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    T) Active Solar Still

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    DrEmadEl-Said
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    Contents lists av ble at ScienceDirect APPLIED Eee Applied Energy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apeneray Life cycle cost analysis of single slope hybrid (PV/T) active solar still Shiv Kumar‘, G.N. Tiwari Centre for Eneey Stasis, Inn nti of Techno, Hara, New Del 110 16. Ina ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Trice Received 2 September 2008 Received in revied form 2 March 2008, Peceped Mares 2008 ‘This paper prevents the life cycle cost analysis of the single slope passive and hybrid photovataic (VT) active solr stl, based on the annual performance a 0.05 m water depth. Effects of various parameters, namely interest fate life ofthe system and the maintenance cost have been taken into account. The come Darative cost of distilled water produced from passive soar stil (RS, O70) is fund to be less than hybrid (PV/T) active solar sil (Rs. 1.93) for 20 years lifetime of the systems. The payback petiods ‘ofthe passive and hybrid (PV/T) active solar stil are estimated to be in the range of 1.1-.2 years and Energy payback pecod 53-259 years, respectively, based on selling price of distilled water in the range of Rs. 10)kg to Is 2k, The energy payback time (EPBT) has been estimated a8 29 and 47 years, respectively, "© 2009 Elsevier Le. Al rights reserved 1. Introduction Many developed and developing countries of the world are making sustained efforts to hatness the renewable energy resources due to the free availability and faster depletion of con- ventional energy resources. Also, use of fossil fuels leads to long. term environmental problems, such as acid rains and greenhouse effects, Similarly, the heavier problems are encountered with nu- clear energy, mainly due to the serious risks it implies to harmful radiations. Under these conditions, there is growing interest for renewable and eco-friendly energy sources such as solar energy. Solar energy is a one ofthe renewable energy resources and avoids ‘most of the negative impact due to the use of fossil fuels It has ‘many applications; one of which is solar distillation. Water is fone of the most abundant resources on earth, covering about 75% of the earth surface, However, about 97% of itis salt water in the ‘oceans, and about 3% is fresh water. Out of the available fresh water, less than 1% is available for human and animal needs. The total water requirements have been increased over the last years for various reasons and most important one is fast economic devel- ‘opment, which has lead to a higher standard of living, Solar disti- lation isan oldest method to produce potable water from brackish or saline water by utilizing the solar energy as reported by various researchers, It is more economical in the areas receives more solar radiation and better solution to the problem of energy security and climatic change with zero running cost. Conventional solar stil uses the greenhouse effect to evaporate the pure form of water from the brackishjsalty water. The sill acts as a heat trap because 0206-2619 - se front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ld Al igh reserved, a1 101016) apenersy 2009.03 005 of transparent roof to incoming sunlight but opaque to the infrared radiation emitted by the hot water. The passive solar stil is one of conventional design in use since 1842 (built in Chile of 4000 m? area). The low distillate yield from passive solar still (2~4 lm? day) is a major barrier in its commercialization, In order to meet the requirement of fresh water rigorous research have been carried out by various scientists on design, fabrication and development of the solar still for distillation to increase its absorptivity to solar radiation, The various solar stills, such as double-toof stills, diffu- sion stills, wetted wick stills and coupling of solar stills to the external assisting systems (Alat-plate collectors, concentrators heat pipes and waste-heat sources) have been investigated to im- prove the performance, Malik et al [1] have reported that the max- imum thetmal efficiency of a conventional solar still can be 307, Which further depends on the solar intensity, location, time and ‘weather conditions. Al-Hinal et al. [2] have reported the effect of water depth (0.02-030:m) on daily distillate yield and recom- _mencled the brine water depth in the range of 0.02-0.06 m for bet- ter yield from the passive solar stil, El-Sebaii [3] has carried out the parametric study of vertical solar still by computer simulation and