CAKE MAKING

Cake Making

Edmund B. I
M.Sc.Tech.(Vict.), F.R.I
Chief Examiner in Breadma!
Director of Studies, Greater
Late Head of Food Trades 1
Southampton College of Tech
Late Head of the National 1
Borough Polytechnic, London

James Stewar
and

G. S. T. Barr
F.lnst. B.B., A.I.F.S.T.
Head of Department of Bald
Borough PolYtechnic, London

'LEONARD HILL BOOKS, LONDON !966

 First Edition 1930
Second Edition 1943
Reprinted 1945
Reprinted 1946
Reprinted 1947
Reprinted 1949
Reprinted 1952
Third Edition 1958
Fourth Edition 1966
© E. B. Bennion, J. Stewart & G. S. T. Bamford 1966

A Leonard Hill Book

This new edition first published in Great Britain 1966 by:
The Book Division
Grampian Press Ltd.,
8-10 King Street,
Hammersmith,
London, W.6.

Book designed by Keogh, Warren, Gill

Set in loon I I pt Baskerville
and printed in Great Britain by Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press), Ltd.,
Bungay, SI{/folk
on paper supplied by Frank Grunfeld (Sales) Ltd.
Bound by Mansell (Bookbinders) Ltd., London
 Contents

Preface Page vii

Preface to Second Edition viii
Preface to Third Edition x
Preface to Fourth Edition Xl

List of Illustrations xiii

List of Tables xv

Chapter I Introductory and Bakery Hygiene

2/Flour Used in Confectionery 12

3 Moistening-Milk Products 20

vi Eggs an'dl'-nEgg Products 25

5JBaking Fats, 40
tV'Sugars 59
-:/ Chemical Aeration 75
./ 8 Essences a~d Essential Oils 101

v 9 Spices and Flavourings 108

v 10 Colouring Matter 112

./11 Nuts in Confectionery

./r2 Fruits Used in Confectionery
13 Jams and Jellies
\/4 Gums and Jellying Agents
~15 Chocolate
1_....16 Icings, Fillings, and Glazes
\ 17 Fermented Goods 197
',.18 Chemically Aerated Goods 20 7

v
/19 Pastes 21 5
20 Cake Making Processes 1l 226
21 Sponge Goods 244
22 Almond Goods 25 6
23 Gateaux and Fancies 265
24 Baking of Confectionery Goods 275
25 Refrigeration in the Bakery 284
/26 Bakehouse Machinery and Plant 29 1
____ 27 Nutritional Value of Flour Confectionery
_' - 31 3
28 Testing of Raw Materials 323
Index 337

VI
Preface to the First Edition

SEVERAL excellent books have appeared dealing with con-

fectionery raw materials; likewise, there are recipe books
sufficient to satisfy the requirements of the trade. In pre-
senting this book, it has been the aim of the authors to give
such data as will enable the reader to obtain a good
working knowledge of the materials and processes they are
employing in everyday practice. Emphasis is laid upon the
necessity for the production of articles of the highest degree
of uniformity and quality; consequently, special attention
is devoted to the methods used for evaluating raw materials
and for the technical control of processes, and, also, it is
shown how the various methods of preparation of the raw
materials may influence the finished product.
It has not been the intention of the authors to prepare
a recipe book, but rather to deal with fundamentals, so that
with this knowledge recipes can be built up as occasion
demands. However, summaries of standard recipes have
been introduced, and these will act as a guide to th~ student.
The book will be found to cover the range of work re-
quired for students qualifying for the National Diploma
Examination and the City and Guilds of London Examina-
tion in Confectionery, Final Grade.
The authors' thanks are due to the following firms who
have so kindly provided data and illustrations, rendering it
possible to produce some entirely new features: Messrs.
Artofex and Co., Ltd., London; Baker Perkins, Ltd., Peter-
borough; Wm. Gardner and Sons (Gloucester), Ltd.; J.
Harrison Carter, Ltd., Dunstable; The Morton Machine
Company, Wishaw; The Peerless Electrical Manufacturing
Company, Ltd.; C. O. Ericson Engineering Company.
In conclusion, the authors wish to express their gratitude
to those who have generously given their assistance, advice
and criticism, and especially to Mr. J. T. Parker of the
National Bakery Schobl, and to Mr. H. P. Buttrick, A.I.C.,
for his valuable collaboration in the preparation of the
chapter on aeration.
E.B.B.
WOODFORD J. S.
AUGUST 1930
vii
Preface to the Second Edition
1;,'

IN this new edition the authors have included much new

matter which has been proved to be of great importance of
recent years, and which will prove to be of still greater
importance when normal trading conditions can once again
be resumed.
As a publication being produced in war-time, it would be
incomplete without some reference to war-time commodi-
ties and alteration of procedure. A war-time recipe book
would, no doubt, appeal to many, but as the supplies of
commodities and their availability are changing month by
month no fixed recipes can be used. Changes in formula
must constantly be made to meet the changing conditions,
and it is hoped that from this book guidance will be obtained,
particularly if it is read in conjunction with trade journals.
New chapters on Chocolate,Jam, and Jellies, the develop-
ment of High-ratio Cakes and War-time Confectionery
Problems have been included. All other sections have been
revised and enlarged. Much original research work carried
out by the authors and other workers has been included in
the text.
The authors' thanks are due to the following, who have
given so freely of their advice and help in the revision of the
script: Mr. A. Hawley; Mr H. P. Buttrick, A.I.C.; Mr.
A. S. Houghton, M.Sc.; Mr. J. W. Sawtell; Mr. John
Pelkman; Dr. Drake-Law and Messrs. Bush & Co., Ltd. In
addition, thanks are due to Messrs. Hedley Co., Ltd., and
Messrs. Hobart Manufacturing Co., Ltd.; Pelkman Bros.,
Ltd.; Messrs. Bellamy & Co., Ltd.; General Electric Co.,
Ltd., for illustrations for this work. .- 0

E. B. B.
J. S.
WOODFORD
APRIL 1943

viii
 This edition has been produced for the benefit of the
Services and is substantially a reprint of the second edition.
There is, however, one important addition, viz.: a section
on the use of the new Sugar Dried Egg which has been
produced as a result of collaborative research between the
Low Temperature Research Station, Cambridge, with
whom the authors have worked in close contact on the
practical usage of the product and the Ministry of Food.
Those in the Industry who have had an opportunity of
using the product have classed it as one of the outstanding
advances in food processing for the Bakery Industry of the
war. This is the most up-ta-date information available on
eggs far use in the bakery and should prove of interest and
value to all readers.
E. B. BENNION
J. STEWART
WOODFORD
SEPTEMBER 1945

1X
Preface to the Third Edition
1l

IN this edition not only has most of the text been completely
rewritten but several new chapters have been added. Gums,
which now play an important part in so many raw materials,
pastes of various types, refrigeration in flour confectionery
work, and the nutritional value of flour have all been in-
cluded.
The author's thanks are due to the following, who have
been so helpful by allowing them to use certain material
published by them in technical journals and papers, as well
as to the many firms who have supplied illustrations, par-
ticularly Mr. P. MacNab, editor of Baker; Messrs. Oddy,
Ltd.; Baker Perkins, Ltd. i Peerless Ericson, Ltd.; Collins
and Co.; Morton Machine Co., Ltd.; Henry Simons, Ltd.;
Mr. R. Rock; Messrs. P. Kurt; Southall Smith and Co.;
Buckwell Munroe & Rogers, Ltd.; Domex Engineering
Co.; Messrs. J. Crollie, Ltd.; and Phillips Electrical Co.
All these contributions have helped to increase the compre-
hensiveness of the work. Finally, the author's thanks are
due to Mr. S. W. Butterworth, B.Sc., F.R.I.C., Mr. C. H. F.
Fuller, B.Sc., F.R.I.C., for their help on the classification
and nutritional value of flour confectionery; Mr. H. P.
Buttrick, A.R.I.C., for his continued assistance in keeping
the information on chemical aeration up to date; to Mr.
Mason, M.Sc., F.R.I.C., for the information on gums; to
Mr. G. R. Short for his advice and assistance on essences
and colours. Finally, thanks are due to Mr. L. J. Morse and
Mr. D.James for their assistance in proofreading and to his
wife and daughter Joan for their assistance in indexing, and
to all members of the publishing staff for their care and
patience in the production of this volume.
EDMUND B. BENNION
SOUTHAMPTON, 1957

x
 Preface to the Fourth Edition

IN preparing this edition a new partnership has been entered

into. Much new material has been included and the whole
of the book recast so that the latest aspects of modern cake
production are fully considered.
The material in the text covers the syllabus for the
National Diploma in Baking Examinations as well as the
Advanced Craft Certificate Theory and the Technician's
Certificate of the City and Guilds of London Institute in
Flour Confectionery. It further provides a reference work
for those already established in the industry.
The Authors are indebted to many people and offer their
thanks to the following for their help and advice in the
production of this new edition: Mr.J. Robb and Dr. Park-
inson of the British Baking Industries Research Association
"- on Eggs; Messrs. R. G. Sanderson and G. R. Short of
W. J. Bush Ltd. for the chapters on Spices and Essences;
..,., Mr. R. P. Winston for redrafting the chapter on Food
Colours; Messrs. Renshaws Ltd., Mitcham, for the chapter
on Almonds; Mr. H. Sweeney of Peerless Refining Co. for
the one on Fats; Messrs. Tate and Lyle on Sugars; Mr.
A. T. Whybrow of British Bakeries Ltd.; Messrs. A. S.
West and K. R. Christopher of the Borough Polytechnic
for the chapter on Gateaux and Fancies and other members
of the staff of the Borough Polytechnic for their helpful
comments and advice. Finally, to Mr. J. Price of Craig-
miller for permission to use their standard test procedure
used for fats in the chapter on Testing of Raw Materials.
The authors' thanks are also due to the following firms
.~ who have submitted information about their plant and
supplied photographs for reproduction: Messrs. Oakes Ltd.,
Macclesfield; Baker Perkins Ltd., Peterborough; Tweedy
Ltd., Burnley, Lanes.; Atlas Equipment Ltd., London;
Hoadley and Sons, Birmingham; and to their wives for their
assistance in proof reading and indexing.
E. B. BENNION
SOUTHAMPTON, 1966. G. S. T. BAMFORD
Xl
List of Illustrations

Figures Page
I Sugar refining 60
2 Calorific values 317
3 Fat-protein-carbohydrate-water content 31 7
4 Calcium-phosphorus content 3 IB
5 Iron content 3 IB
6 Thiamine-riboflavin-nicotinic acid content 3I 9
7 Frame for measuring puff pastry 33 0

Plates
A new style wedding cake Frontispiece
I a The effect of varying amounts of sugar Between pages I2B-g
b The effect of varying amounts of baking powder
c The effect of varying amounts of milk
2a Varying the liquor/sugar ratio using normal fats and patent flour
b The same liquor/sugar ratios using high emulsifying fat and
special cake flour
3 Two examples of flat type cakes using soft icing
4 Four examples of simple designs suitable for fondant gateaux
5 Three examples of simple designs suitable for buttercream
gateaux
6 Three typical finishes for Torten
7a Babas au rhum
b A range of othellos
Ba Frangipane fancies
b Fondant dipped fancies-hot fondant method
ga Frangipane and Jap slices
b Orange slices
xiii
 loa Rear stator Oakes mixer 1/
b'The Oakes continuous mixer head
I I a Morton Gridlap mixer
b Control panel for metering flour
c Baker cake machine
12a A.M.F. continuous cake mixer
b Gas-fired Band oven
r 13a Electro-Dahlen infra-red shelf ovens
b Reel oven
14a Baker' Perkins Swiss roll plant
b The Oakes continuous mixer
Isa Oakes depositor
b Baker Copeland depositor
16a Atlas tart and pie plant
b Controlled cake oven
17a Florida puff paste plant
b Baked roll coming from oven
c Forgrove 84H cake wrapping machine

xiv
List of Tables

Tables Page
I United Kingdom permitted food colours 114
II Other colours 1I5~16
III Composition and food value of various nuts 12 3
IV Minimum fruit content 141
V Recipes for bun goods 202
VI Basic formulae for short pastes 218
VII Common faults and causes in cakes 241
VIII Baking times and temperatures 282
IX Analysis of nutritional value of confectionery products 321
X Specific volume chart 327

xv
1/
 Introductory 1

/THE mass production of flour confectionery has developed

with such rapidity that it has become increasingly necessary
for all those engaged in the industry, in whatever branch, to
have a good working knowledge not only of the materials
they are using and of all the processes they are employing
but of all those details so necessary for the production of a
regular article of the highest quality.
~ Science has been a most important factor in bringing
about this change, making it possible for large-scale pro-
duction of most of the ordinary types of confectionery to be
carried out by mechanical means. Further, with the great
progress which has been made in the preparation of the
raw materials, and especially of the wide range of products
which in many cases have replaced the older staple pro-
ducts, it is very necessary that those who are called upon to
use them should know exactly what they are using, how
these products function when used in different ways, and
the results which can be obtained.
-./ Alongside this development, the craftsman confectioner
finds an increasing demand for his hand-made product,
but here also a sound knowledge of the raw materials is
essential.
i For those who are purchasing the raw materials, it is
important that they should know first of all of what the real
product consists, in order that the value of a substance as a
substitute can be truly assessed. /
)I There are many substances sold as 'substitutes' which
cannot really be given such a name; they are to be con-
sidered rather as products of an alternative nature, and by
their use more regular effects can be obtained. There are
others, the number of which tends to increase, which are
really substitutes: some of these are very poor ones indeed.
I' When raw materials have to be purchased it is found that
there are so many brands of the same type of product and
so many varieties with a wide range of prices that too much
 CAKE MAKING

knowledge cannot be gained by those who are going to use

them to advantage in their manufacture. '1/
.->" To all those who are entering the mass-production con-
fectionery industry the best advice that can be given is to
gain a knowledge of chemistry and physics, for the funda-
mental princip~es _of both have a very wide application to
all matters connected with production, since the use of
machinery controls the whole working of a bakery. The
training of a first-class craftsman confectioner, however, in
addition depends on gaining this general knowledge and a
sound knowledge of design and modelling, for however
gifted a man may be in craftsmanship, that gift will be
developed and amplified by proper guidance and study
such as a course in these ancillary subjects will provide.
/' The generic term 'flour confectionery' is used to include
biscuits, cakes, and pastries...Qf all kinds, as well.as several
baked proaucts, -difficult" to classify precisely, which hover
doubtfully in the ill-defined region between 'bread' and
'cake'.
I ~~onfectionery' is a word now usually employed as a col-
lective term for sweetmeats of various kinds. These are
usually divided, for ease of reference, into two main groups:
'sugar confections', such as sweets, candies, and chocolates;
and 'flour confections'. Modern usage has confined the
term 'flour confectionery' almost entirely to baked products
(a few of which, like meringues, contain no flour), but it is
convenient to observe that many types of cakes and boiled
or steamed puddings contain similar ingredients in almost
identical proportions.
>l During the years of Government control in the baking
industry the definition of such terms as 'bread', 'cakes',
'pastries', and 'biscuits' assumed a new importance because
it was difficult to regulate the- production and/or sale of a
product without first more or less clearly defining it. Thus
in the Flour Confectionery (Control and Maximum Prices)
Order, 1944, 'flour confectionery' was defined as 'cake,
ready-made puddings, trifles, pastry (whether cooked or
uncooked), fruit loaves, bun loaves, and any other descrip-
tion of flour confectionery other than (a) bread, (b) biscuits,
(c) any product containing a filling which had as an in-
gredient meat or fish of any description, (d) Christmas
puddings or uncooked pudding mixtures'. Biscuits were
specifically excluded by the Ministry of Food Regulation,
and puddings were included.
,J The same order related prices to the chemical composition
of the baked products concerned and also made it an offence
 INTRODUCTORY

to make additions to flour confectionery after baking.

Confectionery containing less than 14 per cent of fat and
sugar together was placed in a different price category from
richer kinds of cakes and pastries. Maximum permitted fat
and sugar levels were also fixed at 20 per cent and go per
cent respectively (or combined total of 45 per cent fat and
sugar if either figure was exceeded) .
., These regulations took into account the fat and sugar
contents of all the ingredients used in the manufacture of
flour confectionery, and aroused new interest on the part of
confectioners in the chemical composition of their raw
materials and their products. (The arithmetic involved was
not made simpler by the fact that the evaporation losses
during baking and cooling (affecting the composition of the
baked product) vary from a1;lout 10 to 20 per cent or more
with different kinds of good~ v
In S.R.O. No. 2422, 1947, the Ministry of Food, in
regulating the sale of Christmas cakes, required that the
combined fat, sugar, and dry-egg solids in such cakes should
be not less than 40 per cent; that the cakes should be wholly
or partly covered with sugar icing, almond marzipan, or
chocolate; and that they should be 'substantially decorated'.
It is perhaps fortunate, in more ways than one, that
Ministerial definitions of the kind previously referred to
were not often the basis of legal proceedings, because they
leave many difficulties of interpretation.
In order to appreciate more readily the nutritional
significance of flour confectionery, an understanding of the
wide variations in the composition of the many different
varieties is desirable. The following classification was
worked out by S. W. Butterworth in collaboration with the
late J. J. Devlin. Nearly all flour confections may be
conveniently regarded as being derived from one or
another of three basic flour and water mixtures;
(I) the fluid batters that result from mixing flour and
water in about equal weights;
(2) the plastic-elastic doughs that result from kneading
flour with half its own weight of water;
(g) the stiff plastic pastes formed when flour particles
are held together with a minimum of water (in most of
the items in this group a considerable proportion of fat is
usually incorporated).
From these three basic intermediates (which may con-
veniently be referred to as 'batters', 'doughs', and 'pastes'
respectively) it is possible to develop in a logical sequence
~

3
 CAKE MAKING

~
II> ~

gp~-----------------'
~]

4
INTRODUCTORY

nearly all the main varieties of products created by the art

and craft of the flour confectioner.
The table on page 4 shows in a simplified form the rela-
tionships of the three main streams of products. It also
indicates the main ingredient variations which bring about
the changing character of the confection concerned. The
table does not show how processing alterations can give
rise to new varieties, nor does it illustrate adequately the
very important effects capable of being produced by
apparently minor changes of highly active ingredients, such
as chemical aerating agents.
A table of this kind can be elaborated very considerably
to show minor ingredient and processing changes. It can
also be enlarged to show the importance of composite con-
fections in which several basic intermediates are used: cakes
with a pastry base and a batter filling, for example. Some
confections can be fitted into thJ scheme linking the main
streams. Danish pastry made from a fermented dough
(stream 2), and yet resembling puff and three-quarter
pastry (stream 3) in fat content and processing, is an
example of this kind. Many confections are 'decorated'
after baking with such materials as cream, chocolate,
fondant, fruit or nuts, and the like; and these additions
substantially affect the composition of the finished cakes.
In this instance the object of the table is not to display fine
technical differences (however fascinating these may be to the
confectioner), but to reveal a pattern in flour confectionery
that may help in the subsequent discussion of its food value.
PERCENTAGE PROPORTIONS OF THE MAJOR RAW MATERIALS
IN THE PRINCIPAL BASIC FLOUR-CONFECTIONERY FORMULAE

Fer- Richer Second- First-

mented Scones powder quality quality Sponge Puff Short Sweet
small goods cakes cakes cakes paste paste paste
goods

Flour 47·0 47·0 42·0 32·0 25·0 33·0 38·0 57·0 46·0
Fat g·O g·O 17·0 15·0 25·0 - 38·0 23·2 31·0
Sugar g·O g·O 17·0 20·0 25·0 33·0 - - 15·5
Eggs 2·5 2·5 7·5 12·0 25·0 34·0 - - 7·5
Liquor 30·0 30·0 14·0 20·0 - - 24·0 18·0 -
Baking
powder - 2·5 2·5 1·0 - - - 1·8 -
Yeast 2·5 - - - - - - - -

Totals 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0 100·0

The above table shows the raw-materials composition of

the main confectionery varieties.

5
 CAKE MAKING

Leaner Much flour confectionery was made without egg because

Confections supplies were so limited. Also, some confecti~~s of the best
quality do not require egg, e.g., short pastry. In the leaner
varieties of goods less than 9 per cent of fat and 9 per cent
of sugar are often used. During the 1939-45 War the con-
fectioner was faced_ with a greatly increased demand for
his products, and his major raw-material allocations were
50 per cent or less of his 1939 supply. This meant an in-
evitable trend towards the fIour-and-water end of the scale
in many of his products," which, of course, affected nutritive
value.
It should be remembered, however, that many of the
leaner kinds of confections, such as scones and fermented
small goods, are not 'rich' in eggs, sugar, and fat, and are
none the less very pleasant to eat when properly made and
baked. Indeed, simple varieties are often more attractive
than rich, highly decorated types of cakes.
In considering the limits indicated above, three main
factors affecting them should be borne in mind:
(I) The baking and cooling processes 'concentrate' the
baked products because there is an evaporation loss of
10-20 per cent of the batter, dough, or paste weight,
according to the type of confection baked.
(2) The addition of dried fruits to any of the simplified
recipes concerned substantially alters their percentage
ingredient composition. For example, a lightly fruited
cake has a dried-fruit proportion of about one-third of its
batter weight.
(3) As previously mentioned, decoration after baking
substantially affects composition and nutritive value.
Hygiene in Under the Food Hygiene (General) Regulations 1960, the
the Bakery necessary provisions that must be made in all places
handling food are specified. Not only do these provisions
apply to equipment and premises but also to those engaged
in the handling of food. Every person handling food must:
(a) keep as clean as reasonably practicable all parts of his
person liable to come into contact with food; (b) keep as
clean as possible all parts of his clothing, overclothing, or
overalls likely to come into contact with the food; (c) keep
any open cut or abrasion on any exposed part of his person
covered with a suitable waterproof dressing; (d) refrain
from spitting; (e) refrain from smoking or using snuff.
Personal Hygiene It is important that all persons, before starting work in a
bakery, should change into suitable overalls or protective
clothing with appropriate cover for the head, and wash

6
 INTRODUCTORY

their hands. Ideally, hot and cold showers and towels

should be available so that all production staff can take a
shower before changing into their working clothing. Pro-
vision should also be made for a drying-room in which out-
door clothes can be placed during working hours and
~ working garments can be left after work.
In the bakeries themselves hand driers or towels must be
provided by each sink at which workers are likely to wash
their hands. Foot baths should also be provided, and the
care of the feet stressed as being a matter of primary
importance. Many firms today have either full-time or
visiting chiropodists to deal with this side of welfare work.
All wall surfaces should be as simple as possible, free Bakery Hygiene
from unnecessary projections, and finished with non-
absorbent materials such as tiles or hard-gloss paint. They
should preferably be light in colour to give the maximum
light reflection.
Plant and equipment with which the food is likely to
come into contact should be constructed of such materials
and designed in such a way that they can be easily cleaned.
Further, they should be constructed whenever practicable
of material of a non-absorbent nature. This particularly
applies to tables, containers, and trays. Stainless steel,
aluminium alloys, or plastics are now widely used for these.
If wooden tables are used, then a hard wood such as beech
is best, but such tables must be kept in a sound state of
repair to prevent any risk of contamination of the food
while being processed.
Before work is commenced, tables and machines should
be brushed or wiped down, since dust will always settle on
them in between working periods. Further, on occasion,
scraps of dough are sometimes left by a previous shift, and
these will cause trouble if worked into newly made dough.
Each person should be responsible for seeing that the table on
which he is working and the utensils he is using are kept in a
clean and tidy condition as soon as each job is completed.
Clean working not only makes for better production but
eliminates waste, which means financial loss. Working
tables should be kept cleaned down between the production
of various items. All waste collected should be removed
from the food room and not allowed to accumulate. Floors
should also be kept swept during working hours, and in
larger bakeries a special staff should be employed for this
purpose. Attention to this is essential if clean working
conditions are to be maintained. Vacuum installations are
necessary to remove dust from less-accessible places. Unless

7
 CAKE MAKING

these precautions are taken, spoilage of food, trouble with

flies and wasps, and outbreaks offood pois66ing can occur.
Storage of Food The food hygiene regulations dealing with the storage of
food apply to those foods consisting of meat, fish, gravy, or
imitation cream or products prepared from or containing
any of those substances or any egg or milk. They do not
apply to bread: bIscuits, or pastry by reason of the use of
egg or milk as an ingredient thereof introduced prior to
baking or to butter, margarine, shortening cooking fats, or
beef suet. Food coming under the above category must be
0
kept either at a temperature of 145 F. or above or below
500 F.
Ingredients should not be stored in the bakery, but should
be drawn from stores as required, and should be placed,
weighed down for each mixing, in suitable clean containers.
Perishable ingredients, such as yeast, cream, eggs, and milk,
should not be left unduly long in the bakery, yeast should
be drawn from the store as required and any surplus re-
turned before it has had a chance to dry out. An organized
rotation of stocks is essential; routine checks should be made
at least weekly.
Common Causes The commonest cause of food poisoning is by bacteria of
of Food Poisoning the Salmonella group. These may be transmitted from the
droppings of domestic animals, mice, hens, and ducks and
through flies which have been in contact with such excreta;
also by the human hands if unwashed after using the toilet,
or through the use of certain raw materials, such as un-
pasteurized egg products and coconut.
The other cause is by Staphylococci, which are carried in
the nose and throat, infected cuts or scratches, pimples, or
boils. They can be transferred to food by coughing and
sneezing or from unprotected wounds.
Both of these groups of bacteria are destroyed by heating,
so that baked goods are normally rendered safe from such
infection, but unbaked products and additions after baking,
such as filling creams, are liable to contamination, and can
become a means of infection of finished products.
Keeping cooked products warm in hot chambers can
cause the rapid multiplication of these organisms, which
can so easily gain access to prepared foods. It is for this
reason that all meat products must be stored at temperatures
above 145 0 F. or below 500 F.
Occasional outbreaks of paratyphoid have been traced to
workers who are typhoid carriers being employed in food-
producing establishments, particularly in the handling of
goods containing imitation cream or cream fillings.

8
 INTRODUCTORY

No person should be allowed to operate any machine Care if Machines

until he understands the working of it and is declared to be
proficient in handling it by some responsible authority.
Where maintenance staff is employed, greasing and care
of the plant will be carried out by them. In many bakeries,
however, these jobs are done either by the bakery staff or
on contract and so may frequently be overlooked. If this
occurs depreciation of the machine will take place pre-
maturely.
Operators should be trained to know the 'sound' of the
machine when it is working correctly, so that should any
fault develop they can report it at once before any major
trouble occurs. A routine cleaning and maintenance chart
for the whole bakery, machinery, utensils, and equipment
should be worked out and regular inspection carried out to
see that it is being adhered to.
With the stringent regulations today concerning the Avoidance of
purity of food products, every effort has to be made to see Contamination of
that no contamination occurs during manufacture or after Bakery Products
baking to the point of sale; further, it is essential to see that
all products have a reasonable shelf life. To ensure these
conditions, constant supervision of ingredients and working
conditions is essential. Contamination may take the form
of foreign matter, such as fragments of wood, hairs and
\ fibres, particles of glass, stones, pieces of metallic substances,
nails, screws, nuts and bolts, grease pellets, rodent pellets,
cigarette ends and ash, fragments of nail varnish, medical
dressings, pencils, and foreign taints such as creosote, paint,
linseed, mustiness.
Wood fragments may come from boxes in which raw
materials have been packed. Because of this source of
trouble, wooden boxes are not now being used today to any
extent; some firms will not accept any wooden containers
on their premises. Wooden trays which begin to wear and
which soften after washing can also be a source of trouble-
hence the use of metal trays for safety. Likewise, wooden
tables and equipment can be a source of trouble unless
kept in a state of good repair.
Hairs and fibres gain access from jute sacks, and so these
are being replaced by paper sacks for flour and sugar and
polythene liners for many materials.
Human hairs still present a problem, but the use of suitable
headgear should reduce this to a minimum.
Stones in dried fruit always present a problem despite the
most efficient system of cleaning and preparation. Rigid
standards are now prescribed in some exporting countries

9
CAKE MAKING

to reduce the risk from this source. The use of electro-

magnetic tables reduces the incidence ctf trouble from
metallic particles, particularly if this is followed by a 'Cintel'
detector unit.
In the past nails frequently gained access from boxes
used for fats and dried fruits, but with the introduction of
hardboard seale'd with adhesives this source of trouble has
been largely eliminated. Metallic stapling is not allowed by
many firms to be used with packages, since these fine wires
can easily get into the finished product and are not easily
detected until the food enters the mouth.
Particles of glass are always a source of trouble, and it is
always difficult to ascertain how they gain access. Today in
many bakeries the use of glass utensils is forbidden, all
colours and essences being packed in plastic bottles, and
plastic vessels being used for measures. Cracked windows
should always be replaced before any pieces of glass can fall
out, and no drinking glasses should be carried into the
bakery.
Nuts and bolts are sometimes found in goods after the
engineers have been carrying out repairs on plant, so one
should always check up after any alterations or adjustments
have been carried out.
Grease pellets from chains in provers or conveyors some-
times gain access to goods and may be mistaken for rodent
droppings. Ultra-violet light will always show whether these
contain mineral oil, for a fluorescent effect will be obtained.
Microscopic examination will show the presence of hairs if
rodent pellets are suspected.
Under the hygiene regulations the use of water-proof
adhesive dressings is required to eliminate the risk of medical
dressings dropping into batters or mixings. Despite all normal
precautions, accidents do occur, and workers should be
instructed to inform the foreman should any dressing get
lost during working time so that a complete check can be
carried out before the goods leave the bakery.
The use of nail varnish by female workers should be for-
bidden, since under normal working conditions it can flake
off, and particles can gain access to batters. Smoking is for-
bidden by law, but despite this, cigarette ends are found in
baked products from time to time, and often have dropped
from a jacket pocket where they have been placed after a
'break' period. To overcome this possibility, no outside
pockets should be allowed in jackets or overalls worn by
workers in the production section of the bakery.
Buttons from overalls are sometimes found in baked pro-
10
INTRODUCTORY

ducts, and some firms do not allow the use of buttons, but
instead have tapes fitted which must be tied to effect a
fastening.
Pencils, small weights, and scrapers all get lost in a bakery,
and care should be taken to see that these are not placed
where they are likely to get into mixings. If a st:raper gets
misplaced every effort must be made to find it before
production proceeds.
Foreign taints which have been picked up during transit
are sometimes found in raw materials. The storekeeper
should be trained to examine all goods for stains and foreign
odours before issuing them from stock, since this may
eliminate much trouble later. Flour may be musty, and
this may not show up until it is sieved for use or even u~il
the goods are baked; fats and ingredients containing a con-
siderable quantity of natural oils may become rancid; eggs
may be musty, and this may not show up until they are
whisked, when only an odd egg in a large mixing is re-
sponsible for the taint. Moths and maggots are alw!'lYs a
potential source of trouble with nuts and dried fruits, and
the only way to deal with this is really at the source, by
insisting on hygienic methods of preparation and gas treat-
ment with methyl bromide, followed by packing in suitable
containers and storing under controlled temperature
conditions.
In the case of walnuts and other nuts, pieces of broken
shell can cause trouble, and so a proper inspection of the
nuts before use is essential.
All staff should be trained to use and develop their sense
of smell and powers of observation, so that unconsciously
they are carrying out a critical examination of their raw
materials, mixings in the course of preparation, and
finished products as they come from the oven and finishing
room.

