future with Present tense

I leave tomorrow.

6. Past Time

Facts: Use Simple Past Tense only

I ate my breakfast at 7:00 this morning.

Relationship between two times.

I had eaten my breakfast when my roommate left.

Relationship between events.

I was eating my breakfast when the telephone rang.

Regular Verbs

(see Complete list of Irregular Verbs)

base -s form past past participle -ing form notes

call calls called called calling

clean cleans cleaned cleaned cleaning
look looks looked looked looking 1
talk talks talked talked talking 1

end ends ended ended ending 2

wait waits waited waited waiting 2

kiss kisses kissed kissed kissing 3

wash washes washed washed washing 3

live lives lived lived living 4

love loves loved loved loving 4

beg begs begged begged begging 5

sin sins sinned sinned sinning 5

play plays played played playing

stay stays stayed stayed staying

cry cries cried cried crying 6

study studies studied studied studying 6

die dies died died dying

tie ties tied tied tying

Notes:

1. Pronunciation differences in past/past participle after /p, s, k, f/ sounds

2. Pronunciation differences in past/past participle after /t, d/ sounds

3. Spelling and pronunciation differences in –s form after /s, sh, ch, z/ sounds

4. Dropping of “silent e” with –ing endings

5. Doubled consonants after “short” vowel sounds

6. Spelling differences when “y” is preceded by a consonant

Choosing the Correct Verb Tense

1. Does Tense = Time ?

Not Always

2. Situation and Time Words determine Time

3. Time chooses Tense (not the other way around)

4. Present Time (Now)

 Present Continuous Tense

I am eating my dinner right now.

Present Tense for “non-action” verbs

I want some chocolate ice cream.

5. Future Time

Future with “will”

I will leave tomorrow

Future with “be going to”

I am going to leave tomorrow.

Future Continuous tense

I will be leaving tomorrow.

Future with Present Continuous tense

I am leaving tomorrow

Future with Present tense

I leave tomorrow.

6. Past Time

Facts: Use Simple Past Tense only

I ate my breakfast at 7:00 this morning.

Relationship between two times.

I had eaten my breakfast when my roommate left.

Relationship between events.

I was eating my breakfast when the telephone rang.

Related Grammar Topics

 Noun and Verb Phrases

 Subject-Verb Agreement
 Action Vs. Status
 Causative Verbs
  Go + Ving
 Irregular Verbs
 Non-Action Verbs
 Problems with Verbs

Less Common Tenses

The past perfect progressive and future perfect progressive are not commonly used in
English. They indicate action which occurs continuously over a period of time, when another
action or event intervenes. Some examples are included here for your reference.

Past Perfect Progressive

We had been playing baseball for two hours yesterday when it started to rain.

I had been sending out applications for months. Finally, I got a phone call.

Future Perfect Progressive

We will have been flying for two hours when we cross the Mississippi River.

In August, I will have been studying here for three years.

Often the past perfect progressive and future perfect progressive can be replaced by their
counterparts: past perfect or future perfect.

I had been driving for hours when I stopped to rest.

I had driven for hours when I stopped to rest.

By the time I get to Tempe, I will have been traveling all day.

By the time I get to Tempe, I will have traveled all day.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Passive Voice

How to construct the passive.

1. Check to see if the active sentence contains an object.

John ate an apple. (S V O) Passive is possible.

John ate yesterday. (S V) Passive is not possible.

2. Move the object to the front of the sentence. Put the original subject in a "be" phrase .

An apple (V) by John.

3. Put the verb in the form "be" +3 (of main verb)

An apple У be Ф eaten by John.

4. Put the "be" in the same tense as the original active sentence.

An apple was/were eaten by John. ( past tense)

5. Make the first verb agree with the new subject.

An apple was eaten by John.

(Put other elements of the sentence in grammatical and logical order.)

Yesterday the large green apple was quickly eaten by John, who didnТt realize that it
belonged to his sister.

When other (auxiliary) verbs and modals are used in combination with the passive, remember:

Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing

be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
The apple should have been being eaten by John

Combination of auxiliary verbs with the passive.

Present Tense

Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing

be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
by
The apple is eaten
John

Past Tense

Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing

be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
The apple was eaten by John

Present ProgressiveTense
 Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing
be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
The apple is being eaten by John

Past Tense

Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing

be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
by
The apple was being eaten
John

Present Perfect Tense

Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing

be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
The apple have been eaten by John

Present Perfect Progressive

Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing

be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
The apple have been being eaten by John

Past Perfect Progressive

Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing

be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
The apple had been being eaten by John

Future/Modal

Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing

be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
The apple will be eaten by John

Future/Modal

Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing

be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
The apple is going to be eaten by John

Modal
 Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing
be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
The apple must be eaten by John

Past Modal

Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing

be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
The apple must have been eaten by John

Combination

Modal + 1 Have + 3 be + V-ing

be + 3
(Modal) (Perfect) (Progressive)
(Passive)
The apple must have been being eaten by John

Non Passives

The following sentences indicate a common error among non-native speakers of

English.