found that the daily yield decreases with increase in an air space between absorber and glass cover, possibly due to long path. of water vapour to travel Monthly performances of the passive and active solar stills have ‘been evaluated by Singh and Tiwari [4] for different Indian climatic conditions. They inferred that an annual yield depends on water depth. condensing cover inclination and collector area. They have reported the maximum annual yield at 28.35* inclination of con- densing cover, which is latitude of New Delhi (Indi), Photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) technology refers to the integra- tion of a PV module and conventional solar thermal collector in a single piece of equipment. The rationale behind the hybri¢ concept 1996 5 Kumar, GX. Tvari/ Ape Energy 86 (2009) 1985-2004 Nomenclature OK cost of distilled water per kg (Rs,/kg) CF Simul eash flow (Rs) Fun capital recovery factor un Sitkingfnd factor Hcy proposed hybrid active soar sti Hag’ present (experimental) hybrid active solar stil i rate of interest, fraction (%) L latent heat of vaporization, J/kg MM, annual maintenance cost of soar sil (2) M total maintenance cost (Rs) Myig anal yield (kp) nv Sxpected feof sla stl Year) wp Bavback petod (vest) Novel clear day ina month P present capital cost of the system (Rs.) Pecan proposed passive sla stl Pow present (experimental) passive solar still 2% cost of DC water pump (Rs) Po, anal power generated from PV module (KW h) PL annual power tlzed from PV module (KW) PL et present cost ofthe solar still (Rs) 5, salvage value of solar stil as a fraction of capital cost Py (Rs) SpoeeSecricity rate per unit (Rs /AW b) Ua" the uniform end of year annual cost (Rs) net uniform end of year annual cost (Rs Subscripts Exp experimental solar still Com proposed design solar still Conversion unit i Rs.38in 2006, is thata solar cell converts solar radiation to electrical energy with peak efficiency in the range of 9-12%, depending on specific solar- cell type and thermal energy dissipated for water heating. More than 80% of the solar radiation falling on photovoltaic (PV) cells is not converted to electricity, but either reflected or converted to thermal energy. In view of this, hybrid photovoltaic and thermal (PV(T) collectors are introduced to simultaneously generate elec- ticity and thermal power [5]. Chow [6] has analyzed the PVT ‘water collector with single glazing in transient conditions, consist ing of tubes, in contact with the flat plate, reported an increase of clecttc efficiency by 2%, and obtained the thermal efficiency of 60% at 0.01 kgjs flow rate of water, Further, Zakharchenko et al. [7] have studied the unglazed hybrid (PV/T) system with suitable ther- ‘mal contact between the PV module and the collector and reported that the area of module and collector in the PV/T system need not 10 be equal for higher overall efficiency. To operate the PV module at low temperature, the PV module should be fixed at lower tem- perature part of the collector (ie, atthe inlet of feed water) The parametric study of different configuration of hybrid (PV/T) air col- lector has also carried out by Tiwari and Sodha [8]. Kumar and Ti- ‘wari [9] have reported that daily yield obtained from hybrid (PV/T) active solar still is 3.5 times of the passive solar still. Tiwari et a. [10] have validated the theoretical and experimental results for photovoltaic (PV) module integrated with air duct for composite climate of India and concluded that an averall thermal efficiency of PV/T system is significantly increased due to utilization of ther ‘mal energy from PV module. Recently, Dubey et al [11] have re ported the higher annual average efficiency of glass to glass type PV module with and without air duct as 10.41% and 9.75%, respectively, The economics of any energy system is essential to understand the cost of production and economic payback period on the invest- ment to reduce the risk of project failure. The lfe cycle cost analy- sis of solar still lepends on several key variables such as * rate of interest + annual distillate yield + maintenance cost * life time of solar stills production cost of distilled water selling price of distilled water salvage value of the system, ete Tleimat and Howe (12] have reported that the solar distillation plants of capacity less than 200 Iday are more economical than the ther type of plants. Mukherjee and Tiwari (13] have carried out the economic analysis of three different types of the solar stills, namely a single slope fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) stil, a double slope FRP solar still and a double slope concrete solar stil for Indian climatic