II
 Flour Used 2
in Confectionery

C..,FECTIONERS do not always give sufficient attention to

the question of choosing the types .of flour best adapted to
the various goods to be made; consequently, poor results
are frequently obtained by using the wrong type of flour.
Flour is the final product of milling a mixture of wheats,
or sii\gle wheats, cleaned, conditioned, and mixed to form
a grist which will yield flours suitable for the various require-
ments of the confectioner.
The quality of the flour depends on the quality of the
wheat used in the grist, and also on the methods of milling
and the length of extraction. There hre usually two grades
of flour from each grist, known as patents and bakers' flour.
For confectionery purposes four distinct types of flour
should be available: first, a strong flour milled from a
mixture of wheats in which spring wheats predom~nate,
such as is employed for the making of bread; second, a
medium flour milled from a mixture of winter wheats, such
as American winters and Argentine wheats; third, a soft
flour milled from English, French or German, and weak
Australian wheats; fourth, a chlorinated type of flour
suitable for high-ratio types of cakes. In addition, there are
high-protein flours specially preparfd for making fruit cakes.
Flour is a mixture of protein, starch, sugar, fat, and
mineral salts, but it is the protein which is significant for
its use in confectionery work. It is the quality and quantity
of gluten-forming protein which will determine the suit-
ability of any flour fOI; any particular process. The protein
content may range from 8·0 to I3·0 per cent and the quality
from strong to soft.

Properties of The various properties of flour of importance to the con-

Flour fectioner are as follows: I It should possess a good creamy
colour, and not a grey shade. The best grades of flour have

I2 "
 FLOUR USED IN CONFECTIONERY

the best colours, and the poorer grades the inferior colours.
A flour of good colour is essential for confectionery work.
The ~_PJl_orbing_I1Qwer of the fl?~r d!:pends-,. in J:>~r:.t,
on the q!!ality oft~ glutenjn the flour, and the amount of
moisture already present in the flour., but.!!.lso on the -fine:
ness ot milling and degree Qf_c;heinlc~l treatm-ent which "is
carried out '~n mals,ing. the modern ..£.ake flo~. Thestr~.!!g!:h
of flour Is dependent on the quality and quantity of the
gluten-forming protein present in it. This, to a great extent,
is a measure of its ability to produce volume in goods.l The
~pucity of flour is its freedom from foreign starches and any
other substance which is not a natural constituent of the
wheat from which it is milled.

In the making of(ermglteg 1;>u.ns a stroIl:g fl<;>!!!' will produce Flour to Use
.. the bulkiest buns. Texture and flaYQur should be the first for Various
consideration in making· ferme~ted goods; therefore, a Goods
flour that is suitable for making good bread is generally
suitable for buns. With brioche, however, and otherl rich
fermented articles, owing to their richness, bulk is not the
first consideration, and since they are not fermented to so
great an extent, they would be tough if made with a very
strong flour. The medium grade would be better for them.
In making puff pastry, the character of the flour is of great
importance. A top-grade American flour would be of no
use for this purpose by itself, nor would a soft English wheat
flour for normal working. With the 'Florida' puff pastry
machine, softer flours can be used with very good results.-
Unless the gluten of the flour is of a suitable extensibility, it
will break when the paste is given its various turns. On the
other hand, if the gluten is too strong the paste will be tough
to handle and the pastries made will have a drawn and
contracted appearance when baked. A flour which produces
an extensible gluten will give the best results.
A medium type ofBour is ·best for all ·kinds of scones and
aerated buns, since the resulting appearance and texture of
the finished products are better than would be obtained by
using a strong flour.
Small chemically aerated cakes, such as lunch, madeira,
and queen cakes·, also ~reqtiire the uSe:'of a/medium. type of
flour in order to obtain satisfactory texture and appearance.
A stronger flour would yield products of a tough and drawn
nature~ In making slab cakes and pound cakes of the best
quality, soft flours should be used in order to get the best
texture and flavour.)fthe flour is too strong the appearance
is spoiled by toughening and the texture is irregular; the
J
13
CAKE MAKING

cakes eat dry and harsh and more eggs•.are required to

moisten the batter, thus resulting in a mot~ expensive cake
of poorer eating quality. In making cherry and heavy fruit
slab a m__effium:.__flour can be used in order to hold the
cherries in position and prevent crumbliness in the cake.
The cherries will sink to the bottom if the flour is too soft or
the mixture too light. \
In the cheaper class of slab cakes a medium strong flour
is used, to counterbalance weakness due to the low egg
content.
For all rich cakes,..such as wedding, Christmas, birthday,
Simnel, or tennis cakes, a mixtu.r.e. ofsoft ,!~d medium flour
should always be used to get the best results. "WIth stronger
types of flour the cakes are toughened and come out with a
rounded top instead ofa flat top. If the flour is too soft there
is a tendency to crumbliness.
When making s49rt-paste goo~_sQft flouLshould be
employed, because a~eadily toughens when it
is handled. It must be remembered that a short paste is to
be made, not a tpugh paste. In some recipes a proportion
of cornflour is added in order that the paste may eat shorter
by decreasing the proportion of gluten in the flour. This is
unnecessary if the correct flour is chosen.
For sponge goods a soft flour should be used, and here
again, in some types of goods a proportion of cornflour is
sometimes added to make the flour softer and produce
articles of a better texture. This is unnecessary if the correct
type of flour is selected.
Where 'all-in' methods are used, special-purpose and
high-ratio cake flours are generally used.
Sufficient has been said to indicate the necessity for
selecting the correct type 'of flour. It should always be
remembered that texture and_flavour are mor~ _desirable
than bulk_in~confectionery_:er_qd}1.cts. The various types of
flour available should be carefully studied, and then the
particular one chosen should be use_d to the best advantage.
It should be ·remembered on all occasions that flour should
be sifted before adding to the batch, whether there are any
chemicals in it or not, because it is easier to mix the flour
with the other ingn!aients when it has been sifted, thus
eliminating the danger of spoiling the batters. Sifting also
aerates the flour.
Summarizing:
(I) Strong Flours-patents, bakers' grades from wheats
with strong gluten-forming proteins, high-protein flours.
FJ OUR USED IN CONFECTIONERY

(2) Medium Flours+mixtures of strong flours with

weaker flours, \ English, Australian, American and
Canadian winter wheat flours.
(3) Soft Flours-English wheat flours, weak Australian
and certain winter wheat flours, French and German
flours, special cake flours.

Attention to the production o£ special cake flours was first Special Cake
directed in America when the milling industry investigated Flours
the various factors in flour quality which contributed to the
special qualities required and obtained in flours used for
producing the general types of American cakes, notably
angel cakes.
Winter wheats are used which possess a low gluten
content of good quality, since good gas retention is most
important if good volume is to be obtained. The quantity of
protein should be about 8·2 per cent. The acidity of the
flour must be raised to a pH 5"2, and this is accomplished
by the use of bleaching beyond that normally carried out
with bread-making flours. Further, the ash content should
be low, since this indicates a short extraction flour which is
of vital importance. This should be 0·3 per cent or even less.
The granularity of the flour is also of importance, since
·,t has been found for cake work that a flour with all its
granules of the same size will make far better cakes than
one with granules of different sizes.1
Another factor which is considered to play an important
part in determining the baking quality of a cake flour is the
nature of the soil in which the wheat is grown. This has
been shown to be the case in America. The viscosity figure
obtained with a flour suspension is also used as a factor in
determining the standard of cake flour.
Such flours are most essential in high-ratio cakes, since
they alone can carry the high sugar and moisture content
used in such formulae.
In this country many millers are producing flours for
cake-making, using chlorination as the method of treat-
ment for a general-purpose and a high-ratio flour.
More recently a new milling technique has been evolved, High-protein
by means of which the protein content of a flour can be Flours
raised or lowered using a standard grist. During the normal
milling process the endosperm of the wheat grain breaks up
into a number of fractions or particles. These may be
classified as follows: (I) Large particles (above 40 microns
in diameter) which consist of 'chunks' of original endosperm
 CAKE MAKING

contammg starch granules embedded in protein and of

roughly the same composition as the o"figinal endosperm;
(2) Medium sized particles (15-40 microns in diameter)
which, being about the same size as the starch granules
will consist largely of those granules with some adhering
protein; am! (3) Small particles (below 15 microns in dia-
meter) which are made up of broken starch granules and
protein matrix. It can be seen that if these fractions can
be separated, then flours can be produced of varying com-
position, both low and high protein, from the same grist.
Briefly, the system used is to break up the large endo-
sperm particles and prevent the small particles from adher-
ing to them by passing the flour (or semolina) through arr
impact mill. This breaks up and separates the particles by
subjecting them to an intense centrifugal force. In this
manner the starch granules are broken out of the protein
matrix without being shattered. The result is that the
smaller particles contain less broken starch and more pro-
tein. It is not possible to separate particles of these sizes by
normal sieving procedures. Separation is achieved by Air
Classification. The stock from the impact mill is carried in a
fast moving air stream into a moving wall Volute Chamber,
so that the large particles are subjected to a centrifugal force
which pulls them out of the air stream, the smaller, lighter,
high protein fraction being carried op.. The size at which
separation (cuts) takes place is governed by the air velocity,
speed and constriction of the classifier. If cuts are made at
15P. and 40p. on a flour from a grist giving normally 10 per
cent protein, the smaller particles may contain 20 per cent
protein, the medium size particles only 5 per cent protein.
Since the particle size of this high protein flour is very
small, it is not entirely satisfactory for bread-making.
Nevertheless, it is most suitable for the production of 'high
ratio' type fruit and cherry cakes as the binding effect of
the protein supports the fruit during the critical stages of
baking before the batter sets.
Cornflour Cornflour and maize starch are prepared from the cereal
Zea Mais, maize or Indian corn. The field maize and the
sweet or sugar corn are the two chief species of this plant
that are cultivated. There are many varieties of these
species grown, but the two chief varieties are known re-
spectively as Flint Maize and Dent Maize.
When the corn is ripe the colour of the grain "is a
reddish-yellow. Cornflour is virtually 100 per cent
starch. The corn-'lssubJecteo to a wet milling: process
wllicll first separates the endosperm from the bran and

16
 FLOUR USED IN CONFECTIONERY

germ. The starch is then extracted by washing, and dried.

Confectioners are familiar with the use of cornflour in
making custard fillings... When the cornfumrTs mixed with
water or milk and heated to over 1670 F. it swells and be-
comes gelatinized, and if sufficient .comflour has been used
it will set as a thick gelatinous mass. If boiled with water a
fairly clear jelly results, which canbe coloured and flavoured
to imitate the natural jellies. Cornflour is also used to mix
with-wheaLflour in the maki~f_gooaswlii~lU:_~q~a
v'ery soft flour and fine texturJ!..---
Rice -flour, ~ rice, and rice starch are prepared Rice Flour
from the cereal Oryza sativa, or ordinary cultivated rice
plant, which grows in tropical regions. When the rice grains
or berries are ripe they are harvested and allowed to mature.
They are washed, dressed, and ground in the same way as
maize.
Rice floUl:_i~ useful to the confectioner for dusting pur-
poses because of its gran?~r_n~t~~L a_n.d ~eca:!:!_s~ _C?C its
sp~~i~l}faVour: it is emplgye_d. in, making, c.er:_tain kinds. of
confectionery, such as rice cakes and b1!_n~ The rice flour
gelatinizes at 1766 F. 'It is also used for macaroon goods, as
it helps to produce the requisite open texture.
Oat flour has been produced for use in flour confectionery, Oat Flour
but it is not extensively employed. It was used mainly
during the 1939-45 War, as a means of conserving wheaten
flour and using home-grown oats when there was no
selection of flours for confectionery purposes.
There are numerous varieties of potato flour, from the Potato Flour
high-grade varieties which will reconstitute to give a satis-
factory mashed potato, to the cheaper varieties, which are
suitable only for use as admixtures in food products. Potato
flour can be used to advantage in short pastry goods
and sponge goods, where it helps to improve the short-
ness of the products and to maintain moistness in the
sponges.
In the manufacture of slab cakes and sponge goods on Flour Blending
., mass production lines it is very necessary to have a blend of
flours, so that a uniform strength can be maintained from
month to month. Similarly, in biscuit factories flour blend-
ing plays an important part, and it is quite common to find
six different varieties of flour being used. In order to bring
about a thorough blending, suitable plant is required.
These machines can easily be kept clean and are efficient in
their working. Similar plants are also invaluable in the
preparation of self-raising flour, but in these, modifications
must be introduced.

B 17
 CAKE MAKING

Scone Flour or In some bakeries it is the practice to make up bulk

Patent Flour quantities of flour with the added cR~micals correctly
blended in them at the rate of! oz. of powder to each lb.
of flour. This procedure not only saves much time when
weighing down ,each mixing for scones or powder goods,
but it also mcaI!s that there is a flour available containing
the 'mixed powder in the correct proportions, which can
be used in mixings when only fractional amounts of powder.
are required. Thus in a mixing where only i oz. of baking
powder are required it will be easier and much more
accurate to weigh t lb. of scone flour and use it in the
mixing than try to weigh that amount of powder accurately
with the bakery scales, and make up the remainder of the
flour with ordinary cake flour.
Self-Raising Flour This is the product which is sold to the housewife and
possesses approximately half the raising power of scone
flour.
In the Food Standards (Self-Raising Flour) Order S.R.
& O. 1946, No. 44, are prescribed the standards to which
self-raising flour must conform in so far as its raising power
is concerned, i.e., the amount of CO 2 it will produce during
baking. Bakers who purchase their self-raising flour, either
in bulk or prepacked, should be covered by the terms of
sale from the blender or supplier. It is only those bakers
who are making their own blend of flour and chemicals
who will need to adjust their formula to ensure that the
quantities of acid and soda used satisfy the requirements of
the Order. ,
The main provisions in this order govern the amount of
carbon dioxide gas which must be liberated during baking.
The minimum amount of carbon dioxide which should be
released during baking is 0.40 per cent. This minimum
figure assures a standard of aeration in the finished product
which under normal home baking conditions should be
quite satisfactory.
Other Flours While 'white' flours of various types and grades are those
most commonly used in the manufacture of flour con-
fectionery products, it is possible to produce most goods
using 'brown' flours in direct replacement, except for some
adjustment in liquor-content. For the most part, these types
of flour are used in rather specialized or proprietary pro-
ducts, although some; as for example wheatmeal scones, are
standard lines.
These flours can be divided into three categories:

(I) Wheatmeals. These are 'built up' flours obtained from

18
 FLOUR USED IN CONFECTIONERY

I
various streams in the roller milling process. They are pro-
duced by an admixture of wheat bran to lower-grade white
flour in such proportions as to comply with the legal re-
quirement of 0·6 per cent fibre based on the dry weight.
For flour confectionery purposes the bran should be finely
ground to produce a fine wheatmeal. Coarse wheatmeals,
except for a few specialized products, are not suitable.
(2) Wholemeal. As the name implies, these are flours
obtained by grinding the whole of the wheat grain to a fine
powder. This, in fact, is the statutory requirement. Much
wholemeal flour is roller milled, but there is a specialized
market for stoneground flour and cakes made with it .
. Again, as is the case with wheatmeal, a finely ground flour
is best for use in flour confectionery.
(3) Germ Meals. Germ meals are 'built-up' flours contain-
ing an admixture of wheat germ to 'white' flour such as to
comply with the legal requirement in wheat germ bread of
not less than 10 per cent added processed wheat germ
(calculated by weight on the dry matter of the bread). These
flours are sold under proprietary names, and a whole range
of attractive flour confectionery products can be made
using them.

'.

19
 Moistening Agents
'.<1-!
3

Water WATER used for all confectionery purposes must be free

from suspended matter, colourless, organically pure, and
not too hard.
Water is used in the manufacture of flour confectionery,
for the making of pastes, such as short pastes, puff pastes,
bun goods, and in the reconstitution of milk powder and
dried-egg products. Water, a natural constituent of all
foods used in manufacturing operations, acts simply as a
moistening agent, and adds nothing to the food value of the
goods.

Milk \ Milk is probably the most important moistening agent (em-

ployed in every bakery, both in bread .and confectionery. A
knowledge of its composition, food value, and standard of
purity should be of value to those who handle this com-
modity regularly in baking processes. It is an; emt!lillmj_
designed by nature for the complete sustenance of young
animals during the first stages of life, when they are unable
to obtain food for themselves. Therefore, milk must of
necessity contain all the elements necessary for the nutrition
of the body. It consists of fats, carbohydrates, nitrogenous
matter of proteins, and mineral salts, all either in solution
o~ emulsion with the water. When milk is used in the
manufacture of bread or confectionery something is added
which must influence the ultimate food value of the goods
made with it. Fresh cows' milk, or the products thereof, is
the milk used in the bakery.
Composition There are considerable variations in the composition of
milk fresh from the cow. These variations are due to several
causes, such as the time the cow is milked, the food available
(for this affects the fat and protein content especially), the
breed of t.he cows, period of gestation, and the place where
they are reared. All these affect the quality and quantity of
milk from each cow. A quart of milk contains about If
pints of water. The following analysis of a sample of milk

20
MOISTENING AGENTS

will give an idea of the amounts of the other constituents

present:
%
\Vater 87·34

~:651
Butter fat
Proteins {caseinogen
albumen 0·45
Carbohydrates (milk sugar) 4·54 Solids (not fats) 8·71
Mineral salts (ash) O·72J '
Food value in calories 400 per pint

If the solids (not fats) fall below 8'5 per cent and fats
below 3 per cent it is considered that the milk has been
adulterated or is sub-standard. Milk is also rich in all the
known vitamins (particularly A and B), which are essentials
in every food.
The proteins of milk are casein and album~ Casein is
in the milk as very minute partIcles in the form of a colloidal
suspension. When treated with rennet, a ferment secreted
by the lining membrane of the cow's stomach, it clots or
turns into curds, and becomes more digestible. Milk fat, the
most important constituent of butter, is present as minute
globules emulsified with the other constituents. On standing,
some of the fat settles out, and, as cream, can be skimmed off.
Milk Stlgll,f,..orlactose, has the same chemical composition
as ordinary cane sugar (C 12H 220 n ), but is not nearly so
sweet, nor is it fermentable by yeast; only yeasts conta_ining
the enzyme lactase or certain torula can ferment it to
produce CO 2 and alcohol. The lactic-acid. bageria.present
i'n milk feed on this sugar of the milk, converting the lactose
into lactic ac;id. When the concentration of the lactic acid
reaches a certain point the casein is precipitated as a curd.
Other bacteria are also present in the milk, which help to
turn it sour, although their effect is very small as compared
with lactic acid bacteria. As a result, when milk is soured,
acetic, ~utyris _<tnE_2!:lc_cinic acids are also produced in
sI!!~ll quantities. These bacteria are not active at a low
temperature. Below 500 F. they do not multiply rapidly. At
ordinary temperatures they double themselves every twenty
minutes.
The mineral salts in milk are needed by the body for
bone formation. They consist of phosphates of lime and
potash. The human body requires nitrogenous matters
(proteins), fats or oils, carbohydrates (sugars), mineral
matters, water, and vitamins to carryon the functions oflife.
tMilk, when used in cak~s 2:.n~ _~~!.<t.!t:d_[?o_ds, gives
excellent results-,- Thefut 91 millLc;Q_I1fers .ric1m~ss ?Il<l bl09.m.
The sl,lgar LI1 milk is nQt nearly SQ sweet as cane sugar,., yet
21
 CAKE MAKING

it imparts a certain amount of_sweeJn~and .bloolI!_l~~­

lectlonerY. The protein has some effect 'l:{n keteping~bals~sl
goods IDmsf and meU()w~-l'Ee_mi~eral s~l~.gi'ye 1_ldded food
value-an important asset. Milk is used_in many_batter
mixi_i!-gsrll1hC1fut.ce_Qf_:eggs. In cheap slabs, when used in
conjunction 'Jit!J. nut oils and glycerine, it gives an even
texture and assists in keeping the slabs moist. I It is also
employed in egg and cornflour custards, and in the prepara-
tion of man.yotlierToodstuffs:- .
In the bakery separated or skimmed milk is used and
gives satisfactory results, less the richness and bloom pro-
duced by the butter fat. When the fat is separated from
liquid milk the composition is affected as follows.
%
Water 90·7
Fats 0·3
Protein 3.7}
Sugar 4·6 9% solids not fats
Mineral salts 0·7
Food value in calories 200 per pint
Milk Powders There' are two processes used for reducing milk to the dry
state, but the same principle is adopted in each-viz., the
evaporation of the moisture at a temperature below the
coagulating point of the protein. Spray-dried powders are
always to be recommended, since they reconstitute per-
fectly, whereas roller-dried powders do not always re-
constitute perfectly, but give a residue. In spray driers the
milk is sprayed under pressure into a drying plant, with a
temperature of about 115°-120° F. For roller-dried powders
hot rollers are used, when the water evaporates off, leaving
milk in the form ofa film, which is later milled into powder.
Separated, or This is generally used in flour confectionery. In pro-
Skim, Milk ducing this type of milk powder, the skim milk left after the
Powder cream has been separated for butter manufacture, is used.
The separated milk powder so produced is reconstituted by
mixing 1 lb. of powder with I gallon of warm water. A paste
is made with some of the water, and then the remainder is
added and whisked well to mix. It should always be
available, since it will keep for quite a considerable period,
and in practice gives excellent results. It should be re-
constituted some hours before required for use, in order to
obtain the best results.
Full-Cream Milk This, upon reconstitution with warm water in the pro-
Powder portion of 1 lb. of powder to 8 lb. of water, should yield a
fluid with nearly the same composition as fresh milk. It
gives practically the same results in use. Full-cream milk
powder should only be bought in small quantities and kept
22
MOISTENING AGENTS

in a cool store, since it has a tendency to go rancid because

of its high fat content.
Full-cream and separated milk powders should have the
following approximate composition:

Full cream Separated

(%) I (%)
Moisture 2·5 3·0
Fat 27·3 0·8
Proteins 26·6 35·5
Lactose 37-6 52·8
Mineral salts 6·0 7·9

Total 100·0 100·00

Fresh buttermilk is still used in the manufacture of aerated Buttermilk

goods in place of reconstituted milk. It is the by-product
obtained in churning the butter from ripened cream. Cream
is ripened by means of special bacterial cultures, and when
a suitable acidity has been developed it is transferred to a
churn. The butter separates out, and what is left is known
as buttermilk. It contains approximately go per cent water
and 10 per cent milk solids-i.e. traces offat, proteins, milk
sugar, mineral salts, and lactic acid. The longer it is kept,
the more lactic acid it will contain, usually about 0,8-1 per
cent.
Owing to the presence of the lactic acid in the milk, it is
not necessary to use the same proportion ofcream of tartar
in baking, powder as is the case when making aerated goods
with fresh or reconstituted milk. The lactic <:Lcid of the
bu~termilk has a neutralizing effect on bicarbonate of soda\
The usual proportions when using buttermilk are three
parts of cream of tartar to two parts of bicarbonate of soda,
instead of four parts of cream of tartar to two parts of bi-
carbonate of soda, which are the quantities generally used
with fresh or reconstituted milk. ~e lactic acid of the
buttermilk_ also has an important physic'!l _Cl,C;tlQU _on the
gluten of the flour, a!l-9 ~o ma_tur.es_ it.; The protein also
plays an important part in the production of good voiume
.and keeping qualities. Thus_ ~hen guttermilk is used, scones
and 'aerated goods are obtained with a grc5,l,ter volume and
are softer and moister tb~n,_those_.rrUl.de with ordinary milkl
With a sample of buttermilk possessing an acidity of 0·8- 1
per cent, sufficient aeration, in soda breads, can be obtained
by using buttermilk and soda, the latter at the rate of 2t
oz. per stone (14 lb.) of flour. Such soda bread will have
excellent keeping qualities.
 CAKE MAKING

Dried powdered buttermilk is now being produced. The

following analyses indicate the compositio\{ ofliquid butter-
milk and of dried buttermilk powder.
BUTTERMILK

. - Dried (%) Liquid (%)

Water 6·0 90·0
Fat 4·7 0·5
Sugar 39·4 4·2
Protein 36·7 3·9
Ash 6·6 0·7
Acidi9' 6·6 0·7
I
Whey Powder Whey can be dried to produce a powder which can be used
in confectionery, and the product obtained from recon-
stituting is a water-looking fluid.
A modified milk powder derived from whey skim milk
and vegetable fats is made today. It reconstitutes easily to
produce a liquid resembling milk in appearance. It possesses
the property of increasing the volume of goods in which it
is used, and preventing rapid staling.
In slab cakes it gives increased volume and good cutting
qualities. It has no binding action when used either in
fermented goods or cakes. It can also be used in bread and
rolls, being particularly useful in sliced bread and toast
bread.
 Eggs and Egg Products 4

(_ EGGS are one of the ~ost important of the raw ingredients

used in the manufacture of confectionery, because they are
used in the majority of products; in fact, many of the goods
could not be made without them. Eggs in themselves are an
easily digested foodstuff. )
All varieties of birds' eggs can be used for cooking, as Sources oj Supply
their chemical composition is nearly always alike, although
they differ in flavour, but the chief sources of our supplies
are hens, ducks, geese, turkeys, and various water fowls.
English new-laid hen eggs are most commonly used in
confectionery work, but supplies of shell eggs are also
imported from Ireland, Denmark, Poland, Canada, New
Zealand, Australia, and South Africa.
Frozen eggs are produced in Great Britain today, but
some supplies are still obtained from Poland, Australia and
the United States.
Dried egg is produced in this country both by spray dry-
ing and the newer A.F.D. process.
(.Eggs when used in confectionery perform many im- Functions oj Eggs
portant functions. Firstly, because of the amount of moisture
they contain, they act as'.!llOistening agents. Secondly, by
reason of the property they possess of film formation, where-
by they can take up large quantities of air when they are
whisked, they act as aerating agents.. Thirdly, their chemical
composition is such that they act as enriching agents in the
goods made. Fourthly, they are valuable as emulsifying
agglts and fifthly they are an important structuraLi.n-
g!e_dient. Thus t~_!!ot only i!lcrease .the food value of
I.
fl.()u.rsonfectionery but they <!-.l§q .impart a better. .s.tr.lli;lllre,
fljlvour,. colqUI:" and a eara:qce, a!.V~f l;Yhich qu~lities are
of the greatesLimportance.
Shell eggs vary in weight from Ii to 21 oz. each, but the
average weight of a full-sized hen's egg is 2 oz., or 8 eggs
weigh I lb. There are three different parts of the egg to
consider: (I) the shell; (2) white or jelly-like albumen;
CAKE MAKING

(3) yellow-coloured yolk. These parts bear about the

following proportion to each other: ~"i

% gm.
Shell and membrane 12 or in weight 7
Albumen or whites 58" " 32
Yolks 30 17
100 56
(or 2 oz. approx.)