X Jackson was arrived at 10:00 yesterday.

X My dog was died last week.
X What was happened?
X Dudley was slept at a hotel last night.

When using the simple past tense, only one verb is needed. The correct sentences are:

Jackson arrived at 10:00 yesterday.

My dog died last week.
What happened?
Dudley slept at a hotel last night.

Sometimes students confuse the simple past tense with the passive. Notice the
difference in the following sentences.

Tamara ate a sandwich at noon. Simple past tense

A sandwich was eaten by Tamara. Passive past tense

Tamara ate yesterday. Okay

Yesterday was eaten by Tamara. Not Okay
(Yesterday is not an object. Thus, the passive is not possible here.)
Some verbs in English are in-transitive. That is, they do not take objects. These
verbs cannot be used in the passive voice.

Alexander wrote a letter. Transitive verb and object

A letter was written by Alexander. Passive voice okay

The news surprised Karen. Transitive verb and object

Karen was surprised (by the news). Passive voice okay

My dog died last week. In-transitive verb (no object)

X My dog was died last week. Incorrect! Passive not okay

Monica swims every day. In-transitive verb (no object)

Monica is swum every day. Incorrect! Passive not okay

*Some verbs can be either transitive or in-transitive depending on the situation.

Jim walked to school this morning.

Jim walked the dog this morning.
The dog was walked (by Jim).

Stative passives

Stative passives are verb-like words that follow “be” in sentences and function as adjectives.
See the examples below:

He is hungry.
(Adjective)

(Stative passive)
He is interested
(Stative passive)
His leg is broken

Stative passives indicate a status or condition which may exist over a period of time. In
contrast, action verbs often indicate a change from one status to another.

We got married in 1998.

(Action: We changed from “single” to
“married”.)
Status: Our current condition is
We are married now. “married.”)
(Action: Indicates what happened at a
Jack broke the window. given moment.)
(Status: Indicates the condition of the
The window is broken. window.)
Note how the action/status contrast works with other verbs:

(Action: Change in status from “awake”

Jared fell asleep. to "asleep").

(Status: Indicates Jared’s current

Jared is asleep. condition.)
(Action: Joan changed from “healthy” to
Joan became sick. “sick.”)

(Status: Joan’s present condition.)

Joan is sick.
(Action: Indicates the point when the fire
The building caught fire. started.)

(Status: Indicates the condition of the

The building is on fire now. building.)
(Action)
The doctor came in.
(Status)
The doctor is in.

Stative passives are often used with prepositional expressions.

See Grammar: Preposition Collocations with “Be".

She is interested in photography.

Brad was worried about his mother.
Carmen is terrified of snakes.
Everyone was caught up in the excitement.

Some adjectives also fit in the same pattern:

Karen is fond of chocolates.

I’m crazy about sports cars.
You’re full of baloney.

Passive with Get

The word get is sometimes used instead of be to form the passive. In such cases, get indicates
a change in status or condition. For example,

I got sick after eating the red meat. (I became sick.)

They will get married tomorrow.

(They changed from “single” to
He got killed in the accident. “married.”)

(Something caused him to die.)

Get is often used in idiomatic expressions. For example,

What time will you get done? (What time will you be finished?)

James got drunk at the party. (He became drunk at the party.)

I hope you get better soon. (I hope you become well soon.)

We got engaged last week. (We became an engaged couple.)

Sentences, Clauses and Phrases

Yes/No Questions

There are many types of questions in English. The easiest are questions that can be answered
“yes” or “no.”

A: Are you from around here?

B: Yes, I am. A: Do you come here often?
B: Yes, I do. A: Can I buy you a drink?
B: No, thanks. A: Are you married?
B: Yes, I am.

To form a question from a statement, first count the number of verbs.

John is a doctor. One verb: is (be)

Jane drives a sports car. One verb: drives

Joan played basketball last night. One verb: played

Jan is eating her dinner. Two verbs: is eating

June has rented an apartment. Two verbs: has rented

Jen has been living there since 1969. Three verbs: has been living

If there is one verb in the statement and the verb is a form of be, simply switch the positions
of the subject and verb.

Statement Question

John is a doctor. Is John a doctor?

 The Jensens are here. Are the Jensens here?

If there are two verbs, simply switch the positions of the subject and first verb.

Statement Question

Jan is eating dinner. Is Jan eating dinner?

June has rented an apartment. Has June rented an apartment?

Jen has been living here since 1969. Has Jen been living here since 1969?

If there is one verb, and the verb is not a form of be, the process is more complex.