conditions. They have concluded the minimum cost of distilled water produced from conventional solar still. Sinha etal, [14] have carried out the techno-economic analysis on active solar distillation system and solar water heater considering 14 years life of the systems. Ie has also inferted from the literatures that the maintenance cost of the solar stills is less and required only to clean the systems as well as filling and collection of yield. Therefore, the cost of dis- Ulled water mainly depends on initial investment and interest rate “The various scientists have also studied the lifecycle cost analysis of the passive solar still under different climatic conditions. Vari- ‘us researchers have done the economic analysis ofthe solar still plant in different places and the cost of distilled water obtained is presented in Table 1 Fath et al, [17] have recommended the acceptable cost of the Aistilled water for potable use in remote areas, if produce from so- lar stills af $0.03/L (i. Rs. 120)kg). Kalogirou [18] has estimated that the 25% of the price of distilled water attributes to the energy cost, if produced using conventional fossil fuel in Cyprus. However, the cost analysis caried out by different researchers as mentioned above concludes that the solar stills can be used to provide fresh ‘water at reasonable cost. In this paper, annual performance and cost of distilled water produced from newiy designed hybrid (PVjT) active and passive Cano isle water reported By varios inventions Size of tie pant Forlag size plant Fer 50 [day proguction ‘pac using porous basin solar ste ase on dsl yield of Sz wees sing 2 lusts of 250, simple sla sts rami shaped slr sil Year Investaator 1994 Gheneyem and fen [15] 43995 Madani and Zalt [16] $163m* 2002 Astin eal 2) 20m? 2008 Fathet al (171 5: Kumar GN. Tiwan/Applied Energy 8 (2008) 195-2008 1997 solar stills has been carried out in order to estimate the viability of both the systems. The cost payback period and energy payback me (EPRI) considering the initial investment, salvage value, ‘maintenance cost, interest rate and life of the systems into account have also been incorporated, The economics of hybrid (PV/T) active solar still has not been presented by any researchers before. 2. Experimental solar stills ‘The experimental setup of passive and hybrid (PV/T) active so- Jar stills fabricated, installed and tested at solar energy park at ITT New Delhi are described below. Pig. 1, Photograph oa pasive sla si 2.1 Single slope passive solar still The single slope passive solar still of an effective basin area of Tm x 1m was fabricated by using glass reinforced plastic (GRP) ‘material. The photograph is shown in Fig. 1a. A glass cover with, an inclination of 30" is fixed at the top of the vertical walls ofthe solar still by using a rubber gasket and clamps. The glass cover is further sealed with window-putty to avoid the leakage of vapour to outside. The distillate output is collected in a channel (trough) fixed atthe end of the lower vertical side wall of the basin and f3- ken to outside through a plastic pipe, connected to this channel The inner surface of the basin is painted black to increase the absorptivity to solar radiation. A plastic hose-pipe is fixed through, ‘hole drilled at the bottom of the basin to drain out the water dur~ ing cleaning of the basin, Holes are also drilled in the body of the ig. 1b, Photograph of hybrid (PVT active solar tl Feed valve te fll he ‘untreated water: es ont Hotwater collector to solar still Glazing eurfice oo Fit platecollecor PM Seale te fix ‘thermocouples Hole fr drainage Water from solar stil te DC pump fn Paes PV module i Wire connection to nee DC motor cm Fig. e. Schema tp view of hybed (PU) active solar still to fix the thermocouples to measure the temperatures of water in the basin and the inner glass cover. The whole unit is mounted ‘on an angle iron stand, The solar stil is oriented due south in order to receive maximum solar radiation throughout the year. 2.2. Single slope hybrid photovoltaic (PV/T) active solar still The feeding of hot water available from a flat plate collector pa- nel tothe basin of solar still has been considered as one ofthe most effective active methods to increase the water temperature, The temperature difference between the evaporating (water) and con- ddensing surface (glass) can be increased by feeding the adaitional ‘thermal energy from the flat plate collector inthe basin ofthe solar still The photograph and schematic of the fabricated hybrid (PVT) active solar stil are shown in Figs. 1b and c, respectively. The oper- ‘ating principle of hybrid (PV/T) active solar still involves imple ‘mentation of following