These are only approximate weights, and may differ

slightly according to the size of the eggs. When the eggs are .
smaller than this they are dearer to use, owing to the extra
weight of the shell compared with the useable ingredients.
It may be convenient here also to give the approximate
measure of the various portions of the average-sized eggs:
12 eggs equal 1 pint eggs
20 egg whites equal 1 pint whites
32-36 egg yolks equal 1 pint yolks
Shell eggs are purchased by the weight of a 'long hundred'
which is 120 eggs, or by the case, which consists of three
'long hundreds'. The weights may be from 15 to 18 lb.
according to size. Sometimes lower weights are marketed,
but by these standards competitive buying can be carried
out.
The following is an average chemical composition of the
edible portion of hens' eggs, which shows how the con-
stituents are distributed:

Whole egg Albumen

CONSTITUENTS minus shell or whites Yolks (%)
(%) (%)
Moisture 73-6S 86·55 50·44
Proteins 12·55 12·65 16·05
Fats 12·15 0·25 32·14
Mineral salts HO 0·55 0·82
Organic (non-nitrogenous) 0·55 - 0·55
100·00 100·00 100·00
Food value in calories per lb. 720
I 250 1,700

The following points can be seen from this table:

I. The high moisture content of the whites and whole
egg.
2. The relatively high fat content of the yolks. '
3. The high food value of the yolks compared with that
of the whites.
 EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

The egg shells consist largely of phosphate and calcium Egg Shells
carbonate deposited upon a thin membrane which encloses
the liquid portion. It is about I I per cent of the whole
egg.
The egg white, or albumen, consists chiefly of a complex Whites rif Eggs
mixture of proteins, such as albumen, globulins, etc., and
about t per cent of mineral salts. This liquid portion is en-
closed in firm fibrous material, which forms membranous
cells throughout the mass. The membrane is insoluble in
water and in dilute acid and alkali solutions. The albumen
. is miscible in water. The firmer or more jelly-like the whites
are, the better they are for confectioners' purposes. It is the
presence in the whites of this membranous matter which
makes them so useful to confectioners. When egg whites are I
whisked they give rise to an assemblage of small air cells .
. This is because the membranous matter provides a structure
on which the protein solution can form thin cells in which
air is entangled. Anything that tends to destroy this fibrous
structure will render the pr?duction of a stiff foam im-
possible. (Traces of egg yolk~, oily substances, or flour, or
dilution of any kind break the filmy cells as fast as they are
formed when whites are whisked. 'Whites which have been
separated from yolks and kept for a few days in a cool place
will whisk up more rapidly than whites which have been
newly separated. The improvement in whipping power is
probably due to a change in pH value, possibly brought
about by enzyme action. Such whites may have ~~ of 6.
Eresh ~white is alk~line (pH 8·6-g·0), but after standing
for a day or two it will 'Change in pH, according to tem-
perature of storage. A little sugar added during whisking
will aid foam formation. This may, in part, be due to the
formation of syrup, but it may also more likely be due to
the effect of the sugar granules assisting in the subdivision
of the air cells before they are dissolved. The stability of
sugar-egg-white foam is largely influenced by the pH of
the whites. J:he lower the pH, the more stable the foam.
Weak and watery whites are deficient in membranous
matter, and are difficult to whisk up. They may be
toughened slightly during whisking by the addition of a
weak acid solution, but care must be taken not to add too
much, since whites are coagulated by a slight excess of acid.
Acids, such as acetic, lactic, and tartaric, possess the power
of coagulating egg whites, so acids should be used sparingly.
They are also coagulated under the influence of heat, co-
agulation commencing at about 1460 F., and being com-
0
pleted at 160 F. When coagulated the albumen is no
 CAKE MAKING

longer miscible in water, and so loses its power of holding

air and being whisked up to a stiff foam. ~"i
I Egg whites are chiefly used as aerating and moisteningJ
agents by the confectioner. T~ds made with
whites are cold and boiled meringues, macaroons and
desert biscuits> rpyal icing, and certain types of cakes.
Whites used alone must be whisked, entangling air bubbles
until a stiff foam is formed. In the oven the air expands until
the sides of the cell walls have been coagulated by the heat.
Thus the goods are aerated. This coagulation under heat is
a peculiar characteristic of egg albuIIJen. No other foam-
producing body possesses this characteristic to the same
degree; some foams produced from milk products tend to
collapse as the enmeshed gases (air, CO 2, etc.) expand and
distend the cells beyond the breaking point when heated
in the oven, although there is one well-known product
which is very satisfactory. '
Egg whites from duck, geese, and water-fowl eggs are
more difficult to whisk up than whites from hens' eggs.
Egg whites with the shells are also used for clarifying or
making clear syrups, soups, and jellies, because of their co-
agulating properties, whereby the heat of the boiling syrup
causes formation of a tough scum in which impurities are
satisfactorily entangled.
Egg Yolks The chemical composition of the y.olks is more complex
than that of the whites. The yolk is the substance pro-
vided by nature to feed the chick during its period of
development, and so there are more solids present than in
whites.
It contains the proteins nuclein and vitellin, and certain
phosphorized fatty substances, the main one being lecithin,
which is an important eIl,lulsifying agent. There is a white
solid alcohol, cholesterol; and. a non-nitrogenous body,
cerebrin. These are important food substances for the build-
ing up of the nervous tissues of the body. The yolks contain
fully 30 per cent of fats, which are identical with those
occurring in animal bodies-namely, olein and stearin,
with small quantities of palmitin and other fatty glycerides.
There is about I per cent of mineral salts in the yolks and
another important substance, lutein, a yellow colouring'
matter which contains iron in organic combination which is
easily assimilated, and thus adds to the food value of the
yolks. It is present to the extent of about! per cent, and the
distinctive colour of eggs or goods made with eggs is due to
this. The coagulation of yolks takes place at a higher tem-
perature than that of the whites. They commence to co-
EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

agulate at about 160° F., and are completely coagulated at

178°F. "
The yolk of an egg is more valuable as a foodstuff than
the white, not only from an energy standpoint but also in
that it contains certain vitamins, but commercially it has
not the same value. The latter cOIl}mands a higher value on
account of its aerating properties./ Yolks cannot be beaten
stiff like the whites, owing to the presence of so much fatty
matter. They can, however, be whisked to retain a certain
amount of air, because of the presence of small quantities of
albumen'!
r Xolks colousJIavour,__ enrich, ..and_ shor.ten. th~.g~mds in

whli;h .they -are -used, .and bec:;au_se of their emulsifying

properties help to keep cakes moist and mellow. \
Whole eggs are capable of aeratin their own wei ht of Use of Eggs
~an on t IS IS ase t e correct aeration of cakes. If a
greater weight of flour than eggs is used in a cake batter,
then some other form of aeration must be employed to
aerate the extra flour.!
When breaking shell eggs it is necessary to take care that
musty eggs do not gain access. Each egg, when broken,
should be smelt, since one musty egg would spoil a whole
mixing of cake, and there is no means of hiding or evading
the consequences of using such an egg. These eggs must be
used within 24 hours of breaking, during which time the
liquid egg must be held at a temperature below 50° F.
In the making of sponge goods, eggs are, whisked up with
sugar until a light foam is obtained. The whisking of the
eggs is accomplished easily if no grease or flour is present
with the sugar, especially when heated to 75° ·F. over a bain-
marie. When warming the eggs, care must be taken to
prevent them becoming too hot. They should be heated only
until lukewarm.
'In cake making by the suga!"-batter method the eggs
should not be added too quickly or in too large quantities
after the fat and sugar have been creamed. Every addition
of eggs should be thoroughly creamed in, or the cakes will
have a closS texture and will be he~vy~Ifthey are added in
large quantities the batter will curdle. Two at a time to
each pound of fat are quite sufficient. The eggs should be
heated to the same temperature as the batter, 75° F., other-
wise curdling may occur.

The shell of an egg is porous, and consequently permits Preservation

of a passage of air and putrifying organisms. In course of of Eggs
time this brings about evaporation of the moisture in the
 CAKE MAKING

egg and permits bacterial decomposition of the protein

compounds present. The various methods of preserving eggs
in their shells have for their object the closing of the pores,
and the prevention of decomposition. There are two methods
of detecting whether an egg is stale or not. One is to hold
the egg up to '!- b_right light. The egg is fresh if it appears
perfectly clear and transparent, with only a faint indication
of an air chamber at the end. An egg that is beginning to
go bad will show a cloudy appearance, and a dark opaque
mass is shown in an extremely bad egg.
Another method of testing whether an egg is fresh or not
is to place it in a 10 per cent salt solution-that is, 4 oz. of
0
salt in a quart of water at 75 F. A fresh egg will sink in
this solution. The older it is, the lighter it becomes, and
consequently it will float. Decomposition is attended by gas
production, and this makes a bad egg lighter than one that
is good. This is about the best test for fresh eggs. Another
test sometimes employed is the old one of holding the larger
end of the egg against the tongue, when a good egg will feel
warm.
Quite a number of processes have been devised for pre-
serving eggs either in the shells or without shells. Some im-
ported eggs are chilled, the eggs being held at a low tem-
perature, just above freezing point. This will keep them
fresh for quite a long time; however, owing to the porous
nature of the shells, they lose weight as evaporation takes
place. This difficulty is overcome by covering them with a
protective film, which closes the pores of the shells and keeps
the eggs free from the action of air for a time. This process,
known as 'oiling', is carried out extensively nowadays. A
10 per cent solution of silicate of soda, commonly known as
water glass, is widely used domestically for this purpose.
Storage in lime water is nearly as good. The fresh eggs are
packed in stonewarejars, and the solution poured over them
so as to cover them completely. If water glass is used the
eggs will keep satisfactorily for about twelve months.
Frozen Eggs One method of preserving eggs by freezing is to remove
them from their shells, mix them well together, and preserve
them in sealed containers of various sizes by freezing and
keeping them frozen until required for use. Such eggs are
as good to use when they are thawed out as fresh eggs,
provided they were good when originally frozen and that
they are defrosted properly.
All whole egg used in the food industry is required by
law to be pasteurized at not less than 1480 F. for at least 2t
minutes. Sodium citrate is added to the pulp in some
EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

countries but not in the U.K., to lower the viscosity and so

prevent damage to 'the egg during pasteurization.
In tests where commercially citrated pasteurized frozen
egg and uncitrated pasteurized egg were compared with
untreated frozen egg, the sponges produced from the un-
treated egg were of slightly less volume than the citrated
and pasteurized egg sponges, and the texture was slightly
less fine. Commercially pasteurized samples of eggs, while
giving sponges of a fine even texture, were not quite so
tender in the crumb as commercially pasteurized and
citrated egg sponges, or as untreated egg sponges.
From the experience gained with such eggs, it appears
that pasteurization alters slightly the baking quality of the
egg, but this small change is considered to be more than
compensated for by the increased safety in use due to the
lower bacterial content and the complete destruction of
any Salmonella bacteria which may be present.
To defrost these eggs, the containers should be placed Difrosting Eggs
under running water, and the cold water should be allowed
to circulate around the container until all the frost has been
removed. The container should then be opened and the
contents placed in a bowl and well stirred together. The
eggs should be allowed to stand until they gradually acquire
the same temperature as the bakehouse. They are then
ready for use, and must be utilized as quickly as is con-
venient. These eggs will not keep very long after they are
defrosted. Some confectioners who use frozen eggs obtain
them on the day previous to that on which they will be
required for use and leave them in the bakery until the frost
has all gone. This method of defrosting is quite satisfactory,
provided no artificial heat is used to take out the frost.
Some people make the mistake of applying heat to the
containers, and then condemn the eggs, whereas it is their
own bad practice that is at fault. If it is not possible to use
all the eggs on one day, then the quantity which is left over
should be placed in the refrigerator until the following day,
or they can be mixed with a definite quantity of sugar, but
they should not be kept longer than 2-3 days. At least 4 oz.
of sugar should be added to each pound of eggs to keep
them sound until the following day. The sugar thus added
must be allowed for in the mixings in which they are
ultimately used.
The whites and yolks are often separated, placed in
containers, and frozen separately. The whites command a
higher price than the yolks. When defrosted they are handy
for use, and will whisk up just as readily as whites freshly

31
 CAKE MAKING

separated. The yolks are used largely by biscuit manu-

facturers and in large slab-cake factories. ~..,{
Liquid egg which has been pasteurized is nowadays sup-
plied in bulk, in insulated containers which hold it at a low
temperature. From these it is pumped into holding vessels
in the bakery.
Sugar-preserved Sugar-preserved eggs when obtainable can be used for
Eggs almost all kinds of goods. These eggs have usually 25 per
cent of their moisture evaporated off and 25 per cent of
sugar added to take its place. When using these eggs allow-
ances must be made for the sugar contained in them, and a
proportion of water must be added to reconstitute them
ready for use as ordinary eggs. Thus, if it is desired to use
4 lb. of these eggs 1 lb. of water must be added to the 4 lb.,
resulting in 4 lb. of eggs and I lb. of sugar.
Another modern method of preserving eggs is to evapor-
ate the egg yolks to a thick syrup, adding a proportion of
glycerine before concentration. The function of the glycerine
is to assist uniform drying and to provide mechanical
support to the oil globules as their surrounding fluid
shrinks under the evaporation process. Thus, no over-
desiccated fragments of egg are formed, and the whole mass
is uniformly smooth, while the oil globules are not disrupted.
Without glycerine, shrinkage of the surrounding fluid causes
collapse of the oil globules. Certain colloid substances will
act in the same manner, and these can certainly not be
regarded as 'preservatives' (in the usual sense of the word).
To reconstitute such a concentrated yolk, use 2 parts water
to every 7 parts of the concentrated yolk. However, the
commercial practice is for certain large manufacturers to
buy all the concentrated yolk imported and to mix with
appropriate quantities of water and of crystal albumen to
produce a 'double-strength' egg. Such a double egg requires
its own weight of water for reconstitution, and if properly
manufactured will be quite as satisfactory as other forms of
eggs for making sponge cakes. The double-strength egg, as
described above, will keep in a cool place for several weeks,
and does not require actual cold storage. The pH of such
egg is usually ~orrected to normal.
Dried or Desiccated whole eggs, whites, or yolks are also largely
Desiccated Eggs in use in the manufacture of confectionery. These are
prepared by evaporating the water from the liquid eggs at
a temperature below their coagulation point, temperatures
below 1240 F. usually being employed. Various methods
are used to reduce the eggs to a dry state; one method, the
spray process, is to force them under pressure in the form

32
EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

of a spray into a chamber, the temperature of which is

kept below 125° F. This procedure dries the egg quickly,
which then falls to the floor as a powder. Another method
formerly used, the roller method, is to spread the eggs as a
film on a roller, at a temperature of 125°. This gave a rich
yellow solid which readily powdered, but which did not re-
constitute as well as the spray-dried eggs.
Whole egg powder is reconstituted by taking 1 part by
weight of the powder and 3 parts of tepid water, and mixing
well together with a whisk and stirring occasionally for one
to three hours. These eggs are ready for use after about one
hour's soaking. Some of these dried-egg powders are satis-
factory in the making of cakes, but will not whisk up
sufficiently light to make normal sponge cakes. Other
varieties possess little aerating power and can be used only
when a modified baking technique is employed.
This is a product prepared by evaporating water at very Accelerated
low pressures from pasteurized whole egg which has Freeze-dried egg
previously been frozen in thin layers on trays at -35° F. (A.P.D.)
Since the water is removed from the solid phase (ice) at low
temperatures, the harmful effects normally associated with
dehydration are largely avoided, and by careful control of
the process and the use of small quantities of permitted
additives it is claimed that the final product when re-
constituted is comparable in performance to liquid whole
egg.
It is a granular free-flowing powder with an odour less
strong than spray-dried egg, which reconstitutes easily
with water at about 100° F.
A recent development in the production of dried whole
egg and A.F.D. egg is the removal of glucose by the
addition of glucose oxidase, catalase, and hydrogen. This
extends the shelf life of the product.
This is prepared in two ways, one by the so-called Dried Albumen
fermentation process, the other by the straight drying
process at reduced pressure or under vacuum. In the
fermentation process the whites are placed in large vessels
having a capacity of 4,000 lb. and left for 3-4 days. During
this time a scum forms dn the top, which is removed at the
end of this period. After the requisite time the whites
are placed on trays and dried at a temperature below
125° F., when the product known as crystal albumen is ob-
tained.
During the fermentation process certain chemical changes
occur, including a shift of the pH from the alkaline to the
acid region. In natural egg whites some of the protein ions

33
CAKE MAKING

are negatively charged at the normal pH of the white and

form albuminates of the various bases (Ca,:iNa, etc.). When
fermentation has proceeded to below their iso-electric
points these proteins become positively charged, and act as
basic radicals. This materially affects the baking qualities
of the finished product, yielding an albumen of much
greater strengtli. -
In the straight process a dried albumen is produced
which can only be kept satisfactorily in cold storage. This
does not form such a good foam when reconstituted and
whipped, and so possesses inferior baking qualities.
J. R. Hawthorn worked out a procedure for preparing
straight dried albumen by fermenting the naturally
occurring glucose in egg white by means of bakers' com-
pressed yeast and subsequently separating the yeast by
centrifuging. From tests carried out, it was shown that the
samples of albumen obtained were equal in quality to the
best samples obtained by natural bacterial fermentation.
The quantity of yeast employed was at the rate of I per
cent of the egg white, at g8° F. for Il hours followed by
0
drying at 122 F. for 5-7 hours and a further 12-15 hours
at 86° F.
Today dried albumen must be pasteurized before it can
be used in products in which it is not subjected to any heat
treatment or cooking, i.e. icings and some meringue goods.
All dried albumen today is subject to the closest bacterio-
logical control before it can be sold for use in any type of
confection, even when subsequently baked.
The whites, when dried separately from the yolks, are re-
constituted by adding 7 parts of water to I part of dried
albumen, i.e. 3 oz. to the pint of water, mixing well, then
stirring occasionally for 3 or 4 hours before use. This gives
a product similar to ordinary egg whites, and can be used
in the same manner, but requires more whisking to make
a light meringue. It may be left overnight with good re-
sults, and is very good for making royal icing and mac-
aroons.
A spray-dried yolk powder can be produced having a
moisture content of slightly less than 5 per cent. Like the
whole egg powders, such sprayed yolks do not disperse
freely in water, and are not suitable for making sponge
cakes.
They are reconstituted by adding an equal weight of
water to them.
Dried eggs are not of the same value to the confectioner
as frozen or shell eggs.

34
EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

The following table gives the average chemical com-

position of dried eggs products:

CONSTITUENTS Whole Whites Yolks

I egg (%) I (%)
I (%)
Moisture 6·45 14-17 5·05
Proteins 47·85 78·84 33·95
Fats 40-45 Traces 54·26
Mineral salts 4·15 4·65 3-65
Undetermined 1-10 0·14 3·09
100·00
I
100·00
I 100·00

For the reconstitution of dried yolks and albumen to re-

place frozen or dried egg in cake making, to 13 lb. of water
add I! lb. of crystal albumen and allow to stand overnight.
Then whisk in by hand 3 lb. of sifted egg yolks and the
mixture is ready for use.
This mixture is unsuitable for sponge or choux paste
manufacture, using conventional methods.
When no type of egg other than dried egg is available for
sponge making various methods can be tried to produce
satisfactory foams to give light sponge products. To over-
come the lack of foaming qualities, the addition of boiling
syrups with increased acidity has been used, but these
methods, while giving fairly good results, are not practicable
for large-scale commercial production, since they require
more labour.
For cake making, however, most grades of dried egg
produce satisfactory results, for it has been shown that
solubility is of greater importance than foaming power,
since aeration of cakes does not solely depend on the egg.

This was one of the most outstanding developments of the J 939-45 Sugar-dried
War. Egg
I. This is a product containing approximately 33-34 per
cent of sugar incorporated with the egg. It is produced by
mixing in the appropriate quantity of sugar with the liquid
egg and spray-drying the mixture. It must be stored in air-
tight containers, as it is hygroscopic. When such egg is re-
constituted it can be treated like frozen or fresh shell egg. It
whips well and possesses good oven spring.
To reconstitute, use 33 oz. of water per pound of dried
egg. In the use of this egg, better results may be obtained
with some formulae using 28-30 oz. of water per pound egg
for reconstitution, but this should be determined by
individual experience.

35
CAKE MAKING

2. Use cold or tepid water, since the egg is very soluble.

Sprinkle and stir the egg in the water, wheri" it will readily
dissolve.
3. The temperature employed for whisking should not
exceed 70° F., as the sugar-egg mixture aerates readily and
will become oveI-~eaten if higher temperatures are used.
Whisking on top speed may produce the maximum volume
in 6-7 minutes, with a second speed 15-20 minutes.
4. In general, all sponge batters with sugar-dried egg
should be slightly underbeaten. Overbeating produces a
very light foam, which shows a tendency to run back when
the flour is added, while shrinkage will also occur in the
oven.
5. Sponge cakes of standard quality can be produced
without the use of baking powder. With machine working,
normal formulae and practice will produce very satisfactory
results. Baking powder should be used only in recipes in
which it is a usual constituent.
6. Sugar-dried egg can be used with success with the
'all-in' method, but adjustment of baking powder is
essential, a reduction of 33 per cent being possible. Beating
time also can be reduced to about half.
7. In cake increased volume is obtained and adjustment
of baking powder is necessary.
EGG RECONSTITUTION TABLE FOR SUGAR-DRIED EGG
(I lb. sugar-dried egg-2 lb. water)

Liquid egg re- Egg powder Sugar in egg mix

quired sugar-dried I Water to be deducted
from recipe

lb. oz. Pints lb. oz. lb. oz. Pints oz.

10 t 31 7t i It
I 4 1 7t "15 1 2t
2 8 2 15 14 It 5
3 12 3 1 6t 2 13 2t 7t
5 0 4 1 14 3 12 3 10

The usual method of obtaining the aeration in sponge

goods consists in whisking the eggs and sugar together.
The temperature of the mixture should be about 75° F. It
should be whisked until the batter is light-that is, when the
impressions made by the whisk take a few seconds to flow
level. Time taken should be about 7 minutes. The flour
should be carefully sifted. When baking powder is used it is
sifted with the flour. The flour is carefully mixed in by hand
when the batter is light, until it is cleared. Where butter or
oil are added, they are added in a warm liquid state before
EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

adding the flour; care must be taken when mixing in the

flour, otherwise the batter will become heavy owing to the
breakage of air cells, and the cakes will bake out leathery.
Where milk or water is used, it is mixed in after beating
up the eggs and sugar; then the flour is mixed through until
clear.
Flavours and colours may be added to the batter before
adding the flour, in order to produce any desired variety of
flavoured and coloured cake.
When large-machine whisking is carried out the method
of procedure is the same. The Morton Pressure Whisk and
Oakes Continuous Mixer have revolutionized the manu-
facture of sponges and cakes and have made modifications
of method and recipes essential.
Fruit juices and jams may also be added to sponges
during whisking to obtain very light well-flavoured sponge
goods owing to the extra acidity of these products, but
allowance must be made for the sugar in these products, as
well as acidity, which will speed up the foam formation.

There are many powders on the market sold as substitutes Egg

for eggs. These so-called egg powders, or extenders, bear no Substitutes
relation whatever to eggs except in colour. They are com-
posed mainly of soya flour and cornflour, or other starches,
with an addition of baking powder, colouring matter, and
milk powder or some milk product or some other type of
albuminous matter. They provide aeration, but do not
perform the same functions as eggs.
It is interesting, however, to trace the development of
these products.
Prior to 1939 most of the substitutes were liquid, some
consisting of hydrolized starch with the addition of colour
and bicarbonate of soda to render them alkaline. Later,
soya flour was introduced in some of the liquid mixtures,
but with the use of soya flour, dry mixes began to appear.
With the outbreak of war and the cessation of supplies of
frozen egg, substitutes of all types appeared, and so numer-
ous were they, that eventually in 1942 the Ministry of Food
had to control them by a system of licensing.
These products contained the following range of sub-
stances: soya flour, wheaten flour, starch, gum karaya, gum
arabic, dextrin, casein, oat flour, rye flour, sodium bi-
carbonate, semolina, whey concentrates, dried yeast,
gelatine, albumen, etc. Altogether, over forty different
products were used in the compounding of the whole range
of products which were marketed, many of them completely

37
 CAKE MAKING

valueless. Following on the action of the Ministry of Food,

these products were licensed as 'egg extei'rClers', as they
could not in any way be regarded as substitutes for egg.
Some of them did successfully extend the use of the small
quantities of egg available at the time. From 1942 onwards
dried egg suppli\;s !Jecame available in greater quantities,
and while some egg extenders found a ready sale, the
numbers licensed steadily decreased, and only the better
types survived. By 1946 the demand for a better product
was manifested, and lactalbumen mixed with mineral salts,
together with lactic acid and lactose, appeared in some of
the products. The following year, Locust Kernel Gum
(carob), mixed with sodium alginate and wheaten flour
and colour, was introduced, and later, additions of milk
powder, blood plasma, and fish albumen were made to
various products.
When egg substitutes were analysed for what should be
their main constituents, water, protein, and fat, they were
rarely found to contain any significant quantity of protein
or fat, but generally more than their anticipated water
content when reconstituted as recommended.
When baking tests were carried out using many substi-
tutes in a 50 per cent replacement of whole egg the results
obtained were rarely better than those which could be
obtained by a rebalancing of the recipe by a straight re-
placement of the normal ingredients. When eggs are avail-
able there is little justification for use of the so-called egg
extender in confectionery production.

Egg-white Prior to the war, there were no egg white substitutes of any
Substitute real merit, but gelatine was sometimes used. In 1941 low-
grade albumen mixtures with soya, or wheaten flour were
introduced, while later, mixtures of gums, soya, dextrins,
and wheaten flour were marketed which were, in the main,
useless. In 1947 milk products, skim milk and whey powders,
and lactalbumen appeared on the market, and while satis-
factory foams and meringues could be produced, some of
the products would not stand up to baking temperature.
Blood plasma has also been used.
In 1949 cellulose ether and derivatives of various kinds
were introduced, and while these possess no nutritional
value, they produce exct;).lent foams from which good
meringues and other confectionery products can be
obtained.
There are today numerous albuminous powders obtain-
able as substitutes for whites of eggs. These contain various
EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

proportions of protein matter, such as gelatine, blood

albumen, casein, and gums. They are greyish-looking
powders sold under various trade names. When dissolved
in water and whisked they hold a certain amount of air,
but not always to the same extent as egg whites. Some fail
to aerate the goods to the same lightness as egg whites,
because the cells tend to burst when heated. The result is,
the products either fail to rise sufficiently, or if they rise
lightly they may collapse again before cooking is finished.
Owing to the absence of membranous matter, some of these
substitutes are very suitable for the making of royal, or very
white, icing. The membranous matter in egg whites tends
to make the icing greyish.

39
 Baking Fats 5

FATS are the primary enriching agents used in flour con-

fectionery, and those which are used must be of a digestible
__---!lature. For this reason orily the vegetable and animal fats
----- are suitable, since hydrocarbon oils and fats cannot be
digested in the human system. If any such fats were used
violent indigestion would be caused. Oils and fats embrace
a very wide range of substances, and because of the im-
portant part they play in bakery operations, it is essential
to know not only their relative digestive properties but also
something of their chemical and physical properties. If a
substance of this class is liquid at the ordinary temperature
(15 0 C.) it is termed an oil, while if it is solid under the same
conditions it is termed a fat.
Bakers' oils and fats are generally colourless or pale
yellow, and possess one property which is familiar to all,
and that is their greasiness, which is somewhat different
from the greasiness of other oils in a way which cannot be
defined easily. To the majority of people an oil or fat is a
substance which, when smeared on paper or any surface,
makes a greasy mark difficult to remove. This idea of
greasiness does not help at all in differentiating between the
different types of oils and fats: In order to do this, it is
necessary to turn to the chemical viewpoint, which states
that all animal fats and vegetable oils and fats are mixtures
of glycerides, a glyceride being a substance which breaks
down under certain conditions to produce glycerine and a
fatty acid. In this the animal and vegetable oils and fats
differ from mineral and essential oils. Another difference
from mineral oils is saponification on treatment with caustic
soda.

Glyceride ~ Glycerine + Fatty acid

This change can be brought about in other ways. Chemic-
ally, fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
BAKING FATS

In order to understand the varying physical properties of

fats, especially concerning their solidity or hardness, it is
important to know something of the glycerides which are
present in fats.
Fats are complex mixtures of glycerides, some of which
are liquid and some solid at room temperature. To illustrate
the properties of glycerides it is interesting to compare the

Olein I
characteristics of the five simple triglycerides.

Lauricin Liquid at ordinary temperatures.

Myristin
Palmitin}. .
Stearin Sohd at ordmary temperatures.