1. Add Do to the beginning of the sentence.

The Johnsons live in that house. Do the Johnsons live in that house?

2. If the main verb “carries” a third person singular s, move the s to Do, making it Does.

Jane drives a car. Do Jane drives a car? (Not finished

yet!)

Does Jane drive a car? (Good

question!)

3. If the main verb “carries" past tense, move the past tense to Do, making it Did.

Joan played basketball last night. Do Joan played basketball? (Not finished
yet!)

Did Joan play basketball? (Good question!)

In conversation, most questions are asked of the second person (you) and answered in the first
(I).

A: Are you from California?

B: No, I’m from Oregon. Are you?
A: Yes, I’m from Hollywood.
B: Do you know any movie stars?
A: No, I don’t go out at night.
In British English, the main verb have sometimes functions like be in questions. This is not
common in American English.

Statement Question

You have a pet ferret. Have you a pet ferret? (British)

Do you have a pet ferret? (American)

Wh- Questions

Wh- Questions allow a speaker to find out more information about topics. They are as
follows:

When? Time

Where? Place

Who? Person

Why? Reason

How? Manner

What? Object/Idea/Action

Other words can also be used to inquire about specific information:

Choice of alternatives
Which (one)?
Possession
Whose?
Person (objective formal)
Whom?
Price, amount (non-
How much?
count)
How many?
Quantity (count)
How long?
Duration
How often?
Frequency
How far?
Distance
What kind (of)?
Description
The “grammar” used with wh- questions depends on whether the topic being asked
about is the “subject” or “predicate” of a sentence. For the subject pattern, simply
replace the person or thing being asked about with the appropriate wh-word.

(Someone has my baseball.) Who has my baseball?

(Something is bothering you.) What is bothering you?

For the predicate pattern, wh- question formation depends on whether there is an
“auxiliary” verb in the original sentence. Auxiliary or “helping” verbs are verbs that
precede main verbs. Auxiliary verbs are italicized in the following sentences.

I can do it.
They are leaving.
I have eaten my lunch.
I should have finished my homework.

To make a question using the predicate pattern, first form a yes/no question by
inverting the subject and (first) auxiliary verb. Then, add the appropriate wh- word to
the beginning of the sentence.

(You will leave some time.) … will you leave

When will you leave?
(He is doing something.) … is he doing
What is he doing?
(They have been somewhere.) … have they been
Where have they been?

If there is no auxiliary and the verb is “be,” invert the subject and verb, then add the
appropriate wh- word to the beginning of the sentence.

(He is someone.) … is he
Who is he?
(The meeting was some time) … was the meeting
When was the meeting?

If there is no auxiliary and the verb is not “be,” add do to the beginning of the
sentence. Then add the appropriate wh-question word. Be sure to “transfer” the tense
and number from the main verb to the word do.

(You want something.) … do you want

What do you want?
(You went somewhere.) … did you go (past tense)
Where did you go?

She likes something.) … does she like (third person –s)

 What does she like?

Complex Question Formation

Statement Questions

Statement questions can be used to express surprise or disbelief.

You’re not married?

They won the game?

He does?

For added effect, you can add a wh- word.

You did what?

She went where?

Negative Questions

Aren’t you going to the dance?

Haven’t you been there before?

Isn’t that Doctor Zimbango?

Questions with Or

Is it the blue one, or the red one?

Would you like some tea or coffee?

Subject-Verb Agreement

Third person singular -s

Use the –s form of a verb in the present tense when the subject is third person singular.

For all other subjects, use the base form in the present tense.

Example:

base form
I live in Athens.
They live in Crete.
The Smiths live in Rome.

-s form
He lives in Cyprus.
She lives in Malta.
Tim lives in Naples.
Ms. Conner lives in Milan.

The verb have

The –s form of the verb have is has.

We have a winner.

He has a trophy.

The verb be

The –s form (present tense) for be is is. For the past tense, it is was.

Was is also used with first person singular subjects (I) in the past tense.

(Am is used in the present tense. Are is used with other subjects in the present, and were is
used in the past.)

She is here.
He is not here.
I am here too.
You are right.
They are wrong.

She was home yesterday.

Ron wasn’t home yesterday.
I was here yesterday.
We were here too.

Auxiliary verbs

When auxiliary verbs are used, only the first verb carries the third person singular –s.

Jean does not like spaghetti. (Correct)

Jean does not likes spaghetti. (Wrong!)
Jean do not likes spaghetti. (Wrong!)

Elsa is eating her dinner. (Correct)

Elsa is eats her dinner. (Wrong!)
Leo is going to eat later.
Frank has eaten lunch already. (Correct)
Frank have eaten lunch already. (Wrong!)

Modals

Do not use the –s form of the verb with modals, regardless of the subject.