components: + PV integrated fat plate collectors + DC motor pump * Solar still Two flat plate collectors are connected in series and integrated to the basin of solar still by means of insulated pipes. The connect- ing pipes are insulated to avoid thermal losses from the hot water flowing in the pipe to the ambient. Each collector has an effective area of 2m*. A glass to glass photovoltaic (PV) module with an effective area of 0.66 m? (consists of 36 solar cells and peak power ‘capacity of 75 Wp) is integrated at the bottom of one ofthe collec tor at entry side of lower temperature water. Therefore, space and Table ' Kumar, GX. Tver Applied Ere 86 (2009) 1985-2008 cost of installation of PV module separately from the system has been avoided, In this case, solar radiation is transmitted through rhon-packing area of PV module and finally absorbed by the black- ened absorber. Further, the thermal energy associated with PV module is dissipated to the absorber by convection for further heating. Water below absorber gets heated and moves in the up- ‘ward direction. The outlet of water at the end of absorber, which is covered with PV module, becomes inlet tothe remaining portion of first fat plate collector. Such collector is referred a photovoltaic} thermal (PVT) water collector. The outlet of photovoltaicjthermal (PV/T) water collector is further connected to the inlet of second fat plate collector for higher operation temperature. Both collec- tots are connected to the solar still mounted on an ion stand, There isa provision of a DC water pump (18 V, 60 W, 2800 rpm} connected to PV module to circulate the water between collectors and sola still in a forced mode. The some part of DC power genet- ated (P,) by PV module is utilized (P,) to operate the water pump. ‘The excess power (Pya) generated can be utilized for other pur poses. The DC pump operates only during sun-shine hours to avoid reverse heat flow during off sun-shine hours. Ina hybrid (PV(T) ac- tive solar still, the water in the basin is heated directly as well as indirectly through flat plate collectors. ‘The quantity of material used in fabrication and the cost break up of sola sis are given in Table 2, The initial capital investment for procuring the solar stills varies with design, size and material of construction, The scrap value in the developed counties is almost negligible, whereas the scrap value, inflation rates ete. in develop- ing countries are higher than the developed countries, The scrap value of ion, copper and aluminium will also increase with time ddue to inflation, The expected rates of these materials have also ‘apt eos (savage vale (5) and malacenance cs (of ge lope pasive and bye (VT) ace solar sl (15 Rs 39 In 2006 "Net eleva for that component Torponens Gyms Fase solr Tibia save “Savage value of llerentcompanens (5) a he nlalon tale af presen values ap foe fon Rs. 15g aluminum © Rs. jk Sep ale after 15 yet ion © Re 27 Copper ASO. 1 Copper © Rs 250) ‘er 20 yest Tron © Re. 47k ‘Aursinn 9 Rs 259) Copper @ Rs 811g eintnancfopeationl cont (MDs 1 arma GRP body BR 320% BLT 4 sr 200 200 las eover ise? 330 m0 : : Inlevoutet nozzle 10 50 50 : 5 an elaping fame 5 250 250 Bs 2s Caskets fom ao 0 : : Puy 1 30 20 : Toa cost of sa) 3364 068 rropss2 asansas a plate caller (2) ernser DRS 380k 82 36. 30 650 Cuneader Rs 380)kr 38 1440 mo 3st [lsheet 9 Re 165 zoo 2160 18 sos [Aangetin x 12m 25 450 30, on Gu sheet 8 Re. 360k, m8 4070 4950 5521 Toughened gassdmm 375m * 200 : : Glas wool OR 6Ola® Nese» 2100, : : Gipipes vin. at 500 251 56 Mid tel stand oe ¢ 3000 iiss tes0 Gletbowunion 6° 300 2 ® otal cos of : 20296 Be as Pv module : : 500 sco eo Be Water pump = 3 +000 ‘he salvage value of pump deducted during purchase fnew pur after cach 10 year Paine ssa) no % 0 3 5 ‘abreatonlearsidge charges * 200 2000 - 2 apt con pasve) 639 7 1s apt cot setts 45760 15349 26851 5 Kumar GN Tian/Aplied Energy 8 (2008) 195-2008 208 Dinension an capt cos of proposed slr stl for 30" Cover inclination (16 Re 39 in 2008), am Dineen Tipevinenal solar posed salar al @ S201 roped oar W prodced sto 320g ernmerily © RS. 160k i Tenet Tm Tm Tm 3 ower eight (ont ide) 30m rin acm 4 Fgh eight (backside) osm ase m, asm, 5 Weight 217g 155s seis * Embodied energy kW) sie 59 ise : Propsed passive solar sl sysem “Total cost of the system Rs, 4089 produced on commercial sale pose ibid ace sistem attached with {0p PV module (of the presen ie) produce an commercial sake bodied ene 639224001, Cost of PY inode =e. 7000 “etl cost of system = Ks. 35.005 Embodied energy = 3689165 been shown in the same table for different life span of the solar stills at 4% inflation rate in India. It has been experimentally