General Chemistry 1

Reviewer: 2nd Quarter

Pressure - is commonly measured using a barometer or a manometer.

Barometer - measure the atmospheric pressure. It was invented in 1643 by Italian Physicist
Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647). The first barometer consisted of basin with a log tube
filled with mercury.
Manometer or Pressure Gauge - measures the pressure in a closed system.

The Kinetic Molecular Theory

• KMT is based on the motions of gas particles
• A gas that behaves exactly as outlined by KMT is known as an Ideal Gas

Principle Assumption of KMT

• Gases consists of tiny subatomic particles
• The distance between particles is large compared with the size of the particles them-
selves.
• Gas particles have no attraction for one another
• Gas particles move in straight lines in all directions, colliding frequently with one another
and with the walls of the container.
• No energy is lost by the collision of a gas particle with another gas particle or with the
walls of the container.
• The average kinetic energy for particles is the same for all gases at the same tempera-
ture, and its value is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature

Pressure exerted by gas depends upon:

• Number of gas molecules present
• Temperature of the gas
• Volume in which gas is confined
Dependence of Pressure on Temperature:
• The pressure of the gas in a fixed volume increases with increasing temperature
• When the pressure of a gas increases its kinetic energy increases
• The increased kinetic energy of the gas results in more frequent and energetic collisions
of the molecules with the walls of the container.
GAS LAWS

Standard Temperature and Pressure

Standard Pressure (for theoretical purposes):
760 mm Hg = 760 torr = 1 atm = 101.3 kPa

Standard Temperature:
0 celcius = 273 K

1.) BOYLE’S LAW

-states that the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure provided that its temperature remains unchanged.
Note: Temperature is constant

Therefore, P1V1 = P2V2

INVERSE DIRECT
Example:
A balloon with a volume of 2.0 L is filled with a gas at 3 atmospheres. If the pressure is
reduced to 0.5 atmospheres without a change in temperature, what would be the volume of
the balloon?

Solution:
Since the temperature does not change, Boyle's law can be used. Boyle's gas law can be
expressed as:

P1V1 = P2V2
Where:
P1= Initial pressure
P2= Final Pressure
V1= Initial Volume
V2= Final Volume
To find the final volume, solve the equation for V2:

V2 =P1V1/P2
V1= 2.0 L
P1= 3 atm
P2= 0.5 atm

V2= (2.0 L)(3 atm)/(0.5 atm)

V2= 6 L/0.5
V2= 12 L
Answer: The volume of the balloon will expand to 12 L.

2.) CHARLES’S LAW

-states that the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its abso-
lute temperature, provided that its pressure
remains unchanged.

Therefore,

Example:
A container contains 5 L of nitrogen gas at 25° C. What will be its volume if the tempera-
ture increases by 35° C keeping the pressure constant?

Solution:
V1 = 5 L V2 = ?
T1 = (25°C + 273) K = 298 K T2 = (25°C + 35°C + 273) K = 333 K

V1/T1 = V2/T2
Substituting the values,
5 L / 298 K = V2 / 333 K
V2 = 5 L x 333 K / 298 K
V2 = 5.59 L (Answer)

3.) GAY LUSSAC’S and AMONTON’S LAW

-The pressure of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to the absolute tem-
perature if the volume does not change.

Therefore, P1 / T1 = P2 / T2
Example:
A 20 L cylinder containing 6 atm of gas at 27 °C. What would the pressure of the gas be if
the gas was heated to 77 °C?
Solution:
The cylinder's volume remains unchanged while the gas is heated so Gay-Lussac's gas
law applies. Gay-Lussac's gas law can be expressed as
Pi/Ti = Pf/Tf
Where
Pi and Ti are the initial pressure and absolute temperatures
Pf and Tf are the final pressure and absolute temperature

First, convert the temperatures to absolute temperatures.

Ti = 27 °C = 27 + 273 K = 300 K
Tf = 77 °C = 77 + 273 K = 350 K

Use these values in Gay-Lussac's equation and solve for Pf.

Pf = PiTf/Ti
Pf = (6 atm)x(350K)/(300 K)
Pf = 7 atm

Answer:
The pressure will increase to 7 atm after heating the gas from 27 °C to 77 °C.

IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT GAY-LUSSAC'S LAW

• Volume and quantity of gas are held constant.
• If temperature of the gas increases, pressure increases.
• If temperature decreases, pressure decreases.

4.) COMBINED GAS LAWS

-If two conditions are given for pressure, volume and temperature, n is constant.
Therefore, P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2

Example:
Find the volume of a gas at STP when 2.00 liters is collected at 745.0 mm Hg and 25.0 °C.
To solve the problem, you first need to identify which formula to use. In this case, the ques-
tion asks about conditions at STP, so you know you're dealing with a "before and after"
problem. Next, you need to now what STP is.