Ian can eat twelve bowls of rice. (Correct)

Ian can eats twelve bowls of rice. (Wrong!)

Conjunctions and Linking Words

Coordinators

Coordinators connect elements of equal importance.

S + V , but (and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet)

S+V

S + V and V

S and S + V

N and N

Adj. and Adj.

Phrase and Phrase

Can be used in a series: A, B, C, or D

Subordinators

Subordinators connect elements of unequal importance. One clause is not as strong as the
other.

S + V although S + V (although, even though, because, since*, when,

while, before*, after*, whenever, wherever*, if,
unless, whether…[or not] as, as [adjective] as, so
Although S + V , S + V
that, whereas anywhere*, anytime*)

Sentence Connectors

Sentence Connectors connect paragraphs or show relationship between very different ideas.
 S + V . However, S + V (however, therefore, thus, moreover,
nevertheless, first*, then*, next*, still*
S + V ; however, S + V besides, consequently, furthermore)

Prepositions

Prepositions show relationship among elements of a sentence.

They are followed by noun phrases only and cannot take on a S + V.

S + V (prep. phrase) (during, after*, before*, in, on, at

despite, in spite of, for*, since*, by

(Prep. phrase), S + V like, except, but*, about, to*, from

between [A and B], among, with

(Prep. phrase) V + S (unusual) within, without, beside, near, next to)

* These words have more than one function.

Basic Sentence Structure

There are five basic patterns around which most English sentences are built.* They are as
follows:

S-V Subject-Verb John sleeps.

Jill is eating.

Jack will arrive next week.

S-V-O Subject-Verb-Object I like rice.

She loves her job.

He’s eating an orange.

S-V-Adj Subject-Verb-Adjective He is funny.

The workers are lazy.

Karen seems angry.

S-V-Adv Subject-Verb-Adverb Jim is here.

Flowers are everywhere.

No one was there.

S-V-N Subject-Verb-Noun She is my mom.

The men are doctors.

Mr. Jones is the teacher.

At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject-Verb relationship. Other elements can be
added to make a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its formation.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V pattern.

She sleeps. Core sentence

She sleeps soundly. An adverb is added to describe how she

sleeps.

She sleeps on the sofa. A prepositional phrase is added to tell where

she sleeps.

She sleeps every afternoon. A time expression is added to tell when she
sleeps.

She is sleeping right now. Verb tense is changed, but S-V relationship
remains the same.

Mary will sleep later. Subject is named and another tense is used.

The dogs are sleeping in the New subject may require a different form of
garage. the verb.
Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-O pattern.

They like rice. Core sentence

The people like rice. Specific subject

The friendly people like rice. Subject modified with an adjective

The people in the restaurant like Subject modified with an adjective
rice.

The people like boiled rice. Object modified with an adjective

The people like hot, white rice. Object modified with more than one adjective
Note: Only transitive action verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adj pattern.

He is fine. Basic sentence with “be” verb

He seems happy. Basic sentence with another linking verb

Jordan is tall, dark and Series of adjectives

handsome.

He appears very comfortable. Adverb or intensifier added

George became sick last night. Different tense and linking verb
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adv pattern:

The teacher is here. Basic sentence

The teacher is over there. Using an adverb phrase

Teachers are everywhere. Plural noun and verb used

The teachers are in the lobby. Prepositional phrase functioning as adverb

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-N pattern.

The man is a doctor. Basic sentence

The women are doctors. Using plural noun and verb

My father is a nice guy. Modified subject and complement

My grandparents are senior Modified plural subject and complement
citizens.
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

*Other, less common structures are dealt with in another unit.

Building Sentences

Remember, the S - V relationship is at the “heart” of every sentence. All sentences are built
around this core.

To give a sentence more substance, you may enhance the subject or verb:

(VERB enhancements)

1. Change the verb in tense or aspect or a combination of the two.

He eats. (simple present)

He will eat. (future/modal)

He is eating. (continuous)

He has eaten. (perfect)

He has been eating. (combination)

He should have been eating. (combination)

2. Add an adverb or adverb phrase, or prepositional phrase.

He should have eaten already/ by now.

He was eating in the kitchen.

3. Add an adverbial clause.

He was eating when the bus arrived.

4. Add a participial phrase.

Having finished his homework, he ate.

 (SUBJECT enhancements)

5. Change the noun to a pronoun or vice versa.

He eats.
John eats.

6. Add an article, demonstrative, or possessive.

The man eats.

This man eats.
His father eats.

Note: Subjects and Objects may be enhanced in similar ways.

Subject Object

7. Add an object.

John eats rice.

The man eats an apple.

8. Add an adjective or adjectives.

The handsome man eats. The man eats the big, red apple.

9. Add a prepositional phrase.

The man eats an apple from the

The man in the kitchen eats.
bowl.