ob- served that the water depth of 0.05 m produced highest annual yield. Therefore, the design of the solar stills with different dimen- sions (proposed) has been given in Table 3. The vertical wall heights of both the solar stills have been kept at 0.08 m (front side wall height) and 0.66 m (back side wall height), which is adequate to accommodate water to a depth of 0.05 m in the basin of solar still Thus the initial cost of the solar still has been reduced by reducing the size 3. Fronomic analysis ‘The utilization ofthe hybrid (PV/T) active solar stills asa source of distilled water for commercial purposes should be determined by its economies. The better economic return on the investment depends on the prociiction cast of the distilled water and its appi- «ability. The annual costs ofthe passive and hybrid active solar dis- tllation systems have been calculated using annualized (UA) life cycle costing (19), Annualized uniform cost is defined as a product of present value ofthe system and capital recovery factor (CRF) and expressed as UA=[P, + (Py Fain ) iyi" Fai, = @ ay and Frxin 8) here, n= no. of years andi interest rate per year. ‘The life cycle cost analysis for both the solar stills has been car- ried out by considering the expected useful life of 15 years and 30 years for FPC and PV module, respectively. The GRP made solar stills are expected to offer more than two times better durability than FPC material. Therefore, the life of the present sola still has been considered as 30,years, while for the DC water pump as 1O years. It has also been assumed that the cost of pump (P,) re- mains same on each purchase after adjusting its salvage value in future, The net present cost (P,) for 30 years life span of hybrid (PV) active solar still can be expressed as where P is the present capital cost of the system and can be expressed as P= Cost of solar still ~ Cost of FPC + Cost of PV module + Cost of DC pump + Cost of piping + Labor and Cost of FPC after 15 years « 4%:inflation Salvage value of FPC at the end of 15 years Porc) The net effective annualized cost of hybrid active solar still can be Ayes = UA Spates % (Pr Pa) 5) for passive solar stil P,= P and UAyq = UA In India the different agencies have proposed the following interest rate for borrowing the fund for promoting the renewable energy system: ‘+ for house uses, government sector offers subsidized interest rate at 2%, «for institutional uses, government sector offers subsidized inter fest rate at 3%, + for commercial uses, government sector offers subsidized inter- fest rate a 4%, ‘+ nationalized banks offers the interest rate at 7-8%, private Banks offers the interest rate at 11-12% Therefore, three interest rates ie, 4%, 8% and 12% have been considered in the analysis The maintenancejoperational cost of the solar stil is required for regular filling of brackish water, collecting the distilled water, cleaning of the glass cover. removal of salt deposited (scaling) and maintenance of the DC pump. Higher the depth of water, less frequent wil be the filling of water in the basin. As the system life passes on, the maintenance on it also increases. Therefore, 10% of net present cost has been considered as maintenance cost. The cost of distilled water per kg (CPK) can be calculated by dividing the net annualized cost ofthe system by annual yield of solar still and ex- pressed as Tho cox = ee « 3.1. Cost payback period, ny The payback period isthe time required to bring the investment cost to zero, In other words the number of years after which the 2000 | Kumar, GX. Twari/Apped Energy 86 (2009) 1985-2004 initial investment becomes equal to the sum of cash flow is known. >, = CF x Fein (8) 235 payback period, Considering the interest rate over cashflow, the net present cost can be expressed as where Fig =Heteat . ‘On simplifying Eq. (8) one get, i") a Ie the net cash flow (CF) atthe end of each year is assumed same then, o Se Rs, 26855 Receipt (+¥e) t t oo * , ee Pek A5760 Ra 1000. Ra 3852. 