If you haven't memorized this already (and you probably should, since it appears a
lot), STP refers to "standard temperature and pressure", which is 273 K and 760.0 mm Hg.
Because the law works using absolute temperature, you need to convert 25.0 °C to the Kel-
vin scale. This gives you 298 K.
At this point, you can just plug the values into the formula and solve for the unknown, but a
common mistake when you're new to this type of problem is confusing which numbers go
together.
Solution:
P1 = 745.0 mm Hg
V1 = 2.00 L
T1 = 298 K
P2 = 760.0 mm Hg
V2 = x (the unknown you're solving for)
T2 = 273 K
Next, take the formula and set it up to solve for your "x", which is V2 in this problem.
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
Cross-multiply to clear the fractions:
P1V1T2 = P2V2T1
Divide to isolate V2:
V2 = (P1V1T2) / (P2T1)
Plug in the numbers:
V2 = (745.0 mm Hg · 2.00 L · 273 K) / (760 mm Hg · 298 K)
V2 = 1.796 L
Report the value using the correct number of significant figures:
V2 = 1.80 L

5.) AVOGADRO’S LAW

-Equal numbers of molecules are contained in equal volumes of different gases if the
pressure and temperature are the same.
Vi/ni = Vf/nf
Example:
A 6.0 L sample at 25 °C and 2.00 atm of pressure contains 0.5 moles of a gas. If an additional
0.25 moles of gas at the same pressure and temperature are added, what is the final total
volume of the gas?
Solution:
Avogadro's law can be expressed by the formula:

Vi/ni = Vf/nf

where
Vi = initial volume
ni = initial number of moles
Vf = final volume
nf = final number of moles

For this example, Vi = 6.0 L and ni = 0.5 moles.

When 0.25 moles are added

nf = ni + 0.25 moles
nf = 0.5 moles = 0.25 moles
nf = 0.75 moles

The only variable remaining is the final volume.

Vi/ni = Vf/nf

Solve for Vf

Vf = Vinf/ni
Vf = (6.0 L x 0.75 moles)/0.5 moles
Vf = 4.5 L/0.5 Vf = 9 L

Check to see if the answer makes sense. You would expect the volume to increase
if more gas is added. Is the final volume is greater than the initial volume? Yes. This check
is useful since it is easy to put the initial number of moles in the numerator and the final
number of moles in the denominator. If this happened, the final volume answer would be
smaller than the initial volume.
Answer: The final volume of the gas is 9.0 L.

6.) IDEAL GAS LAW

-The volume of gas is directly proportional to the number of moles present,n,
and to the absolute temperature, T, and is inversely proportional to the pressure , P.

PV = nRT, where
• P is pressure of the gas in atmospheres (atm).
• V is volume of the gas in liters (L).
• n is the amount of gas in moles.
• R is the ideal gas constant 0.08205 liter-atmospheres-per-mole-Kelvin (L⋅ atm /
mole⋅ K)
• T is the temperature of the gas in Kelvin (K).
Example:
5 moles of nitrogen gas is in a 100 liter fixed cylinder at 300 Kelvin. What is the pressure of
the gas?
Solution:
It is often a good idea to rearrange equations to solve for the variable being asked about. In
this case, we need to get the equation in the form of P = ... We'll do that after we organize
the values we'll need.
• P=?
• V = 100 L
• n = 5 moles
• R = 0.08205 L⋅ atm / mole⋅ K
• T = 300 K
Diffusion - the ability of two or more gases to mix spontaneously until they form a uniform
mixture.

Effusion - A process by which gas molecules pass through a very small orifice from a
container at higher pressure to one at lower pressure.

7.) GRAHAM’S LAW OF EFFUSION

8.) DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

-the total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures exerted
by each of the gases in the mixture.
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + ... Pn

where P1, P2, P3, Pn are the partial pressures of the individual gases in the mixture.

Example:
The pressure of a mixture of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen is 150 kPa. What is the
partial pressure of oxygen if the partial pressures of the nitrogen and carbon dioxide are
100 kPA and 24 kPa, respectively?

Solution:
For this example, you can simply plug the numbers into the equation and solve for the un-
known quantity.
P = Pnitrogen + Pcarbon dioxide + Poxygen

150 kPa = 100 kPa + 24 kPa + Poxygen

Poxygen = 150 kPa - 100 kPa - 24 kPa
Poxygen = 26 kPa

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
The electron configuration of an atom is the representation of the arrangement of electrons distrib-
uted among the orbital shells and subshells. Commonly, the electron configuration is used to de-
scribe the orbitals of an atom in its ground state, but it can also be used to represent an atom that
has ionized into a cation or anion by compensating with the loss of or gain of electrons in their
subsequent orbitals.