The first three are liquids, while the fifth is a waxy sub-
stance and the fourth is of an intermediate consistency.
From this it will be clear that the firmness of a fat depends
on the proportion of stearin present; the greater the amount
present, the firmer the fat. This has been taken advantage of
in the production of the wide range of hydrogenated fats
and cake margarines now produced for the convenience of
handling by the confectioner. These five are known as
'fixed fats', because they do not evaporate or lose weight
when distilled with water. Animal fats are generally solid;
mutton fat contains a high percentage of stearin, so is very
firm; beef fat contains considerable quantities of olein and
myristin, and so is much less firm and approximates more
to the consistency of butter. Butter, margarine, and neutral
fats are a mixture of these five glycerides in varying pro-
portion. In butter an important glyceride is butyrin. Most
of the fats which are obtained from vegetables are fluid and
oily at ordinary temperatures, while at lower temperatures
they attain a solid consistency. For example, in cold weather
cotton-seed oil will solidify, as also will olive oil and many
other vegetable oils.
Vegetable oils can be classified on their capacity for dry-
ing-that is, their capability of producing a hard film when
exposed to the air as a thin layer.
(1) Non-drying oils.
(2) Semi-drying oils.
(3) Drying oils.
The best-known non-drying oil is olive oil, while others
which are almost completely in this category, but are
generally classed as semi-drying, are cotton-seed oil, sesame
 CAKE MAKING

oil, arachis oil, soya-bean oil, all of which are good cooking
oils and are used in margarine manufacture--:
Drying oils are required by the painter, and linseed oil is
the best, this being an oil which dries very rapidly. Such an
oil would not be satisfactory as a food.
It is obvious th~t for foodstuffs a non-drying oil is the
ideal, and only those which approximate to this are suitable,
especially from the view-point of digestibility.
There are some vegetable fats which find use in con-
fectionery either for direct incorporation in products or for
manufacturing fats. Such fats are palm-kernel oil, coconut
oil, cocoa butter, and shea-nut butter.
Now turning to the animal world, it is found that the fats
available can be divided into four classes, but here the
source of the fat is the consideration, not some physical
property. \
(I) Solid body fats.
(2) Animal oils.
(3) Milk fats. '.
(4) Fish and marineianimal oils.
\
The most important of the first class is lard, while suet or
beef fat is equally important for 'certain products. Of the
second class there is one oil, lard oil, which is well known.
This is the more liquid portion of lard, and is prepared by
expressing it out of the lard, when lard stearine is left be-
hind. Of the third class, butter is the most important, and it
differs from all other fats because of the presence of certain
volatile fatty acids to which the flavour is due-a fact of
great importance when its identification is in question. In
the fourth class there are many fish oils used today in
margarine manufacture-salmon oil, herring oil, whale oil,
and others which are deodorized. When margarine is made
with such oils there is always a danger of a fishy odour being
imparted to the finished products unless great care is taken
in hydrogenation and refining.

Practical The generally accepted view of the influence of fats and

Application of oils in bread and confectionery is that the fat effects a
Oils and Fats mechanical hindrance on the flour particles, and so prevents
their cohesion, and if sufficiently large quantities are used it
eventually produces a dough possessing no cohesion. In
cake-making it is their emulsifying properties which are
all-important as well as their capacity to occlude air during
the creaming process. It is not considered that any chemical
change takes place, since the fat, being insoluble in water, is
BAKING FATS

not absorbed by the flour, but is merely mixed among it in

such a way that it causes a separation of the flour particles
and an emulsion. As a result, the elasticity of the dough
produced from the flour in which fat or oil has been mixed
is different from that of a dough containing no added fat,
and the quality known as shortness is conferred on the pro-
ducts. When used in small quantities oils and fats actually
seem to cause a modification in the nature of the gluten of
the flour through some possible protective colloidal action.
When larger quantities are used there results a more
complete dispersion of the fats and oils in the mixings and
the formation of emulsions.

:Most fats and oils are either colourless or possess a pale Properties of
yellow tint. They are insoluble in and immiscible with Oils and Fats
water, but are readily soluble in ea~h other, and so can be
mixed in varying proportions, and should be without taste
or odour. Any flavour or odour they possess points to im-
perfect refining, or partial decomposition due to rancidity
setting in. If any flavour is present it is generally an indica-
tion of the source of the fat, and today is a sign of inferior
quality. Fats are soluble in certain solvents, such as ether
and benzene, some of which are used for their extractio.n
from the raw materials in their manufacture. All fats have a
definite slip point, which differs with each fat, this re-
presenting the amount of solid fat in the mixture. The
specific gravity of most fats is from O'gI to 0·97. There are
many constants which have to be observed by the manu-
facturer if he desires to produce a regular product. Ran-
cidity has also to be guarded against, and in order to do
this the oils and fats must be properly refined and stored
afterwards. Rancidity develops in the presence of air, light,
and moisture, so that the best place to store fats is a dark
room which, however, must be kept scrupulously clean.
With rancidity an unpleasant flavour develops, due to
decomposition of the glycerides. The cause of rancidity is
gradually being solved. There are two main causes, one
being that the process is one of oxidation, the other.that it is
caused by bacterial action.
A. There are two stages of decomposition when the
oxidation theory is considered.

(I) Hydrolysis of glycerides to form free fatty acids and

glycerol.
(2) Oxidation of acids and glycerol; this is formed on
interaction of the oxidation products, the resulting com-

43
 CAKE MAKING

pounds being responsible for the unpleasant taste and

odour of rancid fat. ~..,'

B. Rancidity is also considered to be produced by the

action of zymogen, which in the presence of warmth and
moisture produ~es Jipases, thus forming fatty acids.
Fats used for cooking purposes, such as frying doughnuts,
should stand heating to a temperature of at least 4000 F.
Functions and without undergoing decomposition. Inferior fats will de-
Uses of Fats compose below this temperature and cause noxious smells.
in
Confectionery Fats are used in confectionery for a variety of reasons:
(I) Nutritional As the fat is broken dowIl by metabolic processes within
Value to Provide the body during the process of digestion calories are re-
Energy leased which are transferred to the body as heat, or as
energy.
(2) To Provide If a fat possesses flavour, such as butter or margarine, it
Flavour will impart that flavour to any articles in which it is in-
corporated. A flavourless shortening, however, can affect
the flavour of a cake. Any off flavours will be imparted to
the cake.
(3) Influence on Fat, by its emulsifying action, holds the aqueous portion
Keeping Qualities of a cake batter and so prevents the cake from drying out to
a certain degree.
(4) Emulsifying A cake batter is an emulsion consisting of a fatty phase
Properties and a phase composed of the remaining ingredients. The
emulsifying power of a fat determines how much liquid can
be incorporated in a batter without curdling taking place.
The more liquid which can be added to a cake batter, the
more sugar·will the batter be able to hold dissolved in the
liquid.
This is the principle of high-ratio shortenings, which
have a high emulsifying power. From the practical point of
view, the advantage of emulsifying shortenings is the ease
with which the ingredients are incorporated in the mix to
give a fine, silky batter, typical of a thoroughly.emulsified
mIX.
(5) Shortening If a cake is examined under the microscope it is seen that
Power the solid materials in the cake do not form a homogeneous
mass. It would appear that the gluten from the flour is split
up by films of fat. These films of fat weaken the structure
sufficiently to make it tender and easily disintegrated by
bringing about a mechanical breakdown of the gluten
structure.
(6) Influence Oil The specific action of fat in raising baked goods has been
Volume investigated by microscopic examination of cake batters.

44
BAKING FATS

I t may be regarded as peculiar because the amount of

'lift' in the oven is out of all proportion to the expansion of
air entrapped in the fat when no chemicals are used in the
batter; and yet if no air were incorporated there would be
no 'lift' in the oven at all.
Microscopic examination of a cake batter shows that the
fat is dispersed throughout the batter in the form of small,
irregularly shaped particles.
Within each particle of fat there will be enclosed several
small bubbles of air which have been incorporated during
the mixing operation. There is no air trapped in the
aqueous phase.
The exact mechanics of the rising process are not properly
understood, and it is largely a matter of conjecture what
really happens when a cake 'rises' in the oven.
It is apparent, however, that most of the 'rise' in the oven
is due to the expansion of water vapour and of carbon
dioxide; but the water vapour on its own, that is, without
any air present, cannot assist in the rising process. Also, the
extent to which it does assist is more or less proportional
to the amount of air present.
Another important feature about the rising due to water
vapour when air is present is that this rising is controlled-
the expansion takes place at points which are predeter-
mined by the position of fat-entrapped air bubbles ..
Hence, if the mixing is carried out in such a way that the
fat entraps a lot of air and the air is well dispersed through
the batter, rising takes place uniformly throughout the
mixture, giving a fine, uniform grain and texture.
When chemical agents are used to assist expansion the
gas from them is also controlled by the air entrapped by the
fat; if too little air is incorporated in a batter and chemicals
are used to make up the aeration the cake will be coarse-
textured, with large holes due to the action of the gas from
the chemicals being uncontrolled by air.
Thus, t~e creaming ability of a fat, or its ability to en-
trap air, is a very important factor when good-quality cakes
are desired. It must also be capable of being evenly dis-
persed through the batter. The fats used for any special
types of goods should be chosen by their quality, freedom
from moisture, and according to the purpose for which they
are to be used.
Butter is the fat that fulfils most of the requirements of
the confectioner; there is no other fat which can impart the
same flavour and quality to products but its other pro-
perties tend to be somewhat variable. 1

45
 CAKE MAKING

It is for this reason that margarines and fats manufactured

for specific purposes are so popular today. Hydrocarbon fats
and oils should never be used, although in the past fats ofa tal-
lowy nature were used in pastry margarines, while hydrocar-
bon oils were used in cake making during the war before action
was taken to pr:_oh!bit their use. There are many fats sold for
the production of puff pastry; the main virtue of such fats is
to provide an even lift in the pastry by being able to produce
thin films in it. Some fats contain a high stearin content, with
the result, that instead of an easily digested product being
produced, one very difficult to digest is obtained, because of
the layers of fat in the paste. The use of these products is to
be deprecated, since, as in so many other branches, the
appearance and ease of production by semi-skilled opera-
tives are being considered, to the detriment of the eating
qualities. Emulsified preparations are now marketed which
produce good results in a puff paste and are easy to
manipulate.

Butter Butter consists chiefly of the fat of milk, and necessarily

must also contain curd, milk sugar, and mineral salts. It is
obtained through churning the ripened cream of cows'
milk. The churning process causes the fatty globules to
coalesce and form granules. When the butter has formed it
is well worked together to remove the surplus buttermilk
and make it into a homogeneous mass. A little salt and
colouring matter may be added to the butter during work-
ing in order to preserve it and impart a better appearance.
Butters can be classified into various grades. When
grading, most points are given to flavour; then come body,
texture, and moisture content. Colour is also considered,
the percentage of salt, and lastly the general appearance. If
the grade of butter is known one can be well assured as to
the quality.
TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF BUTTER

I English Danish Siberian Austra- New

lian
COMPOSITION (%) (%) (%) Zealand
(%) (%)
Fats 82·15 83·45 86·25 84·50 85·80
Moisture 14·25 13040 10·85 12·85 10·80
Curd or casein 1·55 1·25 1·25 1·25 1·20
Salt 2·05 1·90 1-65 1-40 2·20

The glycerides in butter are the five already mentioned,

and are present in varying proportions, along with nearly
BAKING FATS

6 per cent volatile fat, such as butyrin and its allied

substances.
Some butters are defined as weak and others as strong.
When using them it is easy to tell the difference. Siberian
butter is a tough waxy butter of good flavour, and is
excellent for making puff pastry. The strong waxy character
confers plastic properties on it and so forms better layering
and makes the paste lighter, and both lightness and flavour
are retained after baking. With a softer butter this would
not be the case; the paste would not rise so well and oil
might run out when the pastries are baked.
In making cakes butter is generally creamed-that is to
say, the butter is usually beaten until it is of the consistency
of cream. This act of creaming consists in breaking down
the butter into an emulsion of water in oil. I!_creaI_!ls easily
owing to the absence of granules,_ and it will retain the air
thereby incorporated.
The reason why putter is superior in flavour to any other
fat is due to the presence of volatile fats which it contains.
This has its drawbacks, -however, because when butter is
kept under unfavourable conditions it becomes rancid due
to a decomposition of the glycerides.
If too much salt is present in the butter it is usual to Uses of Butter
wash it out first in cold water, and then beat the butter well
to get rid of excess water. Buttergives to the gpoE_s. ~ better
flavour, a~ ~v~ textm:_e,_a _better _bloom, and. produce_La
lignl: ca:ke of gO_Qd_~ppearance. It should be employed in
the making 01 all high-class cakes where the above qualities
are essential. It is also employed in the making of lemon
cheese curds, butter creams, and in toffee making. Where-
ever quality and good flavour are required as the first con-
sideration in any type of confectionery, butter should be
used.
Butter is clarified by melting. It may then be sieved or Clarified Butter
skimmed to remove curd or impurities; salt and water can
also be removed, and in this unsalted state the butter is
used for making artificial creams. Clarified butter is also
used to enrich butter sponges and Savarins. In these goods
the clarified form only is incorporated.

Butter powder containing 80 per cent butter-fat which is Powdered

most suitable for cake making, is now being produced Butter
in Australia, producing cakes of equal quality compared
with those made from fresh butter, with, however, a
tendency towards a closer grain and slightly greater
volume.

47
 CAKE MAKING

Lard Lard is also a very important fat used in confectionery. It

may be defined as the fat separated for usli/as food from the
fatty tissues of pigs. The lard is rendered by first mincing
the tissues or crushing between rollers, and then subjecting
to a dry heat until the fat runs out of the cells (in the case
of home-rend~rt:d lard). The temperature used is just
sufficient to melt the fat (about 110° F.). If too high a tem-
perature is used the colour of the fat is spoiled, and a bad
flavour is imparted which cannot be remedied by refining.
The low temperature at which it is rendered may have a
certain enzymic activity, which may acCOunt for the fact
that neutral lard will go rancid more readily than lard
rendered by steam.
The other method of rendering fat is to subject the mass
to high-pressure steam to expel the fat from the ruptured
fat cells.
Classification The great bulk of the lard used in commerce is imported
from America, and, according to the Chicago Board of
Trade, is classified into the following grades:

(I) Neutral Lard No. I, which consists of leaf fat ren-

dered below I la° F.
(2) Neutral Lard No.2, which consists of fat derived
from the back of the pig.
(3) Leaf Lard, obtained by subjecting the residue of
No. I to high-pressure steam.
(4) Choice Kettle-rendered Lard, obtained by rendering
the residue of No.2 in high-pressure steam kettles, hence
the name.
(5) Prime Steam Lard is the portion rendered by steam
from the trimmings and other fatty parts of the animals.

Greases and inferior fats are obtained from entrails, feet,

and scraps. American lard is usually of a softer nature than
European lard. This is due to the differences in the animal
and to the different type of food consumed.
Composition and Pure lard has a firm consistency and granular texture,
Properties white in colour and should have an agreeable flavour. The
lower qualities have a somewhat insipid flavour. Lard is
composed chiefly of the three glycerides-olein, palmitin,
and stearin, olein being the predominant glyceride. There
are also certain unsaturated compounds resembling those of
linseed oil, together with nitrogenous compounds, mineral
salts, and moisture. It contains 99 per cent fatty glycerides.
Fresh lard, especially if it has been rendered from the pigs
while stilI warm, should be practically neutral (not more
BAKING FATS

than 0·5 per cent free fatty acids), but upon exposure to the
air it gradually becomes acid in reaction.
When lard has been rendered out it should be run into
sterile containers, not touched by hand or exposed to the
air, and should be kept in a cold place until ready for
use.
Lard is a fat possessing a high food value. It is easily ab- Food Value and
sorbed and digested by the human body, and so is an Uses
important heat-producing food. It is used in confectionery
as a shortening agent in the making of short pastes for pies,
etc., because of its excellent flavour and shortening pro-
perties and relatively high melting point. When used in
conjunction with butter in the proportion of 75 per cent
butter to 25 per cent lard it gives a crispness and shortness
to pastries which is not obtainable by using butter alone. It
is also employed as a cooking fat for both boiling and frying
purposes. It is useful for greasing utensils for cakes which
must have an even surface and good appearance. Pure lard
will not cream up well by itself because of its crystalline
nature; it forms long, coarse crystals with a chisel-shaped
edge. These pack together like felt, and so cannot be
creamed satisfactorily.
Lard can now be processed so as to produce a product Processed Lard
with creaming properties. This is a catalytic process which
results in the re-arrangement of the fatty acid components
of the glyceride molecules so that there is a greater variety
of different types of molecules.

When lard is slightly heated and then subjected to Lard Oil and
hydraulic pressure it is possible to separate out what is Beef Fats
known as lard stearine, which is used in the manufacture Lard Oil
of margarine. The oil, forming about 60 per cent of the
whole and consisting mostly of olein, has a soft, pleasant
taste, and is a good edible oil; it is sometimes used in place
of olive oil.
Beef fats are rendered in the same manner as hogs' fat. Beef Fats
The first rendering gives hard fat known as premier jus,
which was used largely in making margarine. When the
premier jus is placed in bags, heated, and subjected to
hydraulic pressure the softer fat, or oleo oil, runs out and
what is known as stearine remains. The former is a soft fat
with a low melting point; the latter is a-hard firm; white
fat with a high melting point. Both were used in the manu-
facture of various types of margarine. The fatty glycerides
in beef fat are mostly stearin, palmi tin, and olein. There-
fore, in the separation of oleo oil and stearine from the

c 49
 CAKE MAKING

premier jus, the oleo oil is largely composed of olein and

palmitin, whereas the stearine is largely.."icomposed of the
glyceride stearin.

Compound Lard and lard compounds have been largely displaced in

Fats modern times by compound fats made from refined coconut
oil, palm-keniel" oil, cotton-seed oil, and other vegetable
oils. There are many good cooking fats sold under a variety
of names. It is only during the present century that the
problem of converting fluid oils into solid fats has been
solved. This has been accomplished by the catalytic hydro-
genation process, which consists of treating oils with
hydrogen in the presence of finely powdered nickel or
platinum as the catalyst at a suitable temperature. The
catalyst does not take any part in the chemical reaction
of the hydrogen and oil, but it causes the two to unite, so
that it is now possible to obtain fats of any desired consis-
tency. For instance, in the case of oleic acid the absorption
of hydrogen may be represented as follows:
C 17 H aaCOOH + H2 = C17H as COOH
Oleic acid + hydrogen = stearic acid
Other fatty glycerides can be changed in the same way,
the degree of hardening depending on the duration of the
hydrogenation process. By this process any liquid can be
changed at will to the consistency of butter or lard, or tallow
beef fat. Consequently, oils which formerly had not a wide
application in foods are easily converted into fats, and so
their use is extended very considerably.
Following the hardening operation, the oils which are
required to make up the fat are blended in the correct pro-
portions by weighing each one into a tank. The blend of
oils is then transferred to a deodorizer, where the odorifer-
ous substances are removed by steam distillation under a
vacuum.
The deodorizer is a large cylindrical tank completely en-
closed, and after the air is evacuated the oils are dropped
into it and are heated to between 3000 and 4000 F. and
steam is blown in at the bottom of the tank. As the steam
passes through the oils it picks up the odoriferous substances
and retains them when it leaves the top of the vessel. Com-
plete deodorization takes anything up to 4 hours.
To render the product smooth and firm, the fat is chilled
rapidly, and it is thoroughly beaten to ensure an intimate
mix of the liquid glycerides. A certain amount of air is
added to the fat at this stage, which improves the appear-

50
BAKING FATS

ance, making it whiter and opaque, instead of greasy and

translucent.
In this country few manufacturers still use the older
method of chilling the fat. This consists of passing it over a
slowly revolving steel cylinder, which is refrigerated inter-
nally with very cold brine. After the fat has been in contact
with the chilling roll long enough to cool it-slightly less
than one complete revolution-it is scraped off by scraper
blades bearing on the roll surface, and it drops into a
trough fitted with a screw conveyor and blades which beat
the air into the fat.
The fat coming from this trough is then forced at high
pressure through a constricted line which makes it more
homogeneous still, and it is then packed.
A more modern method of rapid chilling pioneered in
America and now used in this country is by pumping the
fat through one or more cylinders which are refrigerated
externally. This enables greater control to be maintained
over the chilling, as the fat is not exposed to the atmosphere,
continuous, all-enclosed units being used.
Shortening is normally received by the baker in the solid Pumpable
form in 28-lb. cartons or in large drums, but it is nowadays Shortening
possible to have it in bulk in road tankers in quantities of
4 tons or more. The advantages of bulk shortening are:
(I) Economic saving of the cost of the cartons and the
handling of the cartons in the bakery.
(2) The bulk system assists in the automation of bakery
mixing operations.
(3) It ensures the shortening is of standard consistency
throughout the year and does not need the special
tempering during cold weather which is often necessary
with shortening in cartons.
Pumpable shortening is prepared in the same basic
manner as standard shortening, but with special texturizing
treatment to maintain its plasticity. The shortening is con-
veyed to the bakery in specially designed road tankers,
temperature-controlled, to prevent solidification of the
shortening during transit and to effect complete discharge
of the load at the bakery. Here the shortening is stored in
jacketed tanks or silos at constant temperature and is fed
by a pump and metering device to the point of usage. The
holding temperature is generally about 26 0 C. (79 0 F.), and
the fat can be held for up to one month.
Although a recent innovation, pumpable shortening is
.developing fast in bakeries large enough to take a bulk

51
 CAKE MAKING

installation and capable of standardizing their mixing

procedure. 1/
Vegetable Oils Vegetable oils are obtained by extraction in hydraulic
Expression presses, or by extraction with volatile solvents. When
pressure is used there are four distinct operations:
( I) The seed is crushed or ground in special roller-
reduction mills, so as to break the oil cells.
(2) The ground seed is heated to facilitate the flow of
oil and to coagulate the albumen. This is done in what is
called a heating kettle.
(3) The product is now gently pressed in a moulding
machine to prepare it for the hydraulic press.
(4) The seed is conveyed to hydraulic presses and the
oil is expressed.
A further development is the use of continuous expellers
in place of hydraulic presses.
The different vegetable seeds used for the production of
oil require rather different treatments, but only those used
in the trade are dealt with here.
Cotton Seed For edible purposes this is generally prepared by de-
corticating the cotton seed. The kernel of the seed is sur-
rounded by husks, which contain strong, deep brown
colouring matter and little or no oil. Thus the following
advantages are derived: (I) the oil is of a better colour;
(2) the press cake is of a better quality; (3) the material
treated being richer in oil than the whole seed, a greater
amount of oil can be obtained in a given time.
The oil is refined by various processes and marketed in
various forms, generally as a colourless oil. Steam is used to
deodorize the oils and to coagulate the protein matter, and
treatment with fuller's earth, decolorizing carbon, etc.,
improves the appearance. -
Arachis, or This is produced in a similar way to cotton-seed oil, and
Ground-nut Oil is marketed as high-class vegetable oil. It has a pale yellow
colour, and will solidify at temperatures below 40° F. The
second grade is largely used in margarine manufacture, the
first grade being used as a cheap substitute for olive oil. A
colourless variety of the oil is obtainable.
Sesame Oils This is used for foodstuffs and in margarine manufacture.
Cocoa Butter This is the fat obtained from the cocoa bean, and is used
in the manufacture of chocolate. It melts at about goO F.
Coconut and These are also used in the manufacture of edible oils.
Palm-kernel Oils Coconut oil solidifies at 69° F. It is a soft, white, butter-
like mass at ordinary temperatures, with an agreeable
odour and flavour. The chemical constants of this oil are

52
BAKING FATS

closer in relation to butter than any other fat, and it is very

difficult to detect when used to adulterate butter. It is much
used in the manufacture of margarine.
This is extensively used in the manufacture of baking Shea Butter
and pastry fats because of its emulsive and plasticizing pro-
perties.
This is also used in making margarine and vegetable Palm-kernel Oil
butters, and sometimes as a cocoa-butter substitute.
Coconut oil and palm-kernel oil can be subjected to
hydraulic pressure to separate the stearin from the olein.
The longer the fats remain under pressure, the higher will
be the melting point of the residue.
There are many other oils which can be obtained from
vegetable sources, and after refining and hardening are
suitable for cake making. These hydrogenated fats are 100
per cent fats. They possess excellent creaming qualities,
being easier to cream up than butter. If compound fat is
used to replace part, or all, of the butter in a mixing, then
it must be remembered that compound is 100 per cent fat,
whereas butter is only 84 per cent fat; therefore, in order
to maintain the balance in the mixture, only 14 oz. of
compound should be used to replace I lb. butter. Compound
fat cannot be expected to give the flavour of butter. When
that is wanted it is advisable to use a proportion of butter
in the cakes. Compound fat, when used in small proportions
along with butter in cakes, helps to impart an excellent
texture and better keeping qualities.

Margarine has taken the place of butter in most bakeries Margarine

today. The oils or fats used in the making of margarine are
obtained from either animal, vegetable, or marine sources.
The various fats that may be used are neutral lard, premier
jus, oleo oil, ground-nut oils, coconut oil, palm-kernel oil,
fish, hydrogenated whale, and other oils.
The fats must first be thoroughly refined; if not, the
margarine would soon become rancid and would not be
good to eat. Fish oils, in addition to being deodorized, must
be hydrogenated to make them suitable for the manufacture
of margarine.
After refining, the oils are blended so that the finished
margarine will have a definite melting point and creaming
quality. When cake margarine is being made, the melting
point will approximate to that of good butter; if pastry
margarine, the melting point will be considerably higher,
and fats containing more stearin with a higher melting
point will be used. Many of the pastry margarines are far

53
 CAKE MAKING

too tough. This has resulted from a desire on the manu-

facturer's part to guarantee an even 'fift'-./ in t he oven,
irrespective of the craftsmanship of the operative.
The oils are blended at a suitable temperature with
separated milk-generally 1 ton to 30 gallons of milk-
which has been ripened, and the mixture is transferred to a
churn, where an intimate admixture or emulsification of
fats and milk takes place. Lecithin or some other stabilizer
is used to complete the emulsion and colour is added. Water
emulsions are used today, and special stabilizers are used
for the production of stable emulsions. When churning is
completed the mixture is ice-cooled, and with the con-
tinuous machines is plasticized and packed at once.
Where butter is mixed in the margarine, no more than 10
per cent butter fat must be added. The finished margarine
has a satisfactory taste and odour, and a texture like fresh
butter, and is practically free from fatty acids. It shows
little tendency to become rancid unless kept under un-
suitable conditions.
It is now possible (using any types of oils) to get the
proper consistency of the fat by hydrogenating the oil to the
desired extent. The composition of margarine, when packed,
approximates to that of butter.
%
Fats 82·0-84·0
Moisture 13·5-12·0
Curd 1·5- 1·7
Salt, etc. 1·5- 2·5
It can be readily seen that there is practically no differ-
ence in the chemical composition of margarine and butter,
but it should be remembered that margarine lacks the
flavour of butter, and contains no vitamins. There is usually
no more than 0'3 per cent of volatile acids present in
margarine. ~arin_«-cil_I!. be. used in confectionery to re-
place butter. It creams up well and .g!y~_t1.l_e .cak~a good
appearance and texture, :but the: .fla~our.._flnd keeping
qualities are absent. Vitamins A and D are only added to
those varieties of margarine sold for domestic consumption .
Glycerol . There are many varieties of this product with varying
M onostearates percentages of monoglyceride. The higher the mono-
glyceride content, however, the better the improving effect,
but the difference in the results obtained from the various
products are slight, and as long as the monoglyceride
content does not fall below 25 per cent it will be satisfactory.
Self-emulsifying G.M.S. containing a small amount of soap
has a greater improving effect than non-emulsifying G.M.S.
While G.M.S. can be used alone to improve the crumb

54
BAKING FATS

softness of bread, it is considered advisable to use it in

conjunction with fat.
Commercial glycerol monostearates contain from 25"7
to 50 per cent of the monostearate; the other constituents
being mainly glyceryl distearate, unchanged fat (tristearate)
glycerol, stearic acid and glyceryl esters, and other fatty
acids, depending on the method of manufacture employed
and quality of the stearic acid used.
The normal method of preparation is by the interaction
of glycerol and stearic acid for G.M.S. preparations, but in
the case of the super-glycerinated fats, the fats are reacted
with glycerol.
For commercial use, the monostearate is added to hot
water and well beaten in, using I lb. to 5 lb. water. This
emulsion sets to a jelly and is easily handled for use in
doughs, generally at the rate of I lb. per sack, preferably in
conjunction with I t lb. fat.
Emulsions of the water-in-oil type are now marketed both
for use in cake bread, fermented goods, and for tin-greasing
purposes. The proportion of oil to water varies, and the
quality of oil largely determines the suitability for any
specific purpose. Emulsions may contain from 34 to 60 per
cent oil, the average containing about 40 per cent.
Stabilizers are used in some emulsions, but not in all
types; yet, even without stabilizers emulsions can be re-
markably stable. For bread-making purposes, weight for
weight, compared with oils and some fats, a greater im-
provement is obtained with emulsion than with the
vegetable oils as marketed today, even though the fat
content is much less.
Lecithin has been known for nearly a hundred years as a
major constituent of egg yolk. An egg weighing 60 gm.
contains approximately 20 gm. of yolk of which about 4 gm.
is neutral fat (triglyceride) and 2 gm. lecithin and allied
substances. Lecithin has been found associated with
glycerides in all plants and animals and in micro-organisms,
and appears to play an important part in the structure of
living cells as well as in their physico-chemical and bio-
chemical activities.
The triglycerides are soluble in acetone, in contrast to the
phosphorus-containing fats, which are insoluble in this
solvent, and which can therefore be prepared in the
laboratory by treatment of the ethereal extract of a tissue
with excess of acetone.
Lecithin may be regarded as a complex triglyceride in
which one of the fatty acids has been replaced by a phos-