1000 tramp) GC) Pump) > Time (years) ig. 2. Cashflow cart of hybrid PV atve solar sil or30 years annual maintenance ox @ 10 fina vestments alo taken a eeburcmen, which iene showin ‘ure. The small arrows poinang upward shaw the annual eee (C) ae ein the estate Table ‘oimponene Teens ‘canst Total weighe Embodied energy Total Embodied nergy ke) cr a Tair Soar “GRP boa 7 aur a3 19540 sas ‘Gus cover 4am 1 tie 050 Mn? so Sie MS damping tame 1 5 ima MS datnp 5 2 32 ca Nl tet stand 1 ‘azo Ba ‘raja Iniejoutiet nore 2 e100 a 4 Caskets 90 1 21 1 as 5b toe Fit plate collector quantty2. Copper nse in 2oxisassm 82 s10 wea Heaeee tin Seasidem 3A #10 ars Niboe 2 io 1960 19800 Cu set 2 n 127 460 Clase cover toushenea 4mm 375m) 01456m? 65020? oe Glas woo! sem oto4mt 138M" ze Natsboteserems 1 3105 3106 Unione 1s 4s m2, pipes in 85 iss ‘Aleame tin am 35 v0 es ‘Alshet 24 gauge 25 70 es PV mele Glasto gis 1 055° 3528? Bas ater pump Copper wise oso nos ies Copper commuter 2 004 ps 2 Sestee armature 1 005 : ‘wire inulton 2 001 Motor boys) 1 6100 361 10 Casing (ras) 1 0300 20 pa bearings 2 0030 Stel ete 1 9050 ps pes on Inpelerspastc 1 Notesreesiange 100 3106 a ose Total embodied energy of pasive sill soz Total embodied energy of yb active sill ao 5 Kumar GN Tiwan/Aplied Energy 8 (2008) 195-2008 2001 [No.of clear days in the respective month, gm 2 Bis 2 EF RR ES Dee Jan Fe ‘Months of the year Fig 3, Observed monty veld ebained from passive and hybrid (PT) active sles Tete are two cases to get the net cash flow from the system: Case 1. Ifthe distilled water is sold at the production rate (CPX), then the annual cash flow is expressed as CF = Ube (10) Case 2. If the distilled waters soldat rate of selling price (5,) other ‘han cost of production, then the annual cash flow is expressed as CF Mya x5, ‘The cash flow chart (receipts and disbursements) from hybrid (PV) ‘) active solar still for 30 years expected life is shown in Fig. 2. The small arrows pointing upward show the annual cash flow (CF which will be received after selling the distilate in the market. ‘The salvage value of the lat plate collectors (FPC) at the end of ex- pected life (15 year) is also shown in the same figure. ay 3.2 Energy payback time (EP8T) Embodied energy analysis shows the total energy consumed in, ‘manufacturing of the product. In addition to material production energy, energy investment in procuring the equipment and opera- during the various manufacturing stages includes; the process fuels, maintenance of manufacturing equipment, the labor, re- search and development and administrative activity, However, he energy investment in procuring the equipment and operation 4s very less and has been neglected in the analysis. The embodied energy of single slope passive and hybrid (PV/T) active solar stills have been evaluated by multiplying mass of each component with their energy density and given in Table 4, Energy payback time (EPBT) is defined as the time required to recover the energy invested in the system. Energy payback time (EPBT) of the solar stills can be evaluated by using the following, equation. Embodied energy FPBT'~ Annual output of energy from The system (12) Annual output energy from hybrid active solar still (neglecting the energy invested in maintenance and operation) can be obtained as Total energy output ~ Myis x L + (Pn ~Ps) a3) (105 m water depths and power generated by PY module for the yer 2005-2007 4. Experimental observations The experiments were cartied out in the solar energy park of ln- dian Institute of Technology, New Delhi (India) on the passive and hybrid (PV/T) active solar stills under tropical climatic condition for the period, April-March, 2006-2007, During the course of experimentation, under ground water has been used to distillate for commercial purposes such as in battery, hospital, dispensary etc, Experimentation for the three different water depths (0.05, 0.10 and 0.15 m) has been carried out on different typical days fot 24 h, The experimental data ofthe typical days have been used to evaluate monthly output during clear days by multiplying daily yield with number of clear days in the respective month. The ‘monthly yield, power produced and power utilized during the clear days in different months obtained for 0.05 m water depths in the basin are depicted in Fig. 3. It has been observed that the hhybrid (PV/T) active solar stil gives higher productivity than the passive solar stl, Highest yield was obtained in the month of Apri, 2006, because of intense solar radiation, The anual yield (for 260, Clear days) obtained from hybrid active solar still (1203.46 kg) is around 35 times higher than the passive solar still (243.36 kg). The net power saved is around 83.2 kWh, which can be utilized for other applications when such systems are connected in array. However, if no extra energy is required for other applications the size of PV module can be further reduce (caver only maximum Toad of pump) to reduce the initial investment. In order to estimate Tables Sine. Parmeter 3 be 4 Total disaved solide 5 Total haréness a5 C0, é Chloride 7 ‘lainey 5 Nitrate * Sulphate i Zine 7 tren the improvement in purity of distilled water produced by the solar still the physical and chemical properties tests were cartied out on. ‘a sample of water before and after distillation, Compatisons of the results of the tests are given