10. Add a relative (adjective) clause.

The man ate the apple that I

The man who lives next door eats.
bought.

11. Use quantifiers.

 Some of the men eat. They eat some of the apples.

12. Use a noun clause.

He eats whichever apple he

Whoever gets here first can eat.
chooses.

Enhance both the subject and the verb to make sentences more interesting.

The man who lives on the corner is eating his lunch now.
The men from the health club eat every day after working out.
The tall, green men from Mars are eating tuna sandwiches.
Some of the men ate the apples (that) I left on the table.
Whenever he feels like exercising, the fat man eats a huge meal instead.

Basic Sentence Structures

S-V He sleeps. S-LV-N He is a doctor.

S-V-O She eats rice. S-LV-Adj The doctor is sick.

S-V-IO-DO She told him a lie. S-LV-Adv The doctor is here.

Sentence Structure and Punctuation

Basic English Sentence Structures

S–V Jack is sleeping. S – LV – Adj. Jack is sick.

S–V–O Jack ate an apple. S – LV – Adv Jack is here.
S – V – IO – DO Jack gave Jill a ring. S – LV – Noun Jack is a doctor.

Combinations: One verb or one subject (no comma)

SV Jack is drinking.

S and S V Jack and Jill are drinking.

S V and V Jack is eating and drinking.

S V O and O Jack drinks coffee and tea.

S and S V O and O Jack and Jill drink tea and coffee.

Combinations: Two subjects, two verbs

Subordination (One idea is stronger.)

Jack drinks coffee although Jill drinks tea. (without a comma)

Although Jack drinks coffee, Jill drinks tea. (with a comma)

Coordination (equal ideas, with coordinator: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet)

Jack is drinking, and Jill is eating. (A comma [,] is needed here.)

Jack drinks coffee, but Jill drinks tea. (closest connection between ideas)

Closely related ideas (without coordinator)

Jack drinks coffee; Jill drinks tea. (A semi-colon [;] is used here.)

Jack drinks coffee; however, Jill drinks tea. (with a sentence connector)

Separate sentences (strongest break between ideas)

Jack drinks coffee. Jill drinks tea. (Use a period [.] to separate complete sentences.)

Jack drinks coffee. However, Jill drinks tea. (with a sentence connector)
Jack drinks coffee. Jill, however, drinks tea. (variation)

Note:
Do not use subordinators and coordinators to connect ideas in the same sentence:

Although Jack drinks coffee, but Jill drinks tea. (INCORRECT)

Jack drinks coffee, but Jill drinks tea.

(Okay)
Although Jack drinks coffee, Jill drinks tea.
(Okay)

Coordinators

Coordinators (and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet*) connect elements of equal importance.

S + V , but S + V (A comma is normally used)

S + V and V (No comma is necessary)

 S or S + V

N and N

Adj. and Adj.

Phrase and Phrase

Can be used in a series: A, B, C, or D

Examples:

(S + V , coordinator S +V)
He drinks coffee, but she drinks tea.
Gary lives in Ohio, and Deana lives in Michigan.
She loves to dance, so she bought a studio.
You could buy a car, or you could put the money in the bank.

When there is a new subject and verb, a comma is used before (not after) the
coordinator.

I hate to sing but, I love to dance. (Incorrect)

I hate to sing, but I love to dance. (Correct)

(two subjects)
John and George both play football. (two verbs)
Paul listens to music and reads books. (series)
John, Paul, George, and Harry are classmates.
* For is also commonly used as a preposition. Yet can sometimes be used as an adverb.

Subordinators

The most common subordinators are:

although, even though, (to show slight contrast)

because, since*, so that, (to give reasons)
when, while, before*, after*, whenever, (to indicate time relationships)
wherever, anywhere,
if, unless, whether…[or not] (to indicate place)
as, as [adjective] as, (to indicate conditions)
whereas (to give comparisons)
(to show major contrast)

*These words can also be used as prepositions.

Subordinators have an interesting effect on words in a sentence. A clause (S +V) without a

subordinator can stand alone as a complete statement.
 (Complete statement)
I went to the store yesterday.

However, when a subordinator is added, the statement seems incomplete.

(Well, what happened?)

When I went to the store yesterday, . . .

The subordinating clause becomes dependent on something else to complete its meaning:

When I went to the store yesterday, I saw an old (Idea is complete)

friend.

Subordinating or “dependent” clauses can occur at the beginning or end of a sentence. When
used at the beginning of a sentence, a comma is necessary after the clause itself.

S + V although S + V

Although S + V , S + V

In English, the subordinator always comes before the subject and verb in a clause.

(Incorrect)
I went to the grocery store after, I stopped at the
bank.
(Correct)
After I went to the grocery store, I stopped at
the bank.

Subordinators and coordinators should not be used in the same sentence to introduce clauses.
Choose one or the other, but do not use both together.