55
 CAKE MAKING

phoric acid and choline compound. The relationship may

be summarized as follows: ;..f
/Fatty Acid /Fatty Acid
G-Fatty Acid G-Fatty Acid
"'Fatty l\cid "'OR group
Triglyceride Diglyceride

/Fatty Acid /Fatty Acid

G-Fatty Acid G-Fatty Acid
,,"Phosphoric Acid ,,"Phosphoric Acid
Phosphatidic Acid -Choline
Lecithin or Phospha-
ti4Jl Choline
The Phosphatides Associated with lecithin in soya bean, egg yolk, and plant
and animal tissues are many allied substances (grouped
with lecithin under the general term phosphatides) in
which the choline is replaced by other nitrogenous bases or
by amino acids. There may be present also other complex
fats of somewhat different structures but all containing
nitrogen and phosphorus. These, with the phosphatides,
may be described as lipins (or phospho-lipids). The pro-
perties of the individual lipins are by no means identical
with those of lecithin, thus the properties of a commercial
lecithin will vary somewhat on its source and on the per-
centage of true lecithin present.
Chemical The chemical properties of lecithin are to some extent a
Properties reflection of the properties of the components of the
molecule. Thus hydrolytic agents (acids, alkalis, and
enzymes) attack lecithin, and after varying periods of time
yield either a mixture of glycerol, fatty acids, phosphoric
acid, choline, or alternatively, intermediate products such
as glycero-phosphoric acid or phosphoryl-choline.
The fatty acids present in lecithin from different sources
have been examined in detail, and a range of higher fatty
acids, saturated and unsaturated, containing 16 or more
carbon atoms have been isolated. Because of the presence of
unsaturated acids, the lecithins can take part in addition
reactions: (i) they can be hydrogenated by standard
methods to give hydro-lecithins of various degrees of un-
saturation; (ii) they readily absorb iodine and the iodine
value can be determined in the usual way and used as an
index of unsaturation; and (iii) they absorb oxygen.
Purified lecithins change rapidly when exposed to air,
no doubt by a combination of oxidative and hydrolytic
processes comparable to, but probably even more compli-
 BAKING FATS

cated than, those responsible for the onset of rancidity in

ordinary fats. Iron salts and other reagents catalyse the
oxidation processes.
These changes do not occur so rapidly with crude lecithin
preparations, especially those from vegetable sources, be-
cause of the presence of natural antioxidants, which are
associated with the phosphatides, and which plan an im-
portant protective role in stabilizing both the lecithins and
the triglycerides.
Thus we have the paradoxical situation that in spite of
the instability of pure lecithin, commercial lecithin can
often be recommended for its antioxidant properties.
Lecithin does not give a true melting point but is de-
composed by heat from 1I0 o C. onwards; crude mixtures
containing triglycerides may be more stable.
Lecithin, when freshly prepared, is an almost colourless Colloidal and
waxy solid, but on exposure to air it rapidly becomes dark Physical ProperticJ
brown in colour, following the absorption of oxygen. To
obtain pure samples oflecithin, many precautions have to be
taken at all stages and, in particular, low temperatures must
be used and air and light excluded. The behaviour of
lecithin with water has been extensively studied, especially
in relation to its surface-active properties. Different stages
can be distinguished, depending on the relative quantities
of phosphatide and water present. Lecithin is hygroscopic
and rapidly absorbs water vapour from the air. When a
small amount of water is placed in contact with lecithin the
solid appears to bud, giving irregular outgrowths-the so-
called myelin forms. In the presence of more water the
imbibition process continues and the mass swells, until (if
sufficient fluid is available) a colloidal solution results.
These, and related phenomena, have been studied by the
usual technique of colloid chemistry, and it has been
, shown, for example, that lecithin, like fatty acids, will form
molecular films on water. Lecithin will lower the surface
tension of water and aqueous solutions, and will lower the
interfacial tension between water and insoluble substances
such as fats or benzene.
Lecithin may form loose combinations with sodium
chloride, the resulting product being soluble in ether and
other fat solvents. Complexes of lecithin with sugars and
proteins have also been examined and these-like the salt
combinations-may be of importance in physiology, and
may help to explain certain results obtained in connection
with the food uses of lecithin. Emulsifying
Lecithin is a hydrophilic colloid and, because of its effect Powers

57
 CAKE MAKlr:{.G

in lowering the interfacial tension between water and other

substances, serves as a wetting agent atffi will promote
emulsions of the"bil-in-water type.
Lecithin will not only stabilize oil-water emulsions but
will also act as a protective colloid in delaying or preventing
the precipitation _by salts of hydrophobic colloids (e.g.,
metallic particles) dispersed in water. This observation
forms the basis of some of the non-food uses oflecithin.
Physiological It would appear that lecithin may have one of three
Properties distinct but allied functions in the animal body; it may be
part of the actual structure of the living cell; it may playa
part in cell membrane structure and permeability, or in
other physico-chemical processes; it may be actively con-
cerned in the metabolism of fats. There is considerable
evidence in favour of all these hypotheses, but whatever the
exact function may be, it is clear that lecithin is a naturally
occurring substance of great importance, and that its use as
a food adjunct can in no way be harmful.
Considered from the nutritional viewpoint, it can contri-
bute to the body the same components as the triglycerides,
namely glycerol and fatty acids; it contributes also phos-
phoric acid (important in mineral metabolism) and the
base choline, which has certain properties which entitle it
to a place among the water-soluble vitamins.
The nutritional role of lecithin can well be illustrated by
reference to the egg of the hen or any other bird. The egg
contains all the nutrients necessary for the initial growth of
the embryo, and during the incubation process the lecithin
of the yolk is utilized partly to supply energy for growth and
partly to supply materials required for the formation of
body tissues. Thus phosphorus originally in the lecithin
becomes part of the bone structure of the chicken.
Considered in terms of calories, the fatty acids of lecithin
will, on combustion, make the same energy contribution to
the body as will the fatty acids from triglycerides or any
other source. The total energy contribution of lecithin will
be high, but somewhat lower than that of the triglycerides
because of the presence of the phosphoric acid and choline.
In Germany lecithin from rape-seed oil has been exten-
sively used, and in Britain lecithin is being produced both
from groundnut and soya oil. The amounts available at any
time will be roughly proportional to the total quantities of
oil extracted, and will therefore fluctuate with the supplies
of edible oil from these sources.
Sugars 6

A NUMBER of sweetening agents are used in the manufacture

of confectionery. Most of them are natural substances
belonging to a group of chemical compounds known as
carbohydrates. The name carbohydrate is given to a large
number of neutral bodies that are composed of the elements
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the latter two being in the
same proportion as in the molecule of water. There are two
groups of these carbohydrates used as sweetening agents:
(I) The sucroses or disaccharides, the formula for which is
written C12H220n' The principal members of this group are
cane sugar, beet sugar, maple sugar, and palm sugar. (2) The
simple sugars or monosaccharides, the formula for which is
written C 6 H l20 6 • The chief members of this group are
dextrose or grape sugar, laevulose or fruit sugar, and invert
sugar, which is a mixture of dextrose and laevulose. They
are found naturally in honey. Commercial dextrose is
known as glucose. These two groups of sugars are intimately
related, because by a chemical reaction a molecule of water
can join up with the sucrose, Cl2.HzzOn, with the breaking
down of the molecule to produce one molecule each of
dextrose and laevulose as shown in the following equation:
C12H220n + H 20 = CSH120S + C SH120 S
Cane sugar Dextrose Laevulose
Invert sugar

This reaction is brought about either by pr.o_longed boiling

of the sugar with water or quickly by means of a very dilute
acid, such as in fondant making. It is produced naturally by
certain enzymes or ferments. Thus by enzymic action the
invertase of the yeast breaks up sugar into invert sugar
before the zymase of the yeast can produce carbon dioxide
gas. Sugars are found naturally in nearly every plant
structure-fruits, stems, leaves, and trunks of trees. These
sugars are contained in the juices of the plants, and are
usually mixed with invert sugars, dextrines, proteins, and

59
 CAKE MAKING

SUGAR REFINING

r - - - 'RECOVERY'
I
1
I
I
I
I is in
I
I
I
I
RECOVERY PROCESS: RAW SYRUP is
boiled in a VACUUM PAN, and
the resultant l\{ASSE spun in:
Centrifugal Machines to recover This consists of filtration through
maximum Sugar: Final ex· - - - - - - - - ANIMAL CHARCOAL to remove
{ COLOUR andDISSOLVED IMPURITIES.
hausted SYRUP is MOLASSES,
used for cattle food and for
distilling.

Liquor is boiled in a VACUUM}

PAN: the resultant MASSE is
cast into SLABS and the Syrup
'spun' out in CEl'."TRIFUGAL --
1vIAcHINEs: the final wet slabs
are DRIED and then CUT into
CUBES.

Delivery by barge, road, or rail

By courtesy of Tate & Lyle Ltd.

FIG. I.-Sugar Refining

60
SUGARS

other sap constituents, all in aqueous solution. Some of these

substances make extraction of the sugars difficult, because
they prevent their crystallization.
Ripe fruits contain sucrose, but when the fruit has be-
come over-ripe, dextrose is found in great quantities, due to
the inversion of the sucrose by the enzymes of the fruit.
Only a few of the sugar-bearing plants are of commercial
importance.
The sugar of commerce is obtained mainly from two
sources, the sugar cane and the sugar beet. It must be under-
stood that, when properly refined, all commercial sugars are
exactly alike in chemical composition. It is only possible to
tell their source when impurities are left in them.
Cane sugar gets its name from the fact that it is obtained
from the sugar canes. This plant contains approximately
18 per cent sugar. Beet sugar is extracted from the sugar beet,
which contains approximately 15 per cent sugar.
Cane sugar is extracted by crushing the canes between
powerful sets of rolls after they have been stripped of leaves
and cut into suitable lengths. By this means most of the juices
are extracted. The remainder of the sugar is extracted by
soaking the residual canes in hot water. The juice that is
extracted from the plant contains about 75 per cent water,
20 per cent sucrose, 4 per cent organic matter, and I per
cent mineral matter. This crude juice is collected and freed
from organic and nitrogenous matter by heating and treat-
ment with lime, which precipitates phosphoric acid as
flocculent calcium phosphate; this adsorbs the colloidal
organic matter. Another method is by treatment with sul-
phur dioxide, which precipitates calcium sulphite. The clari-
fied juice is concentrated by evaporation at reduced pressure
and then allowed to crystallize. By means of centrifugals
about 90 per cent raw brown or muscovado sugar is obtained.
The syrups or molasses separated out are further treated to
obtain more sugar of a lower grade. The residue is fer-
mented to produce Jamaica rum. The composition of raw
cane sugar may vary considerably, but on the average it may
contain about 94 per cent sugar, 2·5 per cent invert sugars,
I per cent proteins, 0·5 per cent mineral salts, and 2 per cent
moisture.
Beet sugar is extracted from sugar beet by diffusion.
The beet is cut into slices, mixed with water, and the juices
obtained are clarified, evaporated in a vacuum pan, and the
raw sugar crystallized out from the molasses. The average
composition of the raw beet sugar is somewhat similar to
that of the raw cane sugar.
 CAKE MAKING

Sugar Refining The raw sugars, whether derived from sugar cane or sugar
beet, are generally refined in sugar refineFfes devoted en-
tirely to this work.
A solution of the sugar is boiled with quicklime, when the
impurities float to the top and can be skimmed off. Some of
the lime is dissolve~ in the juice, and this is precipitated by
passing carbon dioxide gas through the juice. This converts
the lime into calcium carbonate, which, being insoluble, falls
to the bottom and is removed. The juice is then passed
through layers of animal charcoal, or a patented substance
known as norite, in order to decolorize it. When the syrup
has been clarified it is concentrated by boiling in vacuum
pans at a low temperature. When sufficiently concentrated
it is passed into centrifugal pans to separate the crystals from
the syrups. This centrifugal pan makes the sugar grow into
hard sugar loaves, and the syrups run out through perfora-
tions in the well of the pans. The syrups are either treated
again by boiling and taking out more impurities and con-
centrating to get lower grades of sugar or they are mixed
with fresh batches of raw sugar juices and the same process
repeated.
There are many modifications of the process which can
give different grades of sugars. Thus, in some cases the
syrups are passed through successive batches, and each suc-
cessive batch must necessarily have more impurities than
the previous, or the syrups can all be kept back and used to
produce inferior sugar, and lastly syrups and treacles.
The time and temperature of boiling also affect the sugars
to a certain extent. Thus when making granulated sugar the
solution is boiled to what is known as the 'massecuite' stage,
so that it has a sharp grain when crystallized out.
After sugar has been refined it is impossible to tell whether
it has been derived from the sugar cane or the sugar beet.
It should be at least 99 per cent pure sucrose.
The operation of making the crystals of different sizes is
done in the vacuum pan. If large crystals are wanted, then
large and heavy charges of syrups are placed in the pans at
long intervals, so that the crystals can grow during boiling.
On the other hand, if fine crystals are wanted the charges of
syrup are light and frequent.
The colour of genuine Demerara sugar is due to sac-
charetin (present in the canes), which is colourless in acids
and bright yellow in alkalis. The fact that it is bleached by
sulphur dioxide indicates that the colour is not due to
caramelization. Occasionally inferior grades of Demerara
are coloured by caramelization.
SUGARS

Thus, in the refining of sugars, three or four grades are

obtained. The top grades are at least 99 per cent pure
sucrose. The second grades are slightly inferior. The third
and fourth grades contain a Jew impurities, have generally
a yellow or dark colour, and are sent out to the market as
partially refined sugars, known as third or fourths or pieces.

When sugar has been refined it is ready for milling into the Milling of
various sizes required in commerce. This is done usually in Sugars
sugar mills which specialize in this type of work.
Cubes, splits, and nib sugars are prepared from the sugar
loaves by cutting the loaves by machinery and dressing into
the sizes wanted.
Granulated sugars are made by passing the syrups, after
boiling to a hard grain, into special" centrifugals and after-
wards washing to clean the crystals. The wet crystals are
passed into a revolving cylinder known as a 'granulator', in
which the material is both dried and granulated. The sugar
is then dressed and sieved to give three types of sugar-
coffee crystals, granulated sugar, or castor sugar, according
to size, the coffee crystals being the largest, and the castor
the smallest size.
Milled sugars of various sizes are obtained by grinding the
cubes or rough sugar crystals of various sizes in fixed drums
fitted with mechanical beaters that revolve quickly, causing
the crystals to become broken down into smaller pieces.
These are all dressed through sieves, or dressing reels, of
diverse sizes to get the different grades separated out. Thus,
fine castor sugar, pulverized sugar, and icing sugar, which
pass through silks as a fine powder, are obtained.
The dry sugar crystals are fed into the elevator. The
crystals are then lifted and delivered into the disintegrator;
the ground sugar crystals are then elevated and delivered
into the dressing machine. This machine is clothed with
silk, and can be so arranged as to produce all icing, or icing
and other grades, castor, pulverized, and sherbert.

Good, clear, bright-looking sugar crystals rarely contain The

any impurities. Dull greyish crystals often contain glucose or Evaluation of
invert sugar, and ultramarine ('blue') may have been em- Sugars
ployed to give a whiter effect. If blue is suspected it can be
detected by dissolving some sugar in water contained in a
glass cylinder. Place this on a white surface and allow to
settle for a few hours, then look down through the glass.
"\
CAKE MAKING

Any blue in the sugar will have settled out to the bottom.
The evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen on a'ddition of acid
is a confirmatory test.
Sugars containing glucose, when moistened and heated
for a few minutes, become more or less sticky. Hold some
sugar in the han? f?r a few minutes; if it contains glucose it
will feel sticky.
The ash content of sugar has been shown to influence the
volume of cake. A sugar containing 0·45 per cent ash pro-
duced a cake with 20 per cent less volume than one con-
taining 0·05 per cent ash.
Good cane sugar should be perfect!y solu_ble in half its
own weight of cold water. Such-a solution snould be free
from did and· otherimpurities. If it shows a deposit on
standing, then the sugar is not pure. ,If ~ .~ugar solution is
boiled at ordinary atmospheric pressure water is given off;
and, as in some solutions, the temperature does not remain
constant. The temperature rises slowly as the moisture is
driven off. The solution becomes slightly acid_and invert
sugar is gradually formed, so that the power of crystallizigg
again on cooling is entirely lost.
If some sugar is dissolved in half its weight of cold water it
forms a syrup or a saturated solution, and if more sugar is
added this will remain undissolved and can be readily seen
as a deposit on the bottom of the vessel. The quantity of
sugar required to form a saturated solution is always the
same, at the same temperature, and the syrup thus obtained
will always have the same density.
When a saturated sugar solution is heated it becomes un-
saturated, because sugar is more soluble in hot water than it
is in cold water; I lb. of sugar will then dissolve in a gill of
water. Now if a hot syrup is saturated, then allowed to cool
again, it must be evident thaC either the excess of added
sugar will tend to crystallize out or a syrup will be obtained
which contains more sugar than an ordinary saturated
solution. With a little care it is quite possible to obtain a hot
saturated solution which, when cold, will not recrystallize.
It is then said to be supersaturated. It is natural for excess of
sugar in a supersaturated solution to tend to recrystallize
out, and the greater the proportion of sugar in the solution,
the more likely it is to recrystallize. To prevent it doing so,
one must make sure that there are no crystals left undis-
solved, especially while boiling syrup.
Copper vessels are used to boil sugar solutions, owing to
their great conductivity of heat; also, their smooth surfaces
can be readily kept clean and free from crystals. The sides of
SUGARS

the vessels are washed down to remove crystals, so that all

the sugar is dissolved. All the sugar should be dissolved
before boiling commences, to prevent graining. During
boiling do not stir, as this may make sugar grain, and
finally..!_o prevent graining, a proportion of non-crystallizable
sugar, such as> glucose, should be" added . .b weak acid, such
~ cream of tartar, or lemonjllig;, will have the same effect.
The effect of heat on a super-saturated syrup is to make It
become runny and less saturated until it boils at 2150 F.
The longer it is boiled as the water is driven off, the higher
the temperature rises, and products of a different nature are
obtained at different stages of the boiling. There are about
ten stages known to the sugar boiler for his various products
between 220 0 and 3500 F. Sugar melts at 3200 F., without
the addition of water, and on cooling sets to a golden-
coloured mass, known as barley rock. Above 3500 F. the
sugar begins to decompose, and further heating would
leave a mass of carbon only.

When a supersaturated sugar solution boils, the temperature Degrees of

rises, due to evaporation of the moisture. It commences to Boiling Sugar
boil at 2150 F. The temperature of 225 0 F. is known as the Solutions
Thread degree, because, when it has reached this and
cooled, the sugar will be dense enough to form threads if a
fork is inserted and pulled out again. This degree is tested
by placing the first finger of the hand in the boiling syrup
and immediately withdrawing and touching the thumb
with it; it should form a thread when cool enough. The
syrup itself will set firm when cooled.
2300 F. is known as the Pearl degree, because, when tested
by the fingers at this degree, the sugar forms small globules,
resembling small pearls, on both the thumb and finger.
0
235 F. is known as the Blow degree, because, if a fork is
dipped into the syrup at this stage, then withdrawn and
allowed to cool, a film of sugar will form which, when blown
gently, will stretch. Later on, if the fork is dipped into
the sugar at 2400 F., the sugar will blow off in feather-
like pieces; thus we have what is known as the Feather
degree.
When the temperature rises above 2400 F. the sugar is too
dense to allow the use of the fork for testing purposes, and it
is usual then to cool the sugar in water by dipping wet
fingers quickly into the boiling sugar and immediately
immersing in cold water. If the sugar on the fingers forms a
0
soft ball or mass it is at 245 F., or the Soft Ball degree. Ifit
forms a hard ball it is at 2500 F., of the Hard Ball degree.
 CAKE MAKING

The temperature rises quickly through the succeeding

stages, and 280 F. is known as the Soft~'Crack degree,
0

because the sugar is more or less brittle on the outside, but

still soft in the centre. When it sets firm and brittle through-
out it will have reached the Hard Crack, or 3150 F. Sugar
boiled carefully to this temperature should set firm as a
clear, transparent, 'colourless mass. The sugar changes to an
amber colour above 3200 F., and the more it is boiled, the
darker it will become, until it is decomposed as a char.
3500 F. is known as the Caramel degree.

Uses or Sugars 'Sugar is used to tweeten confectionery products, various

types of the latter requIring special types of sugar. (
\ In flour confectionery it is used as a means of producing a
~t.>dfi()is.t~ating tendeu:r.umb in the finished product-1
artificial sweetening agents will not perform this function, as
they have nQ ~h.Qrtening ~ction on the gluten of the flour.
While saccharine has been used as an artificial sweetener in
many manufactured products, sodium cyclamate is now
taking its place, particularly in the production oflow-calorie
fruit drinks.
Loaf and cube sugars should be used generally for boiling
purposes, such as in the making of fondant, jams, purees,
and boiled meringues, because they are usually freer from
dirt than other sugars. Sugar nibs are employed to sprinkle
on tops of Bath buns and other types of small goods, and are
used in the dough, as they do not dissolve easily, and so act
as sweetening agents, not being attacked by the inversive
enzymes and changed into invert sugar.
Granulated sugar is used in the making of macaroon
goods, because of the hard grain and the openness of texture
imparted. It is also useful in cheap slabs, where it can be
dissolved in the milk. In other products, where eggs are the
only moistening agents, it should not be used, because some
of it remains undissolved, and, on cooking, shows as dark .
specks on the outside.
Fine castor sugar is used for nearly all purposes, such as
whisking with eggs or creaming with butter or fats, as it is
free in the grain and has no dust. It should also be used in
the making of meringue products.
Icing sugar is used to make water icings for buns and
cakes, also for preparing royal icings for cake decorations. It
is also used to make butter creams, gum pastes, many types
of dessert biscuits, and for dusting biscuit doughs and marzi-
pan.
Partially refined sugar, such as a light yellow sugar, like
66
SUGARS

fourths, can be used in fermented goods, and is often used in

Parkin and gingerbread goods.
) Dark-coloured sugars, such as Barbados or Demerara, are
generally used in dark-coloured cakes and puddings, be-
cause they help to colour them and give also .that special
flavour desired in such cakes.1

The formula for these simple sugars is CaH120s. The chief Simple Sugars
members of this group are dextrose or grape sugar, laevulose
or fruit sugar, and invert sugar, which is a mixture of the
two.
These.lsugars are all soluble in water and slightly soluble
in alcohol. They are readily fermentable by yeast.
Commercial glucose consists largely of dextrose; honey is
mainly invert sugar. It should be clearly understood that
the term 'glucose' refers to the coml1lercial article, of which
dextrose is the main constituent.
This is the chief member of the simple sugars used in Dextrose or Grape
confectiOriery. At one time it was obtained from honey, Sugar
raisins, sweet cherries, and the! expressed juice of grape~. It
occurs naturally in these substances, also in various sweet
fruits, flowers, and plants, and is often accompanied by an
equal amount of laevulose or fruit sugar.
It can be prepared in the pure state by the action of dilute
acids and enzymes on the glucosides. It is also prepared by
the prolonged action of dilute acids on starches. The liquid
obtained from any of these sources is treated with chalk to
neutralize the acid. It is then filtered and evaporated to a
syrup or else concentrated, so that it will solidify on cooling.
Alternatively, fine powdered glucose is produced by spray
drying.
It crystallizes in fine, hard, needle-shaped crystals with
one molecule of water, C 6H 120 6H 20. It melts at 295 0 F.,
and at 3380 F. it loses the water and is converted into
glucosan, C 6H 100 5 , and if further heated will be converted
into caramel. Q~tro~e is not so sw~el.to. taste.as..cane..sugar._
It is only about two"thirds as sweet.
This is principally made from starchy material-that is Glucose
to say, such starches as maize or potato starch. It can be
bought in two forms, liquid or solid. It contains a great deal
more than the chemical substance dextrose, owing to its
method of production. The starchy materials, which are
washed with water, are hydrolysed by means of dilute acid
or enzymic action, which breaks down the starch in a series
of steps, ultimately resulting in dextrine, maltose, dextrose,
and other sugars. The composition of the glucose, therefore,
 CAKE MAKING

varies with the length of time of the reaction and the type
of starch and method of manufacture, Hut the action is
never completed according to the reaction;

Starch Glucose

The composition of glucose, according to H. E. Cox, The

Chemical Anarysis of Foods, is as follows;
%
Water 10--20
Ash 1-1·5
Dextrose 20--60
Maltose 10--40
Dextrin 5-20
Protein Trace up to 0·15

The colourless variety, used by confectioners, is obtained

by bleaching a glucose syrup with a hydrosulphite solution
or sulphurous acid.
Use of Glucose High-grade glucose is a very useful product for use in
confectionery and jam manufacturing. Lt..is..n~
as cane sugar, and so can be used in fairly large quantities
in producing confectionery without making sickly articles.
When boiliI1g s1}gars to make fondants, a prQpm:tiQn of
gl~cose added when.sugar boils will. hasten .inversjon of the
sl"igar. When used in small quantities in cheap cakes and
sponge goods it assists in keeping them moist. In jam
making, a small proportion of glucose will prevent sugars
from crystallizing out when stored. It is also used to adulte-
rate honey and golden syrup.
Good glucose should be perfectly clear and soluble. It
should show no sediment when dissolved in water, contain
no acids or iron salts, have a pleasant taste, and contain a
large amount of dextrose. -
Laevulose or This is the sugar which occurs in flowers and in some
Fructose fruits. When sucrose is inverted by acids or enzymes, laevu-
lose occurs in the invert sugar in approximately equal
quantities with dextrose. It crystallizes with difficulty, and
so is usually produced in the form of brown syrup, which is
fully sweeter than sucrose.
Honey Honey has for its chiefsweetening constituents dextrose and
laevulose. It is a pleasant, sli h agd, sweet-tasting syrup
collected chiefly y ees from the nectaries of various flowers.
Sucrose is the sugar abstracted from the flowers, and this
becomes inverted into the simpler sugars by enzymic action.
The flavour of the honey varies according to the source
from which it has been abstracted by the bees. It varies

68
SUGARS

considerably in its composition, as the following analysis of

pure honey will indicate:
%
Sucrose 0·5 - 7·6
Invert sugar 64·5 -78·5
Proteins 0·18- 2·00
Mineral salts 0·05- 1·2
Moisture 12·0 -31·5

Honey substitutes are usually mixtures of honey and

glucose or cane-sugar syrups. These products may have the
same food value as pure honey, but they have not the same
distinctive flavour. .
Honey is used in confectionery mostly as a flavouring Uses of Honey
agent in the making of honey cakes, gateaux, nougat, and
chocolate centres. If it was cheap enough it could be used in
place of golden syrup and light-coloured sugars as the
sweetening agent in cakes. •
This is a mixture of the simple sugars dextrose and laevu- Invert Sugar
lose. It occurs in ripe sweet fruits, but is prepared com-
mercially either by enzymic action or by use of a dilute acid
on a sugar solution. It is sometimes mixed with glucose, and
is used in flour confectionery as a sweetening and moisture-
retaining agent.

Sweetness is a quality detected by taste, but there is no Relative

exact test for it. It depends mostly on the person testing it. Sweetness of
Sucrose is generally rated at 100. Sugars rated higher are the Sugars
sweeter tban sucrose, and those rated lower are less sweet.
The following is a table of sugar sweetness as given by
Sale and Skinner of the Bureau of Chemistry:
Sucrose '100
Dextrose 50
Laevu10se 150
Maltose 50
Invert sugar 85
This is a mixture of sugars prepared by boiling sugar and Fondant
water to 2400 or 245 0 F. and adding glucose, or a weak acid,
to aid the inversion of the sugar or 'cut the grain'. The
quantities usually used are in the following proportions:
12 lb sugar 2 lb. glucose, or
3 pints water :! oz. cream of tartar
Glucose is used to prevent too rapid crystallization of the
syg~:r:,_hut.because,glucose !S p,radiCcilI,y non~crystaIiizjble,
too much should not be used. The ct:eam of tartar also has
the same effect of preventing sugar from graIningduring
boiling-and iIi dlanging some of the sugar into invert sugar.