in Table 5. A comparison ofthe results showed that the total dissolved salts (TDS) value has come down from 724 ppm to 0.32 ppm after distillation. The presence of iron (0.01 ppm) and zinc (0.01 ppm) has also been found to be reduced drastically after distillation 5. Results and discussion The costs of distilled water has been obtained using Ea. (6) and shown in Table 6. The cost of distilled water produce from hybrid (PV/T) active solar still (Rs, 2.54/kg) has been obtained around 1.6 times higher chan the passive solar still (Rs. 1.54)kg) for a fixed life ‘of 30 years and with 4% interest rate on the finance. Fig. 4 shows the effect of maintenance cost on the distilled ‘water obtained from experimental and proposed designs ofthe so- lar stills for an expected systems life of 15 years and 30 years, respectively. The 10% increase in cost per kg (CPK) has been esti- mated with an increase in maintenance cost from 5% to 15%, irre- spective of the systems life. The cost of production of the distilled ‘water decreases in linearity with increase in the system life This is because of linier decrease in the values of Foxy and Foun (18. annl- alized cost decreases) with increase in the life of the systems at fixed interest rate. In general at fixed interest rate of 4%, if the life of the passive solar stil increases by 100%, the procction cost of distillate reduces to 23%, itrespective of the maintenance cost. However, for the hybrid active solar stil, the cast found to be re- sluced by 4% for proposed design. The figure also reveals that the lowest costs obtained for the proposed passive and hybrid active solar stills are Rs, 0.70)kg and Rs. 1.94)kg, respectively. Fig. 5 shows the variation the cost (CPK) of distilate obtained. from the passive and hybrid (PV/T) active solar stills with respect tainterest rate fora fixed maintenance cost of 10% and for different systems life (15 and 30 years). It has been estimated that the cost ‘per kg (CPK) of distillate obtained from passive solar still increases almost 1,7 times with the increase of interest rate from 4% to 12% However, the cost of distillate obtained from the hybrid (PVT) ac- tive solar still increased by 2.0 times. The increase in the produc- tion cost is due to increase in the value of Fexin (We, annualized ‘cost increases) with increase in interest rate, It has also been no- ticed that the cost per kg (CPK) of distillate produce from hybrid (PV/T) active solar stil remains almost same irrespective of life ‘due to replacement of flat plate collectors after 15 years Fig. 6 shows the variation of the payback periods with selling prices of distilled water on proposed designs of passive and hybrid (PV/T) active solar stills for different interest. It is clear that with Table ‘5 Kumar, GX. Fina Applied Energy 86 (209) 1985-2004 » 3 Tenses) 1 —__, Passive Cost per kg Rupees) Life of soar stl ears) Hybrid active asses) a SS per kg (Rupees) Life of solar sl years) Fig. Vaniton of cost per Kg (CPE) of distilled water ith respect to chee designed ie (na erent maintenace cer) capa oe re 34 Poe) ne fore intezest at = 4) 3) passive an (hye (PVT} ese sola increase in selling price from Rs. 2.0)kg to Rs. 6.0/kg, the payback period reduces significantly. The Payback period of 6.2 yeats and 23.9 years has been estimated for the passive and hybrid (PVT) so- lar stil, respectively, at lowest interest rate of 4% and for market selling price of Rs. 2.0)kg. which is almost a cost of production of distillate from the hybrid active solar still. The Payback period of 1.1 year and 3.3 years has been obtained for passive and hybrid (PV/T) active solar still, respectively, sf the distilled water would have soldat the rate of Rs. 10/kg, Its tobe noted that with increase in interest rate, the payback period increases for both the stil. I has also been found that with increase in interest rate (¢~ 8% and i= 12%), the distilled water produce from the hybrid active solar still should be sold in the market at the minimum rate of Rs. 3) ost of water fom experimental ané propose snl lope passive and hybrid (PV sola stil onthe bass of annual stile il (205m water depth Bim) M@TOr (RS) Sh) 1 mew) Fan Fam GA(RS) ECC Com (Ra) URw (Rs) CP TRSIRg) opened solr Sal mx ns) (Gy cat per rom ange lp pave ear il epee) (cot pr rom singe slope hybi (PT active solr tl experienc) 57604376 1267 004 15 Das 00s 375089 2517 m2 29 196 7004576 18402 00430 oss oot 320528 2517 a6 24s 13 aro 4576 Beast 0081S oi oon sa1839ast7 Soe? 421, 254 B10 4576 1267 00830 hogs 0009 492878 2817 ami 392 299 45760 457 tea02 01215 0187 o0x7 see 2517 os 56 bor 45700 4576 2685101230 0124 0004 67136 2517 Seis 537 404 5 Kumar GN. iwan/Aplied Energy 