(Wrong)
Although Nina won the prize, but she was not
happy. (Correct)
Although Nina won the prize, she was not
happy. (Also correct)
Nina won the prize, but she was not happy.

Sentence Connectors

She drinks coffee. He drinks tea. (Two separate

sentences)

She drinks coffee, but he drinks tea. (Coordination)

(Both ideas are

She drinks coffee, and he drinks tea. equal)

(Closely related
She drinks coffee; he drinks tea. ideas)

(Subordination)
Although she drinks coffee, he drinks tea.
(One idea is
She drinks coffee although he drinks tea. stronger)

(INCORRECT!)
Although she drinks coffee, but he drinks tea.
(Sentence
She drinks coffee; however, he drinks tea. connector)

(Stronger break
She drinks coffee. However, he drinks tea. between ideas)

(Variation)
She drinks coffee. He, however, drinks tea.

Remember:

A period (.) provides the strongest break between ideas.

A semicolon (;) is next, and a comma (,) provides the weakest separation.

Coordinators provide connection between equal ideas.

(and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet)

Examples:

Mom and Dad

red or green

She stayed, but he left.

Subordinators provide connection between unequal ideas.

(because, although, when, while, if, as, since, whenever, wherever…)

Example:

He didn’t go to work because he was sick.

Although John was unhappy, he still smiled.

Sentence Connectors provide connection between large groups of ideas/sentences. (usually
paragraphs)

(therefore, otherwise, thus, in conclusion, furthermore…)

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses give more information about a subject or object. They usually follow and
"agree" with the noun they modify and often occur between a Subject and Verb. However,
they usually have no effect on the S + V relationship.

Examples:

The man who works at IBM comes from Hong Kong.

The house that Jack built remains empty.

The people who came to the party had a great time.

Those who arrive early are entitled to a rebate.

I ate an apple that had a worm in it.

She is the one who I told you about.

The man who lives over there is my uncle.

One of the men who lives over there is my uncle.

Only one of the people who work in the company is qualified.

Most relative clauses use the words who, whom, whose, which, that, when or where.

This is the place where I met my wife.

Paul is the man who loves Mary. (subject position)

Simon is the man who(m) Mary loves. (object position)

Commas which set off relative clauses function like parentheses ( ) indicating non-essential
information.

My wife, who is a doctor, works at Community Hospital.

My wife (who is a doctor) works at Community Hospital.

Without commas, relative clauses specify one member of a group:

My brother who is a scientist works at the university.

My brother who is a mechanic works at Bob’s Garage.

Specifies “which brother” (one of many)

Reduced Relative Clauses

Sample usage from the article:

 Other regions (which were) surveyed…

 …part of a US-based programme (which is) known as…

You may delete the relative pronoun (who, that, which) and the “be” verb when:

1. they are followed by a prepositional phrase.

A. The man who is in the house likes to watch television all day.

The man in the house likes to watch television all day.

B. The books that are on the desk are mine.

The books on the desk are mine.

2. the main verb in the relative clause is progressive.

A. The man who is swimming in the lake is my father.

The man swimming in the lake is my father.

B. The clothes that are lying on the floor belong to me.

The clothes lying on the floor belong to me.

3. the main verb in the relative clause is passive.

A. The survey which was conducted by the government did not indicate true public opinion.

The survey conducted by the government did not indicate true public opinion.

B. The food that was eaten by the mice was poisonous.

The food eaten by the mice was poisonous.

Reducing Adverbial Clauses

Same time

Time clauses with "while" and "when" can be reduced by deleting the subject and "be" verb.

 While I was eating dinner, I watched television.

 While eating dinner, I watched television.
 When you are in Rome, (you) do as the Romans do.
 When in Rome, do as the Romans do.

If there is no "be" verb, change the verb in the subordinating clause to its -ing form.
Sometimes the subordinator (when or while) can be deleted as well.
 When I opened the door, I saw a strange sight.
 When opening the door, I saw a strange sight.
 Opening the door, I saw a strange sight.

Note: If the subjects are different, you may not reduce the adverbial clause.
 While I was taking a shower, my sister called from California.
 (NOT) While taking a shower, my sister called from California.

Be careful when reducing time clauses that come at the end of sentences.
 We saw many beautiful birds while we were fishing in the lake.
 We saw many beautiful birds while fishing in the lake.
 (NOT) We saw many beautiful birds fishing in the lake.

In the last sentence, the meaning is ambiguous: Are we fishing or are the birds fishing?

Different times

 After I finished my homework, I went to bed.

 After finishing my homework, I went to bed.
 After I had finished my homework, I went to bed.
 After having finished my homework, I went to bed.
 Having finished my homework, I went to bed.
 Before he left the dance, Jerry said good-bye to his girlfriend.
 Before leaving the dance, Jerry said good-bye to his girlfriend.