69
CAKE MAKING

Here again, too much should not be used, as this would

form too much invert sugar and the fondant could not be
recrystallized. Glucose added to fondant cheapens the
fondant and toughens it, so that more syrup is required to
thin it down when used to cover cakes. Cream of tartar pro-
duces a firmer fondant, but one which is not so tough, and
which is more suitable for chocolate creams.
An average composition offondant is:*
%
Sugar 80·0
Glucose 11·0
Moisture g·o
while one company insists upon:
%
Sugar 82·0
Glucose 11·0
Moisture 7 ·0
Theoretically, fondant is su ar dissolved in water which
is recrys a lzed, after boilin hY. mechanical agitation.
~ ese crysta s in carefully prepared fondant should be so
fine as to be scarcely perceptible by the naked eye. It is the
fineness__Qf these crystals that gives the gloss to fonda~ea
cakes. If the crystals are large the fonda-niSets with adull
appearance. The size of the crystals is much smaller (about
5 microns) than in the average icing sugar (25 microns),
and it is for this reason that fondant produces a much
better gloss than water icing. On a small scale, the fondant is
made by placing sugar with water in a copper pan on a gas
ring and dissolving the sugar slowly, so that all the sugar
will be dissolved before it comes to the boil. As soon as it
boils, stop stirring and boil quickly to 2400 or 245 0 F., re-
moving any scum that rises to the top. The sides of the
pan must be washed down occasionally with water to pre-
vent crystals forming. If crystals did form, or if all the sugar
were not dissolved before boiling commences, it might well
happen that the whole would suddenly set to a hard mass.
W~~ _temp~ature of the boiling sysup hfls reached
23_5 0 F. the glucose;0rJlie--=cr<:~m-of tartar dissolve9._ in a
little water, is added. On reaching the desired temperature,
the-syrup is poured on to a moist marble slab between four
steel bars (30 in. long and ! in. thick) forming a square.
The syrup is also splashed with cold water and allowed to
cool for about I hour. When at about 100 0 F. it is creamed
together by turning it backwards and forwards until it sets
as a hard, firm mass. If this is done before the sugar is cold
it will be much easier to crystallize, but the fondant will not
* See also Chapter 16, p. 182.
SUGARS

be so good, as the crystals will be too large to give a nice

gloss on the fondant when it is used. The fondant is then
covered over with a damp cloth for half an hour to mature,
when it is rubbed down to take out the hard lumps, and
stored away in containers until required for use.
Special automatic units, comprising a sugar boiling pan
and a warm agitator are used for making fondant on a
commercial scale, in which the fondant is produced by
mechanical working of the boiled sugar. The process is
continuous, and is mainly used today.
This is a dehydrated fondant which consists of go per cent Drifon
sucrose, 5 per cent dextrose, and 5 per cent laevulose. It is
made by a process which mixes sucrose particles with a
highly saturated cooked liquor containing sucrose, dextrose,
and laevulose. During this process the ingredients are
intimately mixed so that a dry product is finally attained
which reconstitutes to a creamy fo~dant. This can be pro-
duced either by using water or a simple syrup. A simple
syrup is obtained from 6 lb. granulated sugar and 5 lb.
water.
With water use 5 quarts to I cwt. of Drifon and mix in a
machine bowl for J 5 minutes at low speed. Then remove
from bowl and heat it to the temperature required for
dipping or enrobing.
With syrup use 16 quarts to I cwt. of Drifon and mix in
the same way as with water.
Drifon can be used in place of ordinary fondant for normal
coating work, but in addition is very good when used in the
production of buttercream, fudge, and other types of cake
toppings.
The consistency offondant received by the baker can vary How Fondant
considerably, and the simplest method of ensuring a supply Should be Handled
of fondant requiring the minimum manipulation is to
soften the bulk supply by a mixing machine, adding small
pieces at a time, and softening this with a small proportion
of simple syrup or water. Simple syrup may be prepared by
bringing to the boil 2 pints water and 3 lb. sugar. 8 oz.
glucose syrup may be added to this if there is a tendency for
the fondant to harden excessively. The fondant is then in a
condition which is relatively easy to stir during heating to
approximately 1000 F. This should be done in specially
designed fondant-tempering equipment. Additions of water
or simple syrup will reduce the viscosity at this point, but
it has been found that additions of glucose syrup alone in-
crease the viscosity, although they will reduce the propor-
tion of sugar crystals present.

71
 CAKE MAKING

Faults in Handling The most common faults which occur when handling
fondant are excessive localized graining, :lOss of gloss, ex-
cessive hardness, and stickiness.
Graining When fondant is heated a proportion of the solid crystals
dissolve. When fondant cools the excess sucrose in the syrup
portion is recrystallized, but larger crystals can form, thus
causing an inferior gloss due to loss of light reflection.
When local graining occurs in patches on the surface of
fondant it is usually due to the sucrose crystals being larger
at that point than at other points, and the cause of this is
usually seeding of the crystals. This can occur where
fondant which has been heated and cooled and allowed to
harden on the surface is mixed with fresh fondant or where
there has been localized over-heating during tempering.
Loss of Gloss and Loss of gloss and excessive hardness of fondant may be
Excessive due to an increase in the size of the sugar crystals caused by
Hardness a general overheating when tempering; to a change in the
balance of solid to liquid fractions, possibly due to the
fondant being exposed to a dry atmosphere; or to a reduc-
tion in the glucose content of the fondant to below approxi-
mately 12 per cent. If the glucose content of the fondant is
relatively low, and a permeable wrapping material is used,
then there may be a tendency for graining of the sugar
crystals to increase, causing hardness and loss of gloss.
0
Fondants should not be heated above 110 F. during
tempering, but there is a method for improving gloss by
subjecting the fondant-covered goods to a high temperature
in an oven at about 4000 F. for a few minutes. This actually
melts the surface fondant, but owing to the fact that it is not
thereafter subjected to any agitation, the sugar crystalliza-
tion is slow and the fondant will retain a gloss for some time.
Hardness of This can be reduced by the addition of non-crystallizing
Fondant sugar such as commercial glucose syrup, but the amount
used is limited owing to its hygroscopic effect in producing
stickiness. The addition of 10 per cent by weight of marsh-
mallow or 6 per cent by weight of shortening also reduces
the hardness of fondant.
Stickiness Stickiness of fondant, which can give rise to packaging
difficulties, may be due to a number of reasons:

Using too Iowa temperature for tempering.

I.
The presence of too much glucose syrup.
2.
3. The use of an insufficiently permeable wrapping
material in relation to the glucose syrup content of the
fondant. The higher the glucose content, the higher the
degree of permeability required.

72 '
SUGARS

There will normally be a tendency for moisture to migrate

from cake to fondant during storage. Therefore, unless the
wrapping material is sufficiently permeable to allow mois-
ture to be lost from the fondant, the fondant will become
sticky. The transfer of moisture from cake to fondant can be
reduced by pre-coating the cake with a material which will
act as a moisture barrier. Boiled apricot puree has been used
for this purpose for many years, and is perfectly satisfactory.
A layer of almond paste is often placed on the cake surface
before enrobing, for not only does this give a smooth surface
for further decoration but it acts in a similar manner to
boiled apricot puree as a barrier between cake and fondant.
Stickiness can also be caused by variations in storage
temperature in relation to atmospheric humidity, causing
condensation on the surface of the fondant. This is very
noticeable at seaside resorts and where fondant-coated
goods have been refrigerated and then brought into a rela-
tively warm atmosphere having a higher humidity.
This is a general term that includes all liquids prepared Syrup
from sugars, fruit juices, golden syrups, and treacles.
Simple syrups are used for a number of purposes, but the
most common uses are for thinning down fondant and for
crystallizing fruits. It is prepared by boiling 3 lb. sugar, 2
pints water, and t lb. glucose; 2 gm. of cream of tartar may
be used in place of the glucose in order to prevent the re-
crystallization of the sugars. All froth is taken off during
boiling, and care is taken to prevent crystals forming on the
sides of the pan. The syrup is strained when cold, and put in
bottles ready for use as required.
These arG_. th~_refined ()r paIj:i'!Uy refined b'y"~products Golden Syrup
from the manufacture of sugar. Tht:Y .consist of the un- and Treacle
c-rystallized Sugars and water with varying small qllantities
ofSliCrOse, proteins, dextrines, and minq~J s.alts. These...are
u§t;;d_ m~s.tlY :In gIngerbread goods.
This is used by the confectioner. It is neither a sugar Glycerine,
nor a carbohydrate but is in reality .an ~lC_Q_hQL Qf the_fa~~y C 3H{j(OH)a
hydrocaI"bon-class. It is found naturally in all fats in a com-
bined state wlth various fatty acids.
Pure glycerine is prepared from fats by hydrolysing them
with steam under pressure, and as a by-product in soap
manufacture. It is a colourless, thick syrup very much like
glucose in appearance. It~ dis~~<::! s~e..eLtaste, but gives
a dry feeling to the. mouth. It has important hygroscopic
prop'er_ti~~.t._abstracting mQU;tUl,:e from2irsuite readily. For
this reason it.is. :used in confectiont;ry in. the.making.of-cakes
in order to assist in .keeping them moist. The proportion

73
 CAKE MAKING

used varies, but it is seldom more than I oz. glycerine to

each lb. of fat employed. However, its Wilue in confec-
tionery is much overrated.

Standards for Standards for sugar at the present time are essentially based
Sugar on chemical purity and degree of polarization. There are no
accepted standards for grain size, which is important from
the viewpoint of practical usage. It has been suggested that
trade requirements might be met by agreed Mesh Size for
various grades such as:
Mesh sizes
Coarse Granulated through 6--over 8
Medium 8- 15
Fine " 15- 30
"
Castor 30-
Medium " 40- BO
Fine 60- 80
Pulverized 80- " 120 or 200
Icing No.1 120- "" 200
Icing No.2 200-
"

74
Chemical Aeration 7

""-
[rIlE earliest application of chemicals to baking with the Historical
object of liberating carbon dioxide for aeration of the outline
dough is uncertain, and it is somewhat difficult to trace the
gradual development of chemical aeration.
Carbonates of soda and potash have been known from the
very earliest times. The former was obtained from the ashes
of sea plants, as well as from those growing near seashores,
and the latter from the ashes oHand plants, and went under
the name of potashes, from which a purer form, known as
'pearl ashes', was made. Both of these alkalis were used for
aerating before bicarbonate of soda, probably in conjunc-
tion with sour milk or buttermilk. One special case may be
cited, that of real old-fashioned gingerbread, when 'pearl
ash' dissolved in water was mixed into a firm dough with
treacle and flour, then set aside to ripen. This ripening was
often allowed to continue for some months. When the
dough was eventually baked off the acid* present in the
treacle and flour, and a quantity probably developed during
the ripening process, reacted with the carbonate, releasing
carbon dioxide gas, which aerated the goods.
There seems little doubt that bicarbonate of soda has been
used for 200 years or more, when domestic baking was
general, often alone, but probably more frequently in
conjunction with buttermilk or sour milk. Lactic acid is
present in these liquids, and would react with~~ assisting
in the liberation of carbon dioxide. As the amount-ofacid is
not ~on! -tnan -rper~e~t,· the a~~stance in aeration cannot
have been great, but no doubt reduced the discoloration
and alkaline taste.
Just as the domestic baking of bread gradually decreased
when this important food was procurable from shops, so, to
a large extent, did the making of small goods. When the
production of these latter by bakers became more general, it
was necessary to find readier means of generating carbon
dioxide gas for aeration.
* National Association Review, 1929, p. 1598.

75
CAKE MAKING

According to Kirkland,! no chemicals except pearl ash

and alum were used by the baker as aeratIng agents in or
about the year 1830. Alum, although not an acid, reacts
with bicarbonate of soda in the heat of the oven, with the
evolution of carbon dioxide. Carbonates of magnesia and
lime were also employed.
Probably the next chemical to be brought into use was
the carbonate of ammonia,_com_lIlonly' known as 'vol'. It
was to some extent used in domestic baking, as wen as on a
larger scale by bakers.
In a work published in Glasgow in 1832,2 written by a
baker, reference is made to sodium and magnesium carbo-
nates, as well as to the u,se of bicarbonate of soda, and
hydrochloric acid; yet in 1836 a patent 3 was granted for the
use of hydrochloric acid and bicarbonate of soda together
as an aerator, and the method adopted is detailed.
In sequence, tartaric acid and cream of tartar followed on
the heels of hydrochloric acid, for a well-known, ready-
mixed baking powder made from these acid substances was
first placed on the market about this time (1830-40).
In the United States ready-mixed baking powder, made
from similar ingredients to the one mentioned above, was
first extensively advertised for sale and generally introduced
about 1845-50. Flaming posters appeared in all the towns
calling it 'German yeast', or baking powder.
As time went on, the prices of these two materials, tartaric
acid and cream of tartar, tended to encourage the search for
other suitable acid substances as substitutes, particularly for
cream of tartar.
Grant4 states that 'aeration by chemicals was first tried
towards the end of the eighteenth century by means of a
mixture of superphosphate of lime and ordinary washing
soda that had been dried (dehYdrated),. This appears to set
the introduction of superphosphate a little too early.
Liebig5 (1803-73) originally recommended the treatment
of bone with sulphuric acid, and Lawes only obtained his
patent for the treatment of mineral phosphates with sulphuric
acid in 1842. Manufacture on a large scale was actually
commenced in 1845.
In 1856 a patent6 was granted for the use of pasty acid
calcium phosphate, mixed with farinaceous material and
dried, as the acid ingredient of baking powder. Professor
E. N. Horsford,7 of Cambridge, Mass., was the first to
advocate the use of acid calcium phosphate for aeration, in
1861, and he obtained a patentS for its application in
1864.

76
CHEMICAL AERATION

Although, as already noted, alum had been used in this

country, its general introduction in the Unites States seems
to have taken place about 1880, and in 1892 sodium alumi-
nium sulphate, generally known as 'S.A.S.', and which is
really a modification of the alum proposition, appeared. 9
This substance, alone and admixed with acid calcium
phosphate, has a large sale in that country, both as a cream
powder and also as a ready-mixed baking powder.
It was only natural that other acid salts of phosphoric acid
should be tried as the source of acid, and in 1888, a patent lO
was granted for the manufacture of mono-potassium
phosphate as a cream of tartar substitute. The mono-sodium
and mono-ammonium phosphates have also been tried.
Th~ examination of two cream powders is recorded about
1895.11 They consisted of mixtures of the mono-ammonium
and mono-calcium phosphates, along with some starch.
The next acid substance to be introduced was acid sodium
pyrophosphate. A patent 12 was granted for its manufacture
in America in 1901. This material, reduced to cream of
tartar strength with starch, was introduced into this country
about 191 I, and most of the present-day 'cream powders'
are based on this. This material has a certain distinct dis-
advantage, which is discussed later, and which militates
against its general adoption. In 1927 a patent 13 was
granted for a process of manufacture of acid materials, and
it is claimed that by this method mono-sodium phosphate
can be made so that it will act with all the advantages of the
acid sodium pyrophosphate, but free from the serious draw-
back of its after-taste in the finished goods.
From time to time, numerous other acid materials have
been tried, and in many cases patents have been taken out.
In particular, there have been many patents in recent years
endeavouring to prevent the too rapid reaction of acid
calcium phosphate (A.C.P.), mainly in connection with its
use in self-raising flour, cake flours, and baking powders.
Among ,the inorganic acid materials tried were the alkali
acid sulphates. The organic acids suggested include glycollic,
lactic, citric, mucic, and adipic. Of these, perhaps adipic is
the most promising, but, so far, none has attained any im-
portance.
Durip.g the 1914-18 War potato starch impregnated with
sufficient hydrochloric acid to yield a powder which could
be used in the usual proportions with soda was offered.
When fresh, it gave moderate satisfaction, but, on keeping,
the starch was hydrolysed to glucose, which caused de-
terioration.

77
 CAKE MAKING

Other organic acids have been suggested to replace cream

of tartar, but at the moment they are of n1;I importance.
With the exception of bicarbonate and carhona.te_of
ammoma,_alLaei:ating-chemicals . .leave-a..residue .in-the_
bak~oods! Some of these are considered by certain authori-
ties more or less harmful or, at least, undesirable, which has
led to some controversy. Hence it has been the aim of the
experimenters and patentees to introduce materials which
leave no chemical residue.
One such product is acetone dicarboxylic acid which,
under the action of heat, breaks down into carbon dioxide
and acetone:
CH 2·COOH
CO /
"'CH2 'COOH
(146) (88)
Acetone dicarboxylic acid Acetone
There is a likelihood of the acetone not being com-
pletely expelled from the baked goods, and they may there-
by be tainted. Also, the cost of the material is relatively
high. Further, its stability under bakehouse conditions is as
yet uncertain.
Hydrogen peroxide-30 per cent solution (100 vols) has
also been suggested, since the residue left after decomposi-
tion is water only:
2H 2 0 2 = 2H 20 +O 2

A number of patents have been taken out both in the.

United States and in this country for its use in bread and
cake manufacture. However, it would appear that a con-
siderable amount of experimental work would be required
to be carried out before its adoption could be advocated.
The latest addition to aerating agents is Glucono-delta-
lactone, which_is used .as .the-acid ·component Dr- baking
powders.
Now let us consider the products in general use for
SOdiUDl chemical aeration.
Bicarbonate,
NaHCOa This is the alkaline constituent from which the carbon
(SodiUDl dioxide is released by the acid component under suitable
Hydrogen conditions during baking.
Carbonate,
Bicarbonate
Na 2C0 3 + CO + H 2 20 = 2 NaHC0 3
(106) (44) (18) (168)
of Soda,
'Salveratus') The sparingly soluble sodium bicarbonate in suspension is
CHEMICAL AERATION

removed, filtered, washed, and dried at 70° C. It appears

commercially as a white crystalline powder of about 99'9
per cent purity.
The solid salt decomposes on gentle ignition to form the
normal carbonate; at the same time carbon dioxide IS
liberated:
2NaHCO s ~ Na 2CO S + CO + H2 20
(168) (106) (44) (18)
When a solution of sodium bicarbonate is heated, a portion
only of its carbon dioxide is given off, and if the solution be
allowed to cool crystals of Na 2CO a,2NaHCO a,2H 20 are
deposited. The action is represented by:
4NaHCOa = Na 2CO a'2NaHCO s + CO 2 + Hp
(33 6) (274) (44) (18)
This is really the reaction that takes place in baking when
so~_ .bicarbonate is use9.__!llone, and it is seentliatQr~ly
25 per cent of the_!_otal c_ar:1?_o_!l_ dioxii_e_ is )ibe_r;ated. It is
only on prolonged boiling of a solution of the salt that it is
completely converted into the normal carbonate.
The alkaline nature of the residue has a marked, disagree-
a_bletliSt"e;anci also causes discoloration of the goods,
accompanied by a somewhat unpleasant s~eU. -When
sufficient of any acid is used to decompose it completely,
I gm. sodium bicarbonate will yield 265 c.c. carbon dioxide
at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure (N.T.P.), and 362 c.c. at
100° C. and 760 mm. pressure.

Argol, a hard crystalline deposit formed in vats in which Cream. of

wine is fermented, and in bottles of wine, where it is termed Tartar
'crust', is impure bitartrate of potassium. The salt is present (Potassium.
in grape juice, and being insoluble in alcohol, and sparingly Bitartrate,
so in water, is precipitated as fermentation proceeds. After KHC4H 4 0 6,
crystallizing, it is called 'tartar', and when further purified Potassium
by the removal of colouring matter and recrystallized, it Hydrogen
becomes 'cream of tartar'. Argol contains approximately Tartrate)
75 per cent potassium bitartrate.
Cream of tartar has one of the hydrogen atoms of tartaric
acid replaced by potassium, and has approximately two-
fifths th~_ acidity of tartaric acid, weight for w~ight. Seeing
tnat half the hydrogen IS replaced it might be imagined
that cream of tartar would have half the acidity of tartaric
acid, whereas it has only two-fifths, since allowance must be
made for the difference in atomic weights of potassium (39)
and hydrogen (I).

79
 CAKE MAKING

Potassium bitartrate is only slightly soluble in cold water,

but readily so in hot, and on this differenq¢ in solubility its
value to the baker depends, for when in contact with sodium
bicarbonate and water in the cold, comparatively little
action takes place, whereas in the hot oven carbon dioxide
gas is rapidly e.vo~ved.
KHC 4H 4 0 6 + NaHC0 3 = KNaC 4H 40 6 +
H 20 +
CO 2
(188) (84) (210) (18) (44)
The residual salt is potassium sodium tartrate, and has an
aperient action on the human system. Rochelle salt* is the
commercial name for the crystalline salt.
On comparing the equation above with that given for
tartaric acid, it will be-seen that cream of tartar yields more
than double the amount of residual salt for the same
amount of carbon dioxide gas evolved.
Generally cream of tartar and sodium bicarbonate are
~sed in the p:.o_portio~s_9{ 2-·:}.;_ but 1111_s1~a~~-an_ ~xces~ _?f
alIGili"iii1negoods. From the above equation, it will readily
-be seen that 22'4 parts cream of tartar require 10 parts
sodium bicarbonate for complete neutralization.
I gm. potassium bitartrate with sufficient sodium bicarbo-
nate for complete neutralization will yield 118'4 c.c.
carbon dioxide at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure (N.T.P.),
and 161·8 c.c. at 100° C. and 760 mm. pressure.
It can now be obtained commercially of 99 per cent
purity.
It is evident that since the raw material for this salt, as
well as tartaric acid, is really a by-product of the wine
industry, the supply will vary from year to year with the
grape harvest.
A long and acrimonious controversy has been waged,
chiefly in America, between tJ:le advocates of tartrates and
those of other types of aerators, particularly alum. Scientific
opinions have been given in favour of both sides, and appear
to be about evenly divided, except that in this country and
Australia the presence of alum is looked upon as an adultera-
tion in foodstuffs.
Tartrates appear to have no value as a food, since they
do not occur naturally in the human system in any form,
and hence are not required to supply any deficiency or to
replace wastage.

Tartaric Acid Argol, or crude tartar, was known to the Greeks and
H 2C 4H 40 6
Romans. It was not, however, till 1769 that Scheele isolated
* Seignette of Rochelle named this so that it is sometimes referred to
as 'Seignette's salt'.

80
CHEMICAL AERATION

free tartaric acid from argol, and soon afterwards it was

manufactured on the large scale in a similar manner to that
employed today. The acid is obtained from either 'wine
lees' or 'argol'. Wine lees, consisting largely of grape skins,
yeast cells, stalks, etc., is dried to kill bacteria and spores.
After milling, it is leached with hot water, filtered, and lime
added to neutralize the acid and precipitate calcium
tartrate, from which the acid is set free by sulphuric acid,
then finally purified by recrystallization. The lees contain
up to 20 per cent tartaric acid in combination as potassium
bitartrate. The acid is also prepared by dissolving 'tartar',
obtained from the first crystallization of argol (see under
Cream of Tartar) in hot water, treating with lime, and pro-
ceeding as described above.
Xartaric acid is dibasic, and forms both an acid and also a
normal series of salts, called tartrates. It is readily soluble iii.
hot and cold wa~V~acting-im~iliteTyin-the cold with
sodium bicarbonate, liberating carbon dIOxide, according
to-Uiefollowi"ng eqwi.tlon: -- - - -
H 2C 4H 40 6 + 2NaHCOs = Na 2C 4 H 4 0 6 + 2H 0 + 2C0
2 2
(150) (168) (194) (36) (88)
The residual salt, normal sodium tartrate, has a decidedly
aperient action, and on this account exception has been
taken in certain quarters to the use of tartrates in baking.
As the amount present is so small, it is extremely doubtful
whether they can really exercise much effect.
Owing to the ready solubility of this acid, it is not of great
interest to bakers today. It finds considerable use, however,
in certain classes of biscuit manufacture and in effervescing
drinks. It is now obtainable commercially of 99 per cent
purity, and practically free from metallic impurities,
although in the early days it was often rather heavily con-
taminated with arsenic and lead. The former was introduced
in the sulphuric acid and the latter dissolved from the lead
vessels used in concentration and crystallization.
8'9 parts tartaric acid require 10 parts sodium bicarbonate
for complete neutralization.
Calculating from the equation given above, it is found
that I gm. tartaric acid yields 296.8 c.c. carbon dioxide at
0° C. and 760 mm. pressure (N.T.P.), and 405'5 c.c. at
100° C. and 760 mm. pressure. Acid Potassiun
Sulphate,
This is prepared by mixing solutions of pure normal potas- KHSO,
sium sulphate and pure sulphuric acid in molecular propor- (Potassium.
tions and evaporating to dryness. It has been used to some Bisulphate)

D 81
 CAKE MAKING

extent as an aerating agent to replace tartaric acid, which it

resembles in speed of reaction, owing to ip; ready solubility
in cold water.
Its reaction with sodium bicarbonate is represented by
the following equation:
KHS0 4 + :NaHCOa = KNaS0 4 + H 0 + CO
2 2
(13 6) (84) (15 8) (18) (44)
The residual salt is practically tasteless, but has a marked
purgative action. For complete neutralization, 16·2 parts
potassium bisulphate require 10 parts sodium bicarbonate.
This salt is now really only of historical interest.

Acid Sodium This is prepared similarly to the potassium saIt, the solution
Sulphate, being evaporated to dryness and then the mass heated to
NaHS0 4 render it anhydrous. The salt is deliquescent, but less
(Sodium soluble in water than the corresponding pota:;sium bisul-
Bisulphate) phate.
The reaction with sodium bicarbonate is:
NaHSO" + NaHCO a = Na2S0 4 + Hp + CO 2
(120) (84) (142) (18) (44)
The residual salt, normal sodium sulphate, when crystal-
lized with 10 molecules of water, is the well-known Glauber's
salt, which is used as a purgative.
14·3 parts sodium bisulphate (anhydrous) require 10 parts
sodium bicarbonate for complete neutralization.
The acid salt, when allowed to crystallize, does so with I
molecule of water.

Hydrochloric This is one of the earliest acids used, in conjunction with

Acid, HCI sodium bicarbonate, to liberate carbon dioxide for aerating
(Hydrogen purposes.
Chloride, It is obtained on the large scale as a by-product in the
Spirits of Salt, manufacture. of sodium carbonate (Naj!CO s) from salt
Muriatic Acid) (NaCI). In the first stage of the process salt is treated with
sulphuric acid and then heated. The reaction is:
NaCI + H 2S0 4 = NaHS0 4 + HCI
(58· 5) (9 8) (120) (36 .5)
The hydrochloric acid gas which is evolved. is made to
pass up stone towers packed with lumps of coke or brick,
down which trickles a stream of water. The gas is dissolved
and the acid solution is collected at the bottom. Only after
thorough purification is it ready for bakers' use.
The pure acid is on the market as a colourless liquid
CHEMICAL AERATION

having a density of 1'15 to 1'16, containing 30-31 per cent

hydrogen chloride. It forms white fumes in contact with
moist air, and is highly corrosive in action, requiring great
care in handling to avoid spilling any on the person or
clothes.
The following equation represents its reaction with
sodium bicarbonate:
HCI + NaHC0 3 = NaCl +H 20 + CO 2
(3 6 '5) (84) (58 '5) (18) (44)

From which it is seen that, taking 30 as the percentage of

hydrogen chloride, 14'5 parts acid (S.G. 1'15) require 10
parts sodium bicarbonate for complete neutralization. The
residue left in the goods is sodium chloride-i.e., common
salt, which is a necessary constituent of food.
At one time hydrochloric acid and sodium bicarbonate
were used in the making of wholemeal bread because, owing
to the type of yeast then available, and the long fermenta-
tion methods used, it was considered difficult to make
satisfactory wholemeal bread by yeast fermentation alone.