8 (2008) 195-2008 2003 ~o-ni5@. Exp) ~A-1300P, Exp) 5 ents, com ~A- 2300, Com) 4 M,=10% Cost per kg (Rupees) Interest rate(%) o e-misats. ep) ~easoats Ep) —sa1st4, com Cost per ke (Rupees) 4 8 2 Interestrate(%) Fig 5. Variation ofcot perk CPX} tiled wate abtained from (2) psve and {bhi (PVT) active oar stil or dierent designs enpermental na Proper) 0 —e14@com Miz 0% —e Asecom Payback period (Yeats) + 6 5 0 ‘Selling price (Rs kg) Fig. 6 Variation of payback periods (np ith respects to selling price (5) for Dropose passive (Proc and hybrd (PVT Active (Ace lr sil eth the festgnd fe 30 yea kg and Rs. 4fkg, respectively, to make the system feasible with ‘minimum financial risk. It is important to note that the distilled water obtained from the hybrid (PV/T) active solar still may be more bacteria free due to high operating temperature, which sives its wide range of applicability. This will Further compensate che cost of distillate water obtained from the hybrid (PV/T) active solar stil after selling it at higher cost than the passive solar still It is important to mention that amount invested for the hybrid (PV/T) active solar still can not be recovered if the distilled water is Sold at less than Rs. 2/kg and project is financed at AX interest rate, The energy payback time (EPET) ofthe systems has been evalu- ated by using Eqs. (12) and (13). The annual energy utilized in vaporizing the water in the solar still and net energy of PV module is taken into account, The energy payback time for the passive and hybrid (PV/T) active solar stills under study have been evaluated as 3.6 years and 5.2 years, respectively. Further, the energy payback time of passive and hybrid (PV/T) active solar still is reduced to 2.9 years and 47 years, respectively as per suggested modification of the solar sills 6. Conclusions and recommendations Life cycle cost analysis and comparison of two sola stills config lurations, passive and hybrid (PVT) active, have been presented, On the basis of present study the following conclusions and recom- ‘mendations have been drawn: (@) The annual distillate yield from hybrid active solar stills 3.5, times higher than the passive solar still. The lowest cost per kg of distilled water obtained from the passive and hybrid (PV/T) active solar stills is estimated as Rs. 0.70 and Rs. 1.93, respectively. It is much economic in comparison to the bottled water available, which costs around Rs. 10/kg in Indian market for the consumers. (it) The Payback periods of the passive and hybrid (PVT) active Solar stills are obtained in the range of 1.1-62 years and 3.3-23.9 years, respectively, for the selling price of distilled ‘water in the range of Rs. 10 to Rs. 2/kg. Therefore, passive solar stills are acceptable for potable use. (ii) The distilled water cost obtained from the hybrid (PV/T) active solar still is found to be 2.8 times than the passive solar still. For commercial use in remote areas, the cast of distilled water obtained from hybrid (PVT) solar stil could be acceptable when compared to water transportation and selling the water at higher rate to avoid the financial risk. (Gv) The cost of production and pay back periods can further be reduced for higher solar radiation, longer sun-shine hours and number of clear days in a year (v) The energy payback times (EPBT) of proposed passive and hybrid (PV/T) active solar stills ate estimated as 2.9 years and 47 years, respectively. (vi) The systems operate today on solar energy are expensive, but they are being continuously developed and made more efficient and cheaper to install and operates. The cost of PV modules is presently high, but there is growing demand (expending at the rate of 30% per year) to use PV module in developing countries. Iti expected that with the evolve- ‘ment of current technology the production cost of PV mod- tle will be further reduce to $ 1.0/Wp (Le. Rs. 40/Wp) as forecasted by Lesourd [20]. Therefore, the cost of production of distilled water obtained from hybrid (PV/T) active solar still as well as the payback period willbe further decrease in future Acknowledgement ‘We ave thankful to Bag Energy Research Society to encourage, assist, guide and render specialized services from time to cary ‘out the experimental study on hybrid (PV/T) active solar still 2004 5 Kumar, CX. Tvari/ Applied nergy 86 (2009) 1985-2004 References 1 Manas, Tw oN ama A Sa MS ain: rac ty tee ee a as ep 1a) Renn hen brn BA Et of cima sgn nd eperainal parameters on the yl 3 senpe solar stl Energy Convers Manage Ip] Eset An aca ts9e;13-1263-15, [4] Singh HN. Tae GN. Monthly performance of passive an acve soar sil for

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