Other clauses

Sometimes clauses with because can be reduced.

 Because he was a doctor, George knew how to handle the situation.

 Being a doctor, George knew how to handle the situation.
 As a doctor, George knew how to handle the situation.

Restrictive Clauses
There are two types of relative clauses, restrictive and non-restrictive. Restrictive clauses
specify which (of many) nouns the speaker is referring to. They do not require commas.

For example,

I have three brothers.

My brother who lives in Virginia is a rocket scientist.

My brother who lives in Ohio is a civil engineer.
My brother who lives in Hawaii is a surfer.

Each of the relative clauses in the above examples specifies a different brother. It tells “which
one.”

Non-restrictive clauses, on the other hand, are separated by commas. They merely give more
information about the noun. In other words, they tell more about the same topic. The commas
function as parentheses.

I have one brother.

My brother (who is from Oklahoma) is an architect.

My brother, who is from Oklahoma, is an architect.

Noun Clauses

Noun clause used as an object

He said something.

SVO What did he say?

He said that he was sick.

Noun clause used as a subject

Something is your business.

SV What is your business?

Whatever you do is your business.

Someone is still in the cafeteria.

SV Who is in the cafeteria?

Whoever ate my lunch is still in the cafeteria.

The subordinator may take the "subject" or "object" position in a noun clause.
Note the usage of the following:

Henry loves Mary. (S V O) Mary is the "object" of the sentence.

Mary is the "subject" of the sentence.

Mary loves Jim. (S V O)
Relative clause (subordinator in obj.
position)
The person who(m) Lee loves is a secret.
Relative clause (subordinator in subj.
position)
The person who loves Tim is a secret.
Noun clause (subordinator in obj. position)

Who(m) Henry loves is a secret. Noun clause (subordinator in subj.

position)

Who loves Tim is a secret.

Subordinators which are used in noun clauses:

(Some of these words are also used in Grammar: Relative Clauses and Grammar: Wh -
Questions.)

that which how much

what where how many

who when how long

whoever how how far

whatever why how often

whether if whose

Remember to preserve word order in noun clauses:

I don’t know who he is.

Whoever she is is not important.

Whatever is in the box is a mystery.

Can you tell me what he is doing?

She doesn't undestand why he is leaving.

I wonder how much that costs.

Do you know how long it will take?

Clauses and Phrases

Clauses consist of a Subject and Verb and sometimes a subordinating conjunction.

(Independent clause)

Roger went to Japan last summer. (Adverbial clause)

After he went to Japan, Roger went to Korea.

(Relative clause)
Roger is the man who went to Japan last summer.

Whoever went to Japan had a great time. (Noun clause)

Phrases are groups of words without a complete subject or verb.

(Prepositional phrase)
After Japan, Roger went to Korea.
(Participial phrase)
After going to Japan, Roger went to Korea.
(Participial phrase)
Having gone to Japan, Roger went to Korea.

Some clauses can be reduced to phrases by omitting certain words:

The man who is going to Japan is Roger. (Relative clause)

The man going to Japan is Roger.

(Reduced)
"When he was traveling to Japan, Roger met Lori.
(Adverbial clause)
When traveling to Japan, Roger met Lori.

When he was in Japan, Roger ate sashimi. (Reduced)

When in Japan, Roger ate sashimi.

(Adverbial clause)
In Japan, Roger ate sashimi.
 (Reduced)

(Prepositional phrase)

Introductory Phrases

Introductory phrases and clauses

John invited Mary to a movie. Mary had seen the movie twice already. Mary was reluctant to
accept John’s invitation.

Because she had seen the movie twice already, Mary was reluctant to accept John’s invitation
(to the movie).

Having seen the movie twice already, Mary was reluctant to accept John’s invitation.

Intermediary phrases and clauses

Senator James humbly submitted his resignation. The press hounded Senator James for
months on charges of tax evasion.

Senator James, whom the press hounded for months on charges of tax evasion, humbly
submitted his resignation.

Senator James, who was hounded by the press for months on charges of tax evasion, humbly
submitted his resignation.

Senator James, hounded by the press for months on charges of tax evasion, humbly submitted
his resignation.

Other

Mr. Smith swept the floor. Mr. Smith dusted the shelves. Mr. Smith turned out the
lights. Then he left the building.

Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights before he left
the building.

Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights before leaving
the building.

Before leaving the building, Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned
out the lights.

After sweeping the floor, dusting the shelves, and turning out the lights, Mr. Smith left
the building.
 Having swept the floor, dusted the shelves and turned out the lights, Mr. Smith left the
building.

Participal Phrases

In Time Clauses:

While I was coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.

While coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.
Coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.

When she opened the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.
When opening the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.
Opening the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.