Molecular weight 178'14' Melting point 153 0 C. Solubility Glucono-delta-

59 gm. 100 m!. in water at 20 0 C. lactone
0=Li---------,
I
H-C-OH
I
OH-C-H
H-~-{)H I
H-C___j
I
CH 20H

Glucono-delta-Iactone is prepared by an oxi2izing f~r- Manufacture

mentation of dextrose under aerobic c,onditions usin a
bacterh!!ll..whic oXIdizes theAugar...to_gluconic acid without
any si~ificant formati()n_ qf .other acids~ The resulting
gluconic acid liquor is concentrated under reduced pressure,
cooled and seeded with glucono-delta-Iactone crystals, and
evaporation is continued until a substantial crop of glucono-
delta-lactone has crystallized out. The crystal crop is
separated from the mother liquor by centrifugation, washed
with cold water, and dried by steam heat.
It is an inner ester of gluconic acid. It is a white crystal-
 CAKE MAKING

line powder with aQ~al sweet taste and a slight acidic

aftertaste. ~.
- -AItIi.Ough glucono-delta-lactone is noj: _an_a~id.-l in water
solJition it slowly _hydrolyses- to an eq~ilibrium mixture of
gluconic_a~id anQ its delta-_anQ_gamma-lactones._At rooni
temperature (25 0 C.) complete hydrolysis occurs in approxi-
mately 2 hours and produces a solution containing 55-60
per cent gluconic acid and 40-45 per cent lactones, based
on the amount of added glucono-delta-lactone. The
hydrolysis rate is increased with an increase in temperature.
To improve the stability of glucono-delta-lactone during
the shelf life of products when the moisture pick-up of the
other ingredients may present a problem, glucono-delta-
lactone was coated with 5 and 10 per cent calcium stearate,
by weight.
The slow hydrolysis rate of glucono-delta-Iactone in cold
water>3:!!-cGiiLaccderaclon-with-an increasej~p~e,
make it ~.!l. ~~c_ell_enLacidulant.JOl: );gker:y-products_whiCh
use a chemicalraising.action. ~e_thereisJittle_acid formed
during_batter_ p.r_epari:ltiQu,_ther-0s little loss of ~t
time; the_main release of CO a occurs dux:ing-the-baking
cyQe.-:the. ideal ti~.
One part glucono-delta-Iactone will completely neutra-
lize~2 par..!.... s~dium]jica:-r~alcuTations for using
glucono-delta-lactone in a new formula or as a replacement
for all or part of the acidulant at present used in a formula
should be made on this basis.
The best results are obtained when glucono-delta-lactone
is used with another chemical acidulant. Generally, use of
this as 50-70 per cent of the total acid source produces
optimum results, cream of tartar being used to make up the
balance.
For maximum volume_and best flavour in Angel cake, the
acidity must be developed late in the baking cycle.
Glucono-delta-lactone will produce goods of _volume
eq\li\.l_ to- those in w~~ch_aE:Y o~f!~F ~<:id' agent is__!!Se_d~th
the advantage that there is no objectiona5teaffertaste in tIie
-'-..
goo~, a_ ver.y .Important. pomt.
~

Ammonium The commercial salt consists of a mixture of ammonium

Carbonate hydrogen carbonate and ammonium carbamate, having the
('Volatile' or composition (NH4 )HCO a +
NH4 ·COa·NHa• It was ob-
'Vol') tained by first subliming a mixture of 2 parts calcium
carbonate (chalk) with I part ammonium chloride (sal
ammoniac), or with ammonium sulphate. The product,
with the addition of some water, is then resublimed, when it
CHEMICAL AERATION

is obtained in white, semi-transparent ~asses, having a

strongly ammoniacal smell and a pungen~ustic taste. It is
noW usually manufactured by the direct combination of
ammonia and carbon dioxide. These gases in the correct
proportions are passed into water maintained at the
correct temperature when the above compound separates
out. If synthetic ammonia is used, the product is of good
quality. It may, however, be further purified by sublima-
tion:
3NHa + 2C0 2 + H 2o ---7 NH4HCOs'NH4'C02'NH2
~~posure to the air results if! slow volatili~.<!-_tio_n. W~n
aqueous solution is heated the salt is completely decomposed
into ammonia gas, carbon dioxid_e,_and_ water:
(NH 4)HCO a + NH4'C0 2'NH 2 = 3NHs +
2C0 2 +
H 20
( I 57) '(5 I) (88) (18)
This is also the reaction taking place in the oven when
'vol' is used as an aerating agent. All the prOdOCts~e
gaseous and volatile, hence its common _!l~me, and no
residual saltiSleffDeliind in the oods. When freshly baked
the goo s smell and taste of ammonia_). P_ut. this_smelLand
taste aisaRP-ear Qn_cooling._The_chieLuse_ ot: 'vol' js_fQ.Lthe
making of small porous articles, such as biscuits, which
pe!:!lli.L2f the..escape-of .die .gCis_es. )Tisa white crystalline
solid, and tends to give the good~ic::l~_w - ~r :The
grade normally used for foodstuff purposes is described as
Ammonium Carbonate Powder ground from B.P. Lump
Carbonate. This grade contains 30 to 31' 5 per cent ammonia
(NHa) and 53'5-54'5 per cent carbon dioxide (C0 2),
Ammonium carbonate is very volatile and smells strongly
of ammonia. In order to prevent loss of ammonia, it must
be stored in airtight containers in a cool place. I gm. of
ammonium carbonate when decomposed, as shown by the
equation above, yields the following amounts of gas:
Ammonia (NHa) 420·2 c.c. at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 283-6
" " " " "
Total 703·8
Ammonia (NHa) 574·1 "" 100°"C. " "
Carbon dioxide (CO 2) 387·5 "
" " " " "
Total 961-6
" " " " "
Ammonium bicarbonate, which is represented by the AJnJnoniuJn
formula NH 4HCO a, is a white crystalline solid. The grade Bicarbonate
supplied for food-stuff purposes is a fine crystalline powder
which satisfies the requirements of the British Pharma-
 CAKE MAKING

copoeia. It contains 21'4-21'6 per cent ammonia (NHa)

and 54'25-55"85 per cent carbon dioxid~'(C02)' It there-
fore contains considerably less angp.onia. ~I).d slig._htJ.¥--more
carbon dioxide than the ammonium-ear-bonate.
, Since_!be_raising_actionofthe·two-compounds.is.mainly
dependenLQn~the carbon_ dioxide liberated_ hy-heat,_the
< bicarhoJlat~ can tepLa&e. an.. equal ..weight, of~the_c:a.rbQIlate,
and it has been shown to rt:s.!llLin ,an imRrovement in the
quality of the 'lJak-ed ',go,ods, and in the .r.etention...cl:::less
ammonia.
The bicat:honate_di~soci~t!'!s much less readily than the
carbonate at ordinary temperatures, and it therefore.has a
much less pronounce(:f ammoniacal smell. It should be
stored in its original containers in a cool place.
Ammonium bicarbonate, like the carbonate, yields, on
volatilization, only a small amount of non-volatile residue,
which is normally less than 0'004 per cent. Its use in baking
therefore does not give rise to any appreciable quantity of
non-volatile substance in the baked products.

The Alums The term 'alum' is a generic one applied primarily to a

group of double salts of aluminium sulphate, together with
the sulphates of the alkali metals, which crystallize with 24
molecules of water. This name is now also used for double
salts, other than the above, which crystallize in a similar
form with 24 molecules of water.
The alums that have been used for baking are:
Potash alum (or simply alum) K.SO•. AI.(SO.) •. 24H.O
Soda alum Na zSO•. Al.(SO.) •. 24H.O
Ammonia alum (NH,).SO •. Al.(SO')3.24HzO
Under this head sodium aluminium sulphate .(S.A.S.)
should be included, as it is really soda alum deprived of its
water of crystallisation-i.e., -dehydrated-although it is
contended by the manufacturers that it is something very'
different.
The alums.do.not---react-with·sodiurn bicarbonate in the
cold:b~t1iithe heat of the o~en, alt~ugh they are not,
aCids in the ordinaryacceptation of that term. The follow-
ing is the action taking place:
KzS04.Alz(S04)a.24HP + 6NaHC0 = 3
(948) (5°4)
2AI(OH)a + gNa zS0 + 4
(156) (426)
K 2S04 + +
6COl! 24H 20
(174) (264) (432)
86
CHEMICAL AERATION

The insoluble aluminium hydroxide is highly undesirable

in food, although, here again, widely divergent views have
been expressed by authorities. In this country, however,
the presence of aluminium in foods, other than that present
naturally, is regarded in the nature of adulteration, although
in the United States such an aerator is permitted. Sometimes
it is used alone, as well as in combination with acid calcium
phosphate.
It is of interest historically as being one of the first
materials used to liberate carbon dioxide from sodium
bicarbonate.

Phosphorus is widely distributed throughout Nature, The

chiefly in combination with calcium and oxygen, as tri- Phosphoric
calcium phosphate, Ca3 (P04)2, which is the raw material Acids and
from which the acids and their s~lts are produced. This Phosphates
element in combination also forms an essential constituent
of all animal and vegetable life. The Phosphoric
There are three of these-viz. : Acids
Orthophosphoric
Pyrophosphoric
Metaphosphoric
Orthophosphoric acid is tribasic-i.e., it forms series of salts
containing one, two, and three equivalents of a base per
equivalent of acid. In the case of sodium, these salts are:
Monosodium orthophosphate NaH.PO•. H.O
Disodium orthophosphate Na.HPO,.12H.O
Trisodium orthophosphate NasPO•. 12H.O
The acid is manufactured from phosphate rock or bone
ash, both of which consist principally of tricalcium phos-
phate Caa(P0 4h, by intimately mixing the finely ground
material with sufficient moderately dilute sulphuric acid to
convert all the calcium into sulphate, as shown in the
equation:
Ca3 (P0 4h + 3H2S0" + 6H20
(310) (294) (ro8)
= 3[CaS04'2H20a) + 2HaP04
(516) (196)
The mass, after standing some time, is taken up with
water, the insoluble matter removed by filtration, and the
clear filtrate concentrated to a syrupy liquid, in which form
it appears on the market.
Today, phosphoric acid is manufactured by: (i) the blast-
furnace process, or (ii) the electric-furnace process.
CAKE MAKING

In both, phosphate rock, sand (Si0 2), and coke are the
raw materials. The essential reaction can be e~pressed by the
equation:
Ca3 (P0 4)2 + Si0 2 + sC = gCaSi0 3 2P+ +
SCO
(310) (180) (60) (345) (62) (140)
In the blast-furnace method, ground rock phosphate and
coke are briquetted, mixed with sand, then dropped into
the furnace.
Slag (CaSi0 3) is drawn off at intervals, the phosphoric
vapour cleaned, then burned to P 20 5 , which is led into hy-
drating chambers and finally condensed to phosphoric acid.
The reactions are shown by the equations:
4P + 502 = 2P 20 5
(124) (160) (184)
P 20 5 + 3H20 = 2H 3P0 4
(142) (54) (19 6 )
To be economic, these units have to be oflarge size, which
is something of a disadvantage.
The electric furnace method also uses ground rock
phosphate and sand mixed with coke. This mixture is
charged into the furnace working at a temperature of
2,4000 F., from which the slag is periodically tapped. To
the gases from the furnace, air can be admitted and the
phosphorus vapour burned directly to P 205' which can be
hydrated as before. The other process is to condense the
phosphorus under water, and the carbon monoxide can be
used as a fuel. The phosphorus is then burnt separately to
yield a pure phosphoric acid. The advantage of this process
is that units of varying sizes can be worked economically,
and the lower grades of phosphate rock can be used as well.
Orthophosphoric acid is usually called simply phosphoric
acid, but in the other two cases the prefixes are always used
to denote the differences.
Pyrophosphoric acid is tetrabasic and yields a series of four
salts, although only two need be mentioned-viz. :
Disodium pyrophosphate N a,H.P 00 7.HoO
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate Na,P o0 7.10H oO
The acid is prepared by heating orthophosphoric acid to
2500 C., when 2 molecules of acid lose 1 molecule of water,
as shown in the following equation:
2H 3P0 4 - H 20 = H 4P 20 7
(19 6 ) (18) (178)
J.\1etaphosphoric acid is monobasic, having only one replace-
able hydrogen atom in the molecule. It is obtained by heat-
88
CHEMICAL AERATION

ing either ortho- or pyrophosphoric acid to a red heat,

whereby water of combination is driven off, as shown
below:
2H 3P0 4 - H 20 = H 4P 20 7 - H 20 = 2HP0 3
(Ig6) (18) (178) (18) (160)
The acids themselves are not employed as aerating agents,
although orthophosphoric acid admixed with starch as an
absorbent has been suggested. The use of acid phosphate
as the source of acid for this purpose is of comparatively
recent date. They have undoubtedly grown in favour, partly
on account of their relatively low cost and partly because
compounds of phosphorus are an important constituent of
the human diet, being necessary for the building up of
bone and tissue. There is, however, considerable divergence
of opinion as to whether the phosphorus should be in organic
or inorganic combination for easy assimilation; but prob-
ably both forms are equally essential, and by the use of
suitable phosphatic cream powders a necessary food, and
one that is natural, is supplied to the human system.

The three calcium ortho salts are: Calcium

Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H.PO.) •. H.O Phosphates or
Dicalcium phosphate CaHPO. Ortho-phos-
Tricalcium phosphate Ca 3 (PO.).
phates
The two latter are insoluble in water. Monocalcium
Phosphate,
This salt in its impure form, admixed with calcium sul- Ca(H 2P0 4)2'
phate, is the 'superphosphate' of commerce, which finds H 20
extensive use in agriculture as a fertilizer. It is manufactured (Calcium
by the same method as phosphoric acid, except that less Biphosphate,
sulphuric acid is employed. The reaction is: Acid Calcium
Phosphate
Ca 3 (P0 4)2 + 2H 2S0 + 5H P
4
[A.C.P.])
(310) (lg6) (go)
= Ca(H2P04)2.Hp + 2 2[CaS0 4·2HP]
(25 2 ) (344)
~--------r--------~
'Superphosphate.'
The pure salt for food purposes is now made from pure
phosphoric acid. High-grade hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2' or
pure dicalcium phosphate and phosphoric acid are
vigorously mixed in sufficient quantities to convert all the
lime into monocalcium phosphate. Free phosphoric acid is
to be avoided, since it increases the difficulty of handling in
the final stages of manufacture, as well as detracting from its
keeping properties. The mass, after standing some time, sets
8g
CAKE MAKING

solid, is broken up, then spread out to complete the reaction

and dry. After being coarsely ground the}8rying is com-
pleted under vacuum before being finely milled. Acid
calcium phosphate is now generally offered as being of 80
per cent strength, being reduced to this value by the addi-
tion of the necessary amount of pure dicalcium phosphate.
Widely differing-views are held as to the reactions taking
place between acid calcium phosphate and sodium bicar-
bonate during baking. Hart 14 writes the reaction as:
3Ca(H2P04)2 + 8NaHC0 3
(702) (672)
+ +
= Ca3 (P04)2 4Na2HP04 8C02 + 8H zO*
(3 10) (5 68 ) (352) (144)
Monocalcium phosphate crystallizes with I molecule of
water, although it is not shown in the above equation; but
after making allowance for this, it is found that 100 parts
pure monocalcium phosphate, Ca(H2P04)2.HZO, react
completely with 88·89 parts sodium bicarbonate, and it is
on the basis of this equation that the value of 80 per cent is
adjusted by the addition of dicalcium phosphate as a
diluent. This salt also aids stability.
J ago 15 and Leach 16 consider that the reaction does not
proceed so far, and give the equation as:
Ca(H 2P0 4h + 2NaHCO a
(234) (168)
+
= CaHP04 Na.fiP04 2C02 + 2H20 +
(136) (142) (88) (36)
Actually Jago 17 gives the two following equations:
CaH4(P0 4)Z + NaHCO a
+
= CO 2 CaNaHa(P0 4)2 H 20 +
CaH4(P0 4h + 2NaHC0 3
+
= 2C0 2 CaNa zH z(P0 4)z 2H20 +
but goes on to remark that the proportions of the latter are
correct for aeration, which corresponds with 13'9 parts of
the pure acid salt to 10 parts sodium bicarbonate.
Kent~JoneslS states that acid calcium phosphate reacts
with sodium bicarbonate in the way shown by the two
equations below:
CaH4P Ps + 2NaHC0 3
= 2CO z + CaNa 2HzPzOs +
2H 20
CaH 4PPs + NaHC0 3
= CO 2 + CaNaHaP Ps +
H 20
... Students are advised to regard this as the equation which rep-
resents the reaction of A.C.P.

go
CHEMICAL AERATION

Presumably, from this writer's point of view, both re-

actions proceed simultaneously.
There do not seem to be any grounds for showing the
products of the reactions as compounds salts of calcium and
sodium; in fact, it seems entirely wrong, since in chemical
reactions, whenever it is possible for a body to be formed
which is insoluble, and hence precipitated, or is gaseous,
and therefore volatile, such a body is produced, and so
removed from the sphere of action.
Patten 19 considers that one or both of the following re-
actions take place depending upon the proportion of
sodium bicarbonate used:
3Ca(H2P04)2 + 4NaHC03
(7 02 ) (33 6)
= Ca3(P04)2 + 4NaH2P04 + 400 2 + 4 H 20
(3IO) (480} (17 6) (72)
30a(H2P04h + 8NaHOOa
= Ca3(P04)2 + 4NazHP04 + 800 2 + 8HzO
(3IO) (5 68 ) (35 2 ) (I44)
20
Other investigators have concluded, as the result of
painstaking researches, that if a considerable excess of
sodium bicarbonate is present tricalcium and disodium
phosphates are formed; otherwise some dicalcium phos-
phate is produced at the expense of an equivalent amount of
tricalcium phosphate.
It seems probable that the reaction between acid calcium
phosphate and sodium bicarbonate which takes place under
actual baking conditions is represented by some combina-
tion of the equation as favoured by Hart,_ and that favoured
by Jago and Leach, but just what that combination may be
is difficult to define, since no really satisfactory method for
the determination of the neutralizing value of acid calcium
phosphate to correspond with its baking value has, as yet,
been found. Each method so far advocated is empirical, and
certain very definite details have to be closely adhered to in
order to obtain duplicate concordant results, which are on
the high side, requiring correspondingly large amounts of
sodium bicarbonate and leaving an excess of alkalinity in
the finished goods.
In the case of a powder containing monosodium phos-
phate or acid sodium pyrophosphate, or both, together
with acid calcium phosphate, the reactions are complex and
cannot be expressed in equations.
For some time after acid calcium phosphate came on to
the market varying strengths and qualities were offered, and

91
 CAKE MAKING

some were far from satisfactory. Calcium sulphate was used

as a diluent until a maximum of 10 per cent was fixed. The
present-day quality is generally excellent, a high-grade acid
calcium phosphate having a composition within the
following limits:
%
Free phosplroric acid Nil
Monocalcium phosphate 85·5-90
Dicalcium phosphate 7·5-8·0
Calcium phosphate 0·1-1·0
Iron and aluminium phosphates 0·1-1·5
Moisture and insoluble matter 1·0-1·5
Arsenic and lead Under legal limits
Fluorine and chlorine Traces
T~ofthis material now are as ~Jk)_ur improver
and as the acid ingredienCin 'self-raising' flour. As a flour
lID:prover, acid calCium p'hosph.~t!: has a definite act jon on
the glufen of flour, in that it ti htens or tou hentit,_hence its
actIOn in ten mg to make a weak flour...hehave.as_a..stronger
one. It is also effective in the ~l!mi1}a.riQJ:u~L:t:QPe-in_br~d.
Acid calcium hos hate be ins to react with sodium
bicit onate-slowly-in-the-cold,-aruU:he reactiQIl increases
witl?~risejn teID:Rerature. For_th!§~. the.l:tesu:esults_ are
obtained by baking almost immedi~te1y after II1ixing. The
dkalcium. pnosphate -presen1':-in:rhe~_acid .ph9.§ph~lso
reacts-at-higher-temperatures-and prolongs ,aer:ation.
This material often produces black specks on thesurface
of goods. A series of carefully controlled experiments, carried
out in Canada,25 has shown that the monocalcium phos-
phate is responsible; but if it is reduced to a finely divided
condition the occurrence can be avoided.
Coated Anhydrous Autogenously coated crystalline anhydrous mono calcium
Monocalcium phosphate has attained a high place as a baking acid in the
Phosphate self-raising flour industry and as a constituent of baking
powders.
This special type of anhydrous monocalcium phosphate,
developed by Schlaeger and Knox,21 is made by reacting
lime with a strong phosphoric acid containing minor
amounts of certain metal compounds at a sufficiently high
temperature to prevent the formation of any substantial
amount of hydrated monocalcium phosphate, and at a
temperature low enough to prevent the formation of any
appreciable amount of pyrophosphate. Generally 140°-
175° C. is employed. The reaction is carried out in a batch
mixer equipped with an efficient agitator. The resulting
product is a dry powder consisting of minute crystals of
anhydrous mono calcium phosphate. These minute crystals
are then subjected to a temperature of approximately 200°-

92
CHEMICAL AERATION

0
220 C. Under this heat treatment the potassium and several
other elements appear to combine with the calcium phos-
phate surface of the crystals to form an autogenous, glasslike,
substantially water-insoluble coating over the crystals. The
exact composition of this glassy coating has not been deter-
mined, but it does have a great effect on the stability and
reaction characteristics of the anhydrous monocalcium
phosphate particles.
As a baking acid, or acid constituent of baking powder,
this new phosphate depends on its ability to resist de-
composition in moist atmospheres and on its delayed as well
as slow reaction with sodium bicarbonate in dough mix-
tures. The glassy coating protects the anhydrous phosphate
from the action of atmospheric moisture. In wet dough
mixtures it permits only a slow penetration of mixture into
the interior of the particle and there,by delays its reaction
with the soda present.
As an example of this action, the following table shows a
direct comparison between the actions of this special
anhydrous phosphate and the ordinary hydrated mono-
calcium phosphate, which for many years had been a
principal commercial phosphate baking acid. The table
shows the amount of carbon dioxide liberated during
different time intervals from a mixture of the baking acid
0
and sodium bicarbonate in water at 27 C., the amount of
sodium bicarbonate being theoretically sufficient to liberate
200 c.c. of carbon dioxide on completion of the reaction:
PER CENT CARBON DIOXIDE LIBERATED
,
Hydrated Special
Time (min.) monocalcium anhydrous
monocalcium

I 61·0 7·0
'l G'H~ 7·5
4- 64·0 22·0
6 - 49·0
8 - 60·0
10 - 64·0

The data shows that with ordinary mono calcium phos-

phate the reaction with soda is about 60 per cent complete
within I minute, whereas with the special coated anhydrous
phosphate the reaction is less than 10 per cent complete in
2 minutes and not over 50 per cent complete in 6 minutes.
When translated to baking practice this information means
that the chemically aerated doughs can be mixed, moulded,
and cut out, and placed in the oven before any appreciable
loss of the leavening gas takes place.

93
 CAKE MAKING

Experimental scones baked under uniform conditions,

except for the type of acid, show that th:~ volume of the
scones made with the special anhydrous phosphate is
approximately one-third greater than when ordinary
monocalcium phosphate is employed.
Dicalcium As already mentioned under monocalcium phosphate,
Plwsphate, this salt is useu as a diluent in reducing the pure acid
CaHP04·H.P calcium phosphate to 80 per cent strength. It is scarcely
affected by cold water. Certain American writers Z2 state
that it has a baking value, and when used at a strength of 25
gave satisfactory results, although, of course, the charac-
teristic tightening effect of calcium would be present.
Monosodium This is manufactured by adding soda ash to a solution of
Phosphate, pure phosphoric acid in molecular proportions to produce
NaH2P0 4'H20 the salt, evaporating, crystallizing, then drying above
0
(Sodium 100 C. to remove water of crystallization, and finally
Biphosphate) grinding. Monosodium phosphate crystallizes with I mole-
cule of water. This salt is neutral in reaction to methyl
orange, but acid to litmus and phenolphthalein. Since the
anhydrous salt is deliquescent, great care is necessary in
storage. It is readily soluble in cold and hot water, and in
solution reacts vigorously with sodium bicarbonate in the
cold, according to the equation:
NaH zP0 4 + NaHC0 3 = Na 2HP0 4 + CO + H 0
2 2
(120) (84) (142) (44) (18)
The residual salt is the neutral sodium phosphate of
commerce and has a mild, pure, saline taste with a slight
aperient action.
Although this was one of the first acid alkali phosphates
to be tried as an aerating agent, its ready solubility and
deliquescence prevented it from achieving success and
caused it to be superseded, particularly by acid sodium
pyrophosphate (q.v.). A patent23 was granted whereby
it is claimed that this acid salt can be manufactured, so that
it is no longer deliquescent, and at the same time is inert in
the cold dough, only reacting with the sodium bicarbonate
when subjected to the heat of the oven in exactly the same
manner as the acid sodium pyro salt, and yet being entirely
free from the objectionable taste of that substance.
For complete neutralization, 10 parts sodium bicarbonate
require 14'3 parts pure monosodium phosphate (anhy-
drous). Further, I gm. of the acid material plus sufficient
bicarbonate of soda to leave no excess yields 18S'5 c.c.
carbon dioxide at 00 C. and 760 mm. pressure (N.T.P.),
and 253'45 c.c. at 100° C. and 760 mm. pressure.

94
CHEMICAL AERATION

This is manufactured as the anhydrous variety by heating Acid Sodium

monosodium phosphate at 200°-220° C. for 6-8 hours, when Pyrophosphate,
water is driven off: Na2H2P207·H20
2NaH 2P0 4 - H 20 = Na2H 2P 20 7
(240) (IS) (222)
During the period of heating, the temperature must be
kept under control in order to prevent dehydration from
proceeding too far, for at temperature exceeding 220 0 C.
further water is gradually expelled until, when 2400 C. is
reached and this temperature maintained for some time, the
following reaction takes place:
Na 2H 2P 20 7 - H 20 = 2NaP0 3
(222) (IS) (204)
The formation of sodium metaphosphate, NaPO a, is to be
avoided since this salt is insoluble in water and, further, has
no acid properties.
Acid sodium pyrophosphate crystallizes from solution
with I molecule of water. It yields an aqueous solution
having a neutral reaction to methyl orange, but acid to
litmus and phenolphthalein. The solid is perfectly stable,
non-hygroscopic, sparingly soluble' in cola- waterand
~a-ailyin:ll'Of;h-ence, So far as its speed of reactIon-with
sodium bIcarbonate IS concerned, It IS a very satisfactory
'sLow-acttng'oa'Kmgacia.. Its reactIOn witli soaium mcarl)O:""
mte is expressed thus: .
Na 2H 2 P 20 7 + 2NaHCOa = Na4 P 20 7 = 2C02 + 2H 0
2
(222) (16S) (266) (88) (36)
The residual salt normal sodium pyrophosphate, shows a
very distinctly alkaline reaction to phenolpthalein. It has at
first a not unpleasant saline taste, but soon causes a tingling,
then burning sensation in the mouth and throat. It is the
formation of this saIt, when this acid material has been used
in baking, that causes the peculiar 'aftertaste', 'bite', or
'burning sensation' in the mouth and throat when the goods
are eaten. This, unfortunately, is the characteristic of many
of the cream powders now on the market, because of which
cream of tartar is still used by some bakeries. The objection-
able feature just mentioned has militated against the more
widespread use of this convenient acid substance, as un-
doubtedly it produces excells;nt wlume aod texture, but
'lJP].Q.s,t always spoils the flavour, It is interesting to consider
the signrticance of the prefix 'pyro', which is derived from
the Greek word for 'fire', and the reason for this is the high

95
 CAKE MAKING

temperature which is required for the conversion from the

ortho- to the pyro-condition. '}f
Aqueous solutions of the pyrophosphates are stable even
on boiling, but the addition of most acids and continued
boiling causes gradual hydrolysis back to the ortho-salt. It
has been suggested by certain writers,23 yet with some
uncertainty,24 tI1at - the residual salt obtained in actual
baking is disodium phosphate. The facts just enumerated
preclude such a conclusion, as well as the results obtained
by examining the actual extracted residual salt.
The likelihood of the pyro-form of phosphates, as such,
being assimilated by the human system seems remote, but
possibly a certain portion, at any rate, may be hydrolysed
to the ortho-state by the digestive juices, and so eventually
be present in a form in which it can be utilized by the
human metabolism.
13'2 parts pure acid sodium pyrophosphate (anhydrous)
react completely with 10 parts sodium bicarbonate.
1 gm. of the acid sodium pyrophosphate with sufficient
sodium bicarbonate for complete neutralization yields
200·6 c.c. carbon dioxide at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure
(N.T.P.), and 274'0 c.c. at 100° C. and 760 mm. pressure.