Subshells:

s- sharp can carry a maximum of 2 electrons : 1s, 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s, 6s ,7s

p- principal can carry a maximum of 6 electrons : 2p, 3p, 4p, 5p, 6p, 7p

d- diffuse can carry a maximum of 10 electrons : 3d ,4d, 5d ,6d ,7d

f- fundamental can carry a maximum of 14 electrons : 4f,5f, 6f, 7f

Example :

Hydrogen , atomic no. 1 Carbon, atomic no. 9

Noble Gas Configuration

is the electron configuration of noble gases.

The noble gas are defined as "the group of chemical elements with low chemical reactivity."
 Element Symbol Atomic No. Electron Configuration

Helium H 2 1s2

Neon Ne 10 [He] 2s2sp6

Argon Ar 18 [Ne] 3s23p6

Krypton Kr 36 [Ar] 3d104s24p6

Xenon Xe 54 [Kr] 4d105s25p6

Radon Rn 86 [Xe] 4f145d106s26p6

Noble Gas Notation

A noble gas notation or core notation is just a shorthand version of the electron configuration to
simplify the process with larger and larger elements on the periodic table.

Example:

Chlorine has an electron configuration of

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 =17

The noble gas one energy level (row) above Chlorine is Neon with an electron configuration
of
1s2 2s2 2p6 = 10

To write the noble gas configuration for chlorine we replace the electron configuration of
Neon 1s2 2s2 2p6 with [Ne].

giving us an a noble gas notation for chlorine of

[Ne]3s2 3p5 = 10 + 7 = 17, atomic no. of Chlorine
PERIODIC TRENDS
Terminologies:
1) Atomic size/atomic radius
- Distance of the center of the nucleus to the surface of the neighboring atom
2) Ionic size/ionic radius
- Distance of the surface of an ion [cation (+) and anion (-)] from the center of the
nucleus
3) Ionization energy
- Amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom
4) Electron affinity
- Energy that an atom releases when it accepts an electron
5) Electronegativity
- Ability of an atom in a chemical bond to attract electrons toward itself
↑ - INCREASING ↓ - DECREASING
-
Atomic size Ionic size
Non-metallic properties
Metallic Atomic number Ionization energy
properties
Electron affinity
Electronegativity

Example:
Arrange O, P, Si, C, and Cl to increasing electronegativity.

1st step: List each elements’ period and group.

Element Period Group

O 2 16
P 3 15
Si 3 14
C 2 14
Cl 3 17

2nd step: Follow the directions shown assigned for that atomic trait.

Electronegativity increases from left to right and down to up.

Left to right = group
Down to up = period
Segregate the elements by period as indicated by the directions (down to up).
Si, P, Cl (period 3) C, O (period 2)

Arrange each element by group as indicated by the directions (left to right).

Si (period 3 group 14), P (period 3 group 15), Cl (period 3 group 17), C (period 2 group
14), O (period 2 group 16)

Final Answer:
Si, P, Cl, C, O or Si < P < Cl < C < O (use < for increasing and > for decreasing).

Tip: To prevent mistakes, answer in commas instead of greater than and less than
symbols.

QUANTUM NUMBERS

PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER [n]

 Used to represent the main energy level of electron

 Always positive; can have values of 1,2,3,4… so on
 the larger the value of [n], the farther the electron is from the nucleus
 The number of the coefficient asked for from the electron is your [n]

AZIMUTAL QUANTUM NUMBER [ l (Cursive l) ]

 Gives the shape of the orbital
 it is in accordance to the variables
 l=n-1
 If n=2, then l will have the value l=1

S=0;P=1;D=2;F=3

MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER {ml}

 Shows the orientation of the orbital in space
 can easily be achieved by putting labels on top of the diagrams where in 0 is
always in the middle

SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER {ms}

 Describes the spin of an electron abour its axis

 has values of only ½ and -½
 If the arrow of the electron is pointing up, then ms=1/2
 If the arrow is pointing down, then ms=-1/2
EXAMPLE:

Cl = 17 (atomic number) QN of the 9th electron

-1 0 1

1, 2 3,4 5,8 6,9 7,10 11,12 13,16 14,17 15

Use since the 9th electron fell in the orbital.

O= 8 QN of the last electron

-1 0 1

1,2 2, 5 3
Use since it is the last electron in the electron configuration

NOTE: ALWAYS REMEMBER THAT THE ARROWS POINTING ABOVE IN ONE GROUP ARE
THOSE THAT COME FIRST IN THE COUNTING

NOTE: Determines the capacity level of the electrons.

NUMBER OF BOXES NEEDED FOR EACH ORBITAL

S = 1 ; P = 3 ; D = 5 ; F= 7
For more reference refer to this diagram:

Sample Problems:
Get the Quantum numbers, and illustrate the orbital diagram for each element.

Neon (Ne)- Atomic number 10 QN of the last electron

Titanium (Ti)- Atomic number 22 QN of the last electron

CHEMICAL BONDING