Before he left the house, Mr. Russo remembered to turn off the oven.

Before leaving the house, Mr. Russo remembered to turn off the oven.

*Make sure the subject of the main clause and the subject of the participial phrase are the
same.

While taking a shower, my sister called from California. (INCORRECT)

While I was taking a shower, my sister called from California.
While taking a shower, I received a call from my sister in California.

In Absolutes:

The vase was knocked over by the cat. It lay in a hundred pieces on the floor.
Knocked over by the cat, the vase lay in a hundred pieces on the floor.

The mouse snatched up the larger pieces, and it left the crumbs for the cockroaches.
The mouse snatched up the larger pieces, leaving the crumbs for the cockroaches.

The little boy was lost and afraid. He called for his mother.
The little boy, lost and afraid, called for his mother.
Lost and afraid, the little boy called for his mother.

Structure Words

Structure Prepositions Subordinators Coordinators Sentence

Connnectors
Prep + Noun Although S V, S V S V, and S V
S V although S V
S V . However,
Time In 1959 When I was young SV
(When?) On Thursday S V ; however,
At 7:00 While you were SV
Before noon here
After hours Once he arrived
During lunch Before you went
By 5:00 home
After I finish my
In the house work
On the table As soon as I get
At the store there
By the time he
arrived

Place Wherever you go

(Where?) Anywere you want

(Location words: over, under, around, through, between, beside, beyond, etc.)

Manner With a fork As a good boy does Therefore

(How?) Like a pig Thus
By train Consequentl
Because I want to y
Reason For fun Since you are here So
(Why?) Because of the war So that I could win For

For two hours Until I finish

Duration Since last year Since I was a young boy
(How long?) As long as you want

Whenever you have time

Anytime you like
Frequency On Tuesdays As often as you wish
(How often?)
Although I didn’t do it
Even though I didn't
Even if I could
Contrast While I didn't believe him
Despite my wishes Whereas she did believe
In spite of his illness him But
Yet However
If you want me to Nevertheless
Unless I get paid Still
Whether you like it or not Otherwise
On the other
hand
For pay only
Condition
 With a friend
Addition

And
Besides
Moreover
In addition
Furthermore

Parenthetical Statements

Statements in parentheses ( ) can be ignored when it comes to Subject-Verb agreement.

My husband (the doctor) works at Community Hospital.

My best friend (the one in the green shirt) wants to meet you.

Sometimes commas are used in place of parentheses:

His brother, John, lives in Sacramento.

My sister, who works in Miami, is visiting me this week.

Mr. Johnson, however, was not amused.

The teacher, along with her students, is coming to the party.

Prepositional phrases usually have no effect on Subject-Verb agreement.

The men in the car were shouting wildly.

The men in the cars were shouting wildly.

The books on the shelf next to the window are mine.

However, in some quantifying expressions, prepositional phrases do make a difference.

A lot of people are traveling to Belize these days.

A lot of milk was left in the refrigerator last night.

Some of the apples were rotten.

Some of the wine is too old.

 None of the water is safe to drink.

Relative clauses can have an effect, depending on the meaning.

Mary is the one who takes care of applications.

Mary is one of the people who take care of applications.

One of the men who live there is deranged.

Absolutes

Absolutes show a special “how” relationship between two sentences. The two sentences are
combined in a way that subordinates one to the other.

For example,

Mary was sitting at her desk. Her head was slightly lowered over a pile of chemistry
notes.

Mary was sitting at her desk, her head slightly lowered over a pile of chemistry notes.

In order to construct an absolute, follow these steps:

1. Check to see if there is a “be” verb in the sentence you want to subordinate.

2. If there is a “be” verb, eliminate it and combine the sentences with a comma.

Julie accepted the award. Tears were streaming down her face.

Julie accepted the award, tears streaming down her face.

3. If the subjects are the same, delete the subject of the absolute as well. For example,

Julie accepted the award. Julie was overcome with emotion.

Julie accepted the award, overcome with emotion.

OR Overcome with emotion, Julie accepted the award.

4. If there is no “be” verb, change the main verb of the subordinating sentence into its
-ing form. Then eliminate similar subjects and combine sentences with a comma.

Johnny ran after the bus. He waved his hands and whistled.

Johnny ran after the bus, waving his hands and whistling.

OR: Waving his hands and whistling, Johnny ran after the bus.
5. If there is a “possessive” relationship between the two sentences, use possessive
pronouns (its his, their, etc.) to indicate the relationship between the subjects.

Active:

The cat confronted the burglar. It arched its back and bared its teeth.
The cat confronted the burglar, arching its back and baring its teeth.

Passive:

The cat confronted the burglar. Its back was arched and teeth were bared.
The cat confronted the burglar, its back arched and teeth bared.

Conditionals and Wishes