Effects of It is of interest to consider briefly the effect of the acid

Baking Acids materials employed in aeration, as well as of the inorganic
and their salts resulting from the interaction of sodium bicarbonate
Residual Salts and the various baking acids.
on Flour In chemical leaveningJ_h_~_g.as is supplied .fulliL.Pj_carho-
na~f soda. This gas is released froni- the soda by reaction
~t~cid-a~ting--;ubstariCe. -The add must be~-;ctive
'-0 _. .- -. - . -- _____

towards the soda until liquid is addep. in the making.,.!p of

the doug"!]., or batt~r, .otherwise there. would bG. pJ:~,mature
..!9~ _o_f _g~. -Xn addition to SU2plxing_ tEe raising__'p"~;cr,
~hel_!licaLaerat!Dg. materials,_after liberating the gas, leave
r~sidual s,,!-lts in the dough that modify ihe flour R!:QIeins
and affect ..tI1e~texture,sQiour..,:and. t.enderness..oLthe-baked
..._------ ~

p.roducts.
Taking weights oftaLtarkacidand cream of tartar, which
show !l:.J:? eq~l acidity.~hy the usual titration methods, it is
found that, although handled with all speed and baked off
immediately, tl;).e former does nQt give a volume which
compares with the latter although the residual salts differ
only slightly. It is probable that in this case..1he inte~f
acidity-i.e. ~ydrog_~I!-iQn concentration-in __t1;te_90ugli
has some slight effect. on the .gluten in. the flour, the tar.tas.ic
a
acid having greater hydrogen-ion concentratio~~ ~n~ ~o a

96
CHEMICAL AERATION

grea ter softening effect, where by the gluten strands break more
easily and-do n6tstrefclil:cnlre-sah!eex:tericas-th-ey-do when
cream of tartar is used; thus a depreciated volume results.
More important, however, seems to be the comparative
solubility of these two acids. Tartaric acid is much more
readily soluble in the cold do~}i_a_Il. iscreain of lartar,
and as a result greater solution takes place. Hence, some
Interaction with the bicarbonate results and the gas pro-
duced dissolves in the liquor of the dough. When the goods
are placed in the oven this gas expands, but as it has been
produced in the cold, it has a tendency to cause the dough
to flatten, so that on expansion in the oven only a steady lift
results. This does not produce a bold-looking product, for
from all experiments carried out, it has been found that a
more rapid evolution of gas under the influence of the heat
of the oven is required; this causes a rapid rise, and so gives
bulk to the goods. •
With cream of tartar, less solution takes place in the cold
dough, so that more gas is given off in the oven, as a result
of which a somewhat bolder product is obtained.
As already mentioned, acid calcium phosphate has a
toughening effect on gluten, which prevents its being
stretched so fully on the evolution of the carbon dioxide in
baking, and a pinched appearance is evident in goods
baked with this material. This pinching effect can, to some
extent, be reduced by the use of a larger amount of liquor
than usual in wetting up.
CREAM OF TARTAR

Potassium bitartrate
KCH.H.0 6
66'7

Water' Sodium bicarbonate

H.O NaHC0 3
19'1 29.8

I I
,~

I J
Carbon dioxide Sodium potassium
CO. tartrate
15'6 KNaC.H.0 6·4H zO
100

97
CAKE MAKING

It has also been observed that disodium phosphate has a

marked action upon gluten, tending to keep from forming
a tough, firm, compact mass, The action of the pyrophos-
*
phate is difficult to define, but the volume obtained with it is
hard to surpass, Notable features of the phosphate baking
acids are that they give the crumb a good white appearance,
not obtained with Cream of tartar, which yields a creamy
tinge, and also, so far as the sodium salts are concerned, the
goods keep moist for a longer period than when tartrates
are used.
Cream of tartar and sodium bicarbonate, mixed together
in the usual proportions of 2 : I, liberate by the action of the
acid on the carbonate 15'6 per cent carbon dioxide-
TARTARIC ACID

Tartaric acid
H 2C 4H 4O S
26,6

Water Sodium bicarbonate

H 2O NaHCO.
- 29'8

I I
. . r-
I I
Carbon dioxide Sodium tartrate
CO 2 Na.c4H40,,2H20
15,6 4 0 ,8

MONOSODIUM PHOSPHATE

Monosodium
phosphate Water Sodium
Starch Hp bicarbonate
(anhydrous)
NaH2P04 17'1 NaHCO.
70 '3
29'8
42'5
I T I r

t
Carbon dioxide Disodium
CO 2 phosphate
15'6 Na2HPO .. 12H2O
127

98
CHEMICAL AERATION

i,e, 66'7 parts of cream of tartar and 33'3 parts sodium bi-
carbonate yield 15"6 parts (= percentage) carbon dioxide,
Actually the same percentage of carbon dioxide would be
obtained using the above quantity of cream of tartar and
only 29'8 parts sodium bicarbonate, since it is this latter
material which contains the carbon dioxide,
Cream powders are sold guaranteed 100 per cent cream
of tartar strength, and as a general rule, the neutralizing
value is higher than that of cream of tartar, and lies some-
where between that figure and the one for complete
neutralization of the sodium bicarbonate, hence the per-
centage of gas will be proportionately higher,
Taking as a basis the production of 15,6 per cent carbon
dioxide, the actions between some of the acid substances
ACID SODIUM PYROPHOSPHATE

Acid sodium
pyrophosphate Water Sodium
Starch bicarbonate
(anhydrous) H.o
Na.H.P.0 7
20'2 NaHCO a
25'6
29'8
39'4
-
I 1 I J

1
t 1
Sodium
Carbon dioxide
pyrophosphate
CO.
Na4P20ilOH20
15'6
79'2

ACID CALCIUM PHOSPHATE

Diagram A presumes AC,P, to be 80 per cent, i,e, go per cent
Ca(H2P04)2,H20, the balance consisting of 10 per cent dicalcium
phosphate,

Acid calcium
Sodium
phosphate
bicarbonate
Ca(H.P0 4k H 20 NaHCOa
80%
29'S
37'3
I 1

I I
f 1 1
Tricalcium Dicalcium Disodium Carbon
phosphate phosphate phosphate dioxide
Ca a (P0 4l2 CaHP0 4'2H.O Na.HP0 4'I2H 2 O CO.
'13'8 3'7 63'5 15,6

99
 CAKE MAKING

Diagram B presumes A.C.P. to be 100 per cent.

l'
Acid calcium
phosphate Sodium
Ca(H 2PO.)2·H 20 bicarbonate
NaHC0 3
100%
29' S
33.6

I I
,~

I I
Tricalcium Disodium Carbon
phosphate phosphate dioxide
Ca3 PO. Na.HPO.· 12H2O CO 2
13' S 63'5 15"6

and sodium bicarbonate can be represented diagram-

maticaUy, showing at the same time the relative amounts of
residual salts produced for the same gas evolution. Starch
is added in the diagrams of the phosphate baking acids to
give the proportions of 2 parts cream powder to I part
sodium bicarbonate. In each case the bicarbonate is taken
as 29.8, as this will yield the 15"6 per cent carbon dioxide,
and the amount of acid material shown is just sufficient for
complete neutralization.

References 1. Kirkland, The Modern Baker, etc. (1910), p. 239.

2. Kirkland, The Modern Baker, etc. (1924), vol. i, p. 239.
3. Whiting, B.P. 7,076 (18'36).
4. Corifectioners' Raw Materials (1921), p. 127.
5. Thorpe, Dictionary of Applied Chemistry (1922), vol. ii, p. 177.
6. Newton (HorsfordJ, B.P. 2,161 (1856).
7. Hart, Leavening Agents (1914), p. 51.
8. U.S.P. 42,140 (1864).
9. Hart, Leavening Agents (1914), p. 52.
10. U.S.P. 374,201 (1888).
II. Jago, The Science and Art of Bread Making (1895).
12. Patten, U.S.F. 674,140 (1901).
13. B.P. 276,146 (1927).
14. Leavening Agents, p. 52.
15. Technology of Bread Making (1921), p. 357.
16. Food Inspection and AnalYsis, 4th edition, p. 349.
17. Technology of Bread Making (1921), p. 357.
18. Modern Cereal Chemistry (1927), p. 244.
19. Jour. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chern. (1917), vol. ii, p. 227.
20. Davis and Maveety, Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem. (1922), vol. xiv,
p.21O.
21. Knox, W. H., U.S.P. 2,160,700.
22. Adler and Barber, Cereal Chern. (1925), vol. ii, p. 80.
23. Waggaman and Easterwood, Phosphoric Acid, Phosphates, and
Phosphatic Fertilisers (1927), p. 260.
24. Ibid., pp. 265-6.
25. H. M. Newton and A. C. Willard, Canad. Chern. Metall. (1934) ,Jline.

100
 Essences and
Essen tial Oils 8

FOR general confectionery products, essences and essential

oils are very widely used, and although liqueurs may be
necessary in certain of the best-quality products, most of
this chapter will be devoted to consic;J.ering those substances
which find application in everyday bakehouse practice.
Where delicacy offtavour is desired-and this should be the
aim of those using flavouring materials-natural fruit
juices may often be employed.
Before proceeding with a detailed study of the various
flavouring materials used by the confectioner, a survey of
their constitution and composition must first of all be made.
An Essential Oil or volatile-2!!__!Ilay J:>e d~fineQ as_illl
odorous oil extracted -from-pJants~b-y_expression o_r_by
-distillaiion In-steam:-Thus oil of lemon may be obtained
eitheroy expression from the peel of the fruit or by distilla-
tion in steam; in this case, however, the latter process results
in an oil of very inferior quality. Most volatile oils consist of
varying proportions of compounds belonging to the terpene
series, which are almost valueless as flavouring materials,
together with highly aromatic oxygenated bodies.
Naturg} Essences are prepared by macerating natural-
flavouring materials, such as roots, ba:t:ks, §~eds, fruits,. etc~;
in ~i!her spirits «(wine" isopropyLalcohol,---glycerine--gl-ywls,
or a mixture of two or more of these. Sometimes alsQ _esseIi-_
tlal ods are dl§§__olyeqjn ..these..solvents.. - - ---
firtijicial Essences ~:e.r_<,:pared.b:yJlli~!!:..cj_!I1g.Ylir_ious _o~ga:nic
.<;:ompounusw-itna suitable s.lliY.ent-. These. essences some-
times lack the subtlety of flavour obtained when natmal
ingredients are"employed; bunhey-nave tIle advantag~s of ~
strength and e~onoinyJnJi~---
Frequently an artificial essence has an entirely different
flavour when used in a fondant heated at a comparatively
low temperature as compared with the same essence when
used in cakes or boiled sugar, which latter products are sub-
101
 CAKE MAKING

jected to higher temperatures. It is therefore important to

seek the advice of experts when selecting an ~sence for any
particular purpose.
True Fruit Essences are alcoholic distillates of fruits and,
a_!iIii5llgh comparatively weak in flavour and expensive,
yield pleasing results~ -They are partictilarfyrecommended
for -'liign-class goouswhich are not subjected to high
temperatures, e.g syrups, fondants, creams, etc.
f2IJ.ijj_ed or. BlendeLEssences-consisLof frill!.. o~etable
extr~cts blended with suitable synthetic compounds. -
'-Liqueur is an aIcoholif,E.rupy_il_uid ol:itainea-l)y-blending
,a ~g¥. .srrup wi!.h_jtlcoh_c>!,_,gld flavouri~J!...with spices
such as nutmeg, oil of ~o!ia_!lJkr,_mace,Jemon,_ana' others,
__
the type of spic(; used determining
....
the ..........----
.. type
~ . ofliqueur-:--'

Essences This is probably the most widely used flavour for baking
Vanilla Extract purposes. The best cured vanilla beans, from which this
extract is prepared, vary from 8 to 25 cm. in length and
from 4 to 8 mm. thick. They are of a rich, dark brown to
almost black colour with an oily surface, and are often
covered with fine frost-like crystals of vanillin.
Bourbon, Madagascar, and Mexican beans are of the
choicest grade and command a high price. The beans, when
first gathered, are yellowish-green, fleshy, and without
odour, developing their peculiar consistency, colour, and
smell by a process of autofermentation or curing. Vanillin is
the chief flavouring ingredient, and this is developed during
curing. The quantity varies from 1'5 to 3'5 per cent in
different grades.
The vanillin is readily extracted by alcohol, but such a
product would be far too expensive to compete with syn-
thetic vanillin, an artificial product manufactured from
clove oil and other raw materials:
Vanilla Extract This is a dilute alcoholic extract sweetened with sugar;
Preparation sometimes glycerine is added. The following proportions
are used:
10 parts vanilla beans (crushed)
20 parts granulated sugar
100 parts alcohol and water (I : I)
Macerate the pods in half the amount ofliquid for two or
three weeks, then drain off the liquid and set it aside. Trans-
fer the vanilla to a mortar and grind it with the sugar to an
intimate powder, after which add the remaining liquid.
Filter this off by decantation, and wash the residue with
alcohol to extract the last traces of essence.

102
ESSENCES AND ESSENTIAL OILS

Such an extract contains about 0·2 per cent of vanillin.

The extract not only contains the vanillin but also small
quantities of gums, resins, and esters.
Since vanilla extracts are naturally expensive, adultera- Adulterants if
tion has long been practised. Imitation flavours consist of Vanilla Extract
little more than a solution of vanillin in weak alcohol,
coloured with caramel or occasionally coal-tar colours.
Prune juice has also been used as an adulterant.
Vanillin is manufactured from a variety of raw materials, Vanillin
but one example will suffice. By oxidation of isoeugenol, a
phenolic compound prepared from clove oil, and recrystal-
lization of the crude product, pure vanillin is obtained. This
synthetic vanillin has the same chemical constitution as
that which occurs naturally in the vanilla bean, but it does
not possess the full bouquet associated with natural vanilla
extract. The latter product is, however, too expensive for
many flavouring purposes. •
This is usually prepared by extracting the soluble con- Essence if Lemon
stituents of lemon oil with alcohol, and may also contain a
proportion of tincture made from the peel.
The flavour of lemon is a popular one, and the oil is Lemon Oil
produced in large quantities to meet the universal demand.
The principal centre of the lemon oil industry was at one
time Sicily, but many other countries of the world, notably
California, produce this oil today.
The oil is obtained by machine expression from the peel
of the lemon; and it is composed chieftyofterpenes, with the
aldehyde citral as the most important constituent. The
content of this substance has been standardized by the
British Pharmaceutical Codex as not being below 3·5 per
cent, but normal oils can contain more than this amount,
and in some instances slightly less. California also produces a
distilled oil which, however, is lacking in strength in com-
parison with the expressed oil. Lemon oil must be kept in a
cool dark place, otherwise it is liable to deteriorate in
quality. The container must be filled and securely corked or
stoppered and stored in a cool place protected well from light.
This is prepared by fractional distillation of the straight Terpeneless Oil
oil. The strength can vary from 15 to 20 times that of the
original oil, and there is no tendency to go cloudy on stand-
ing. The price is correspondingly high. The oil is used in
jellies, syrups, etc., where clarity is essential, and a solvent
is generally employed.
These are prepared from the terpeneless variety and are Sesquiterpeneless
used in a similar way, but they possess the advantage of being Oils
more soluble in water and in alcohol.
 CAKE MAKING

Orange Oil Orange oil is obtained by expression from the peel of

the fruit. There are two types-sweet and biffer. Originally
the oil was obtained chiefly from Italian sources, but many
other countries now produce oil of good quality, South and
West Africa, California, West Indies, Florida, Palestine,
Spain, and some states of South America. Terpeneless oils
are also widely usea: they are of considerable flavouring
strength.
Orange Essence This is produced from oil of orange or from orange peel
or both, and contains alcohol or other suitable solvent.
Almond Oil Oil of bitter almonds is obtained from Prunus Amygdalus
var. amara, or from peach and apricot kernels. After the fixed
oil has been expressed the resulting cake is mixed with water
and allowed to ferment, after which it is distilled. Bitter
almonds contain the glucoside amygdalin, and the ferment
known as emulsin. These react together, liberating benzalde-
hyde and hydrocyanic acid:
C2oH27NOn + 2H 0
2 = C7H60 + HCN + 2C 6H 12 0 6
Amygdalin Benzaldehyde Hydrot:yanic Glucose
or Prussic acid
The crude oil is then treated with lime and an iron salt
to remove the very poisonous hydrocyanic acid and dis-
tilled.
The essential oil of almonds so obtained is practically pure
benzaldehyde. The oil must be kept in small containers well
corked, as it oxidizes rapidly, particularly in the presence of
moisture, to give the flavourless benzoic acid.
Artificial almond oil consists of benzaldehyde manufac-
tured from toluene, C 2H 5CHa, a coal-tar hydrocarbon,
by chlorinating it to benzyl chloride, C 6H 5 CHCI 2, and
then heating it with milk of lime under pressure in an iron
vessel.
C 6H 5CHC1 2 + H 20 + CaO
= C SH 5CHO + CaCl + H2 20

It has the same chemical constitution as the natural alde-

hyde, but differing from this in that it sometimes contains a
trace of chlorine. As a flavouring agent, it is a satisfactory
substitute for the natural product.
Almond Essence This is generally prepared by making a solution of oil of
almonds in a suitable solvent.
Peppermint Oil This is one of the most important oils used for flavouring
sweet meats. It is distilled from the peppermint plant.
There are several types of oil in use, but the English
possesses the finest aroma and bouquet, and is much more
expensive than the others. The chief constituents are men-

104
ESSENCES AND ESSENTIAL OILS

thol and various methyl esters. Alcoholic solutions are used

as commercial essences.

Spice flavours are available in great variety and may be Spice

in the form of solutions of the appropriate essential oils in a Flavours
solvent or as emulsions. Examples of flavours obtainable are
Anise, Caraway, Celery, Cinnamon, Clove, Ginger and
Nutmeg.

There are many fruits possessing unique flavours which Imitation

are of a particularly subtle, delicate nature. It is no easy Fruit Flavours
matter to produce a natural flavouring from these, and
because of the high prices they command, many artificial
essences have been introduced.
The essences already considered in this chapter are aU
obtained from the essential oil of a fruit or plant, but with
many fruits the flavouring is in no way connected with
essential oils, but with what are termed esters. These are
comparatively simple chemical substances, being com-
pounds of various alcohols and acids. In reality they are
salts of alcohol and -inorganic or organic acids. Just as
inorganic acids and alkalis combine to produce salts, so
alcohols can combine with organic acids to produce salts
which are termed esters. These are the basis of the flavour-
ings in many fruits such as strawberry, pear, apricot,
pineapple, raspberry, etc.
In order to explain simply the basis of the changes by
which esters are produced artificially, the following equation
is given:

C 2H 50H + CH3COOH = CH 3 COOC 2H 5 + HP

Ethyl alcohol Acetic acid Ethyl acetate Water
(a salt or ester)

In the same way we have many other substances, such

as amyl acetate, which is the predominant ester in the old-
fashioned pear-drop flavour. The artificial esters are far
more pungent than the delicate natural flavours, so they
must be used with great care.
Besides these artificial flavourings, computed by careful
blending of different esters, there are certain fruit pastes and
syrups now on the market which are prepared from the
fruit itself. They are sugar-preserved, the sugar being pre-
sent in sufficient quantity to inhibit fermentation. The
quality of these flavours is very good, and in all high-class
trades they should be employed.
105
 CAKE MAKING

Fruit Juices When fruits are in season the juices should be utilized, and
and Syrups it is advisable to make fruit syrups for one's 8'tvn use during
the season when fresh fruits are not available. They are
simple to make, and the method employed consists in heat-
ing the fruit in double-jacketed pans until the juice flows
freely. This is carried on for I hour at 1900 F. It is allowed
to cool and fermenffor one or two days, and then the juice
is expressed by squeezing. This is followed by sterilizing in
boiling water by intermittent heating and cooling, skimming
off the scum which comes to the top. Sugar is now added,
and the boiling and skimming are continued until no
more scum rises, when the syrup should be transferred to
sterilized bottles and sealed up immediately. Sufficient
sugar should be added to give at least a 50 per cent
solution-i.e., approximately It lb. of sugar to each quart
of juice.

Concentrated The rather troublesome procedure outlined above may be

Fruit Juices dispensed with by the use of some of the excellent concen-
trated juices that are now available to the trade, and are
produced from the various fruits in the country of origin
while the fruit is in the best possible condition.

Liqueurs These are either alcoholic tinctures or distillates of fruits,

herbs, and spices sweetened with sugar, or they may be
prepared by blending concentrated fruit juices, herbal or
spice extracts, and various essential oils with alcohol and
sugar.

Coffee The roasted coffee beans are ground and infusions made in
Extracts a pressure vessel for preference. Blends of coffee and
chicory are also used.
A test for a true extract is to render it alkaline and expose
it to the air, when a green colour is produced. An icing or
meringue which contains white of eggs should not be
flavoured with coffee extract, for, on standing, the proteins
of the albument will decompose, particularly in the pre-
sence of moisture, to give off ammonia. The evolution of the
ammonia will gradually turn the products green. If coffee
extract must be used, then a little citric or tartaric acid
should also be added to neutralize any ammonia which
would subsequently be formed.
Butter Flavours Diacetyl is sometimes used to impart a butter flavour to
confectionery, as well as margarine and fats. It is extremely
strong, and should be used in the proportion of I part in
100,000 parts of any product.

106
ESSENCES AND ESSENTIAL OILS

Citrus-orange, lemon, lime Summary

Essential Oils / Groups of
"'-Spice-clove, cinnamon, nutmeg
Flavourings
Extracts-vanilla, ginger
Esters-amyl acetate, ethyl butyrate, etc.
Acids-butyric, acetic, etc.
Alcohols-geraniol, citronellol
Aldehydes-benzaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde
vanillin
Ketones-Ionone
 Spices and Flavourings
"if
9

~Plc~e aromatic vegtl.ab.l~p-roducts which are used in

_~er form to flavour yarious confections, an~e
generally, as a condimentJor s~ning_[ood. These powders
consist of the vegetable tissue of certain plants which have
been dried and ground or pulverized by heavy machinery.
The aromas and strong pungent flavours of spices are due
to the presence of particular essential oils and glucosides.
Owing to their strong odour and flavour, they are compara-
tively easy to adulterate with worthless material, such as the
shells and husks of various nuts. The adulterant is seldom
harmful in itself, but it reduces considerably the flavouring
value of the spices. Another form of adulteration consists
in extraction of the essential oils with alcohol to obtain the
essence; then the residue is ground to a powder and sold as
spice.
They may be classified as being obtained from:
Roots-Ginger, Liquorice
Barks-Cinnamon, Cassia
Stems-Angelica
Leaves-Sage, Thyme, Parsley, Peppermint
Buds-Cloves
Flowers-Roses and Orange Flower
Fruits-All Types
-Dry-Caraway, Coriander
Seeds-Seed Pods-Vanilla
-Nutmeg, Mustard
Ginger Ginger consists of the rhizomes or underground stems of the
plant Zingiber oificinale which are dug up, trimmed, washed
and dried, sometimes scraped and bleached. Jamaica ginger,
which is the finest quality, is carefully scraped and washed
before drying. There are two forms of whole ginger used
in confectionery: unpeeled ginger and peeled ginger, the
former being stronger in flavour and odour. It is now
cultivated in India, Jamaica, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone.

108
SPICES AND FLAVOURINGS

The starch of ginger has a characteristic ovate to sub-

rectangular shape with a small beak. Thus, it is an easy
matter to recognize the presence of any foreign starches
when ground ginger is examined under the microscope.
Ground ginger is mostly used to flavour ginger cakes and~
biscuits. fi;{,(A.
Stem ginger consists of peeled selected rhizomes preserved
in sugar syrup. The same material finely minced yields
'ginger crush' and is used in high-class confectionery. Some
of the smaller pieces are crystallized and sold as such.

1Cinnamon has long been a highly prized spice. It comes from Cinnamon
the bark of a species of laurel trees which are grown in
Ceylon. The crops are gathered in May and September, the
two-year-old shoots being stripped of the bark, which is then
carefully scraped. The cinnamon bar\<: is in the form of
long cylindrical quills, having a pale yellow-brown colour
and slightly furrowed outer surfaces. \Cinnamon yields on
distillation about 1 per cent of essential oil, the chief Con-
stituent of which--;:cinnamic aldehyde-is present to the
extent of from 60 to 75 per cent. The oil owes its strong
odour and flavour to this substance. Ground cinnamon is
either used alone as a flavouring or as an ingredient of
mixed spice.!

Because cinnamon is so expensive, it is now largely sub- Cassia

stituted by cassia, the bark of a species oflaurel trees grown
abundantly in China. It is somewhat similar in appearance,
but coarser than cinnamon in aroma and flavour. The
essential oil of cassia is also similar to that of cinnamon, but
is not of such a fine flavour. The dried flower buds are
largely used as an ingredient of mixed spice.

Cloves consist of the dried flower-buds of an evergreen be- Cloves

longing to the myrtle family, which grows in Zanzibar,
Madagascar, and the East Indies. The buds are gathered as
soon as they assume a reddish appearance and are nearly
ready to open. They are spread out in the sun to dry, and
the colour changes to deep brown. \Cloves possess a strong,
pungent flavour, due to a volatile essential oil, of which
there is present on an average about 16 per cent. The chief
constituent of this oil is the phenolJ:ugenolJVhich is present
to the extent of about 88 per centl The limits of the British
Pharmacopoeia are from 85 to go per cent. ~enQ_1 is a
startin_g:p9intiocthe_manufactur_e_ofsynthetic-vanillin-used
i~ making artificial vanilla ~ssence.

109
 CAKE MAKING

Pimento, or Pimento,.Alli.~ or Jamaica Pepper is the dried fruit of

Jamaica Pepper an evergreen belonging to the myrtle family~hich grows in
Jamaica. The berries are reddish-brown in colour and like
blackcurrants in shape and size. They are picked before
they are quite ripe, because if allowed to ripen the aroma
would be lost, siI}ce. the flavour is due to the presence of an
essential oil in the shell, which is present in the maximum
quantity before the berries are ripe. As in clove oil, the chief
constituent of this volatile oil is Eugenol, which is present
to the extent offrom 75 to 85 per cent. The flavour is said to
s~~ ~Q.mbination of cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs,
hence the name Allspice.
Nutmegs and -The nutme tree YIelds a fruit which gives two different
Mace flavouring spices, nutmeg and mace. ese rees are-grown
iiitlieMalay Archipelago, also the East and West Indies.
The fruit resembles a peach in size, and, when ripe the
fleshy portion is split open, and the orange-coloured arillus,
or envelope, which is known as the mace, is removed and
dried in the sun, changing to a buff colour. Ma~
essentiaJ1y_1ill;_same-flav.our..~s nutmeg,._andjs_used..as_i!.n
~ent of m~I?i~l The seed at the centre of the fruit
-IS also removed and driea.:-The hard, brown, shining coat-
or testa-is stripped off, leaving the commercial nutmeg.
l\[utmegs~I)..30-::40 per cent offix<:_<! fat!y" oil.) and about
7"~IO p~r: cent of volatile oil . .It...is .. this.oil-oLnutmeg that
makes the !!<;~_d valuable .. aS-a_flavouring-agent.tNutm~_is
used for flavouring_fQods,. and_ by_the. .s:_Qrliecti~Lfor
fiaY.Q!!r,il}g custat:ds,_wedding and gingeLcakes .. .ILshould
p.e kn_own _that .ex~e~!l of nutmeg a~ts ?s .a narcotic.'

Pepper Pepper, either black o!: ~~te; is ()btained from pepper-

corns, the fruit of a climbing shrub called Piper nigrum,
grown in the East and West Indies. They are small, round,
reddish berries growing in clusters of about thirty to a stalk.
Mter treatment they have the appearance of small, black
pills. The fruit is picked before ripening, then dried, and
ground to make black pepper. For white pepper the fruit is
allowed to ripen, then it is dried, and after soaking in water
the outer shell is rubbed off. The result of this treatment is
that ~hite ~:eper: is milder in flayo.ur than .bll!~epper.
The flavour of pepper is due to a cry..§.t.alline alkaloid
subst~n~ ~n as i erine, also to a volatile oil @d_gleo
resin in the berries~ It !§ ).lse as a seasoning for meats.
S ices-have practically no food' value in themsel~~; they
are a e t 00 s as a s Imu an e appetIte, an t us
aid the digestWlLof.food.
'Io..-f""'---

110
SPICES AND FLAVOURINGS

Mixed spice is compounded from spices, and sometimes Mixed Spice

occasionally contains a proportion of rice flour and sugar.
The spices employed are cinnamon, cassia, caraway, ginger,
coriandor, cloves, mace, and nutmeg in varying proportions,
with cinnamon predominating.
RECIPES FOR MIXED SPICES

\
% \
%
RicefiouT 25 -
Cinnamon 28 32
Caraway 25 -
Coriander 3 32
Ground ginger 3 16
Mace 11 -
Nutmeg 5 16
Pepper - 4

100 100
I'
These are not used in confectionery to a great extent in the Arom.atic
whole, unground state. Coriander and caraway seeds are Seeds
the two principal seeds concerned.
Coriander is the fruit of Coriandrum sativum, which grows Coriander Seeds
in Italy, the Mediterranean area, Russia, Great Britain,
and India. It is globular in shape, yellowish-brown in colour,
hollow in the centre, and therefore is easily crushed. It has a
mild characteristic flavour, and is used for flavouring gi~er
cake, lioney cakes, ancfjdlies.:
-'1'n.ese are the commonest seeds used in confectionery. Caraway Seeds
They come from the plant Carum carvi, which is a native of
Europe. The seeds are about I inch long, and are curved
slightly and nearly black. They have a strong, pungent
stimulating flavour. The carminative properties are due to
an essential oil, of which the ketone, carvone, constitutes
about 60 per cent. The alcoholic extract is often adopted
as the flavouring in place of the seeds.
These are bluish-grey in colour and are used to decorate Blue Poppy ar
plaited cholla bread and rolls, and, when crushed, as a Maw Seeds
layering in yeast cakes.

I II
 Colouring Matter 10

COLOURS are used in confectionel}' both to please___the- eye

and to assisttliepalate;-fOithere is no doubt that the appro-
priate CCilouriiifluences both the flavour and appreciation
OfaproQuct. In addition,_tfie public have come to associate
different shades of colour with._c.ertain_foods,--and-any
departUreIfoiilthe ge~erally_acc.epted_shade is construed as
indicating an alteration in the product itself, with the en-
SUIng posslblhty of comPlaints to the manufacturer and an
immediate falling-off in sales. The public demands that its
butter should be yellow; that its strawberry jam should be
red; that its jellies should be suggestive of the fruits from
which they have been made; and so on. Foodstuffs must
appeal to the eye before being accepted bytnepalate.lh
at:he!, ~ora.s, w!ien_a f2o_d looks good 'it makes the mo,-!th
water'.
One must not lose sight of this psychological aspect. The
satisfactory physical appearance of many cooked and pre-
served foods can be ensured only by the addition of artificial
colouring matters, and it becomes necessary for the food
manufacturer to acquaint himself with the elementary
principles controlling the use of_such agents, and with the
properties and characteristics of the colouring products that
are available. The correct colouring offoodstuffs is a science
as well as an art, and it is important for the user of colouring
matters to become fully familiar with one of the most useful
but also most complex raw materialS: It must be realized
lhat- the comPlications arlsing-trom the use of colouring
matters are many, the reactions of the foodstuffs are varied
and the applications diverse, and that it is only by collabora-
tion with the colour manufacturer that a satisfactory pro-
duct can be presented for the approval of the public.

Legal Position The use of colouring matter in food in the United Kingdom
is covered by a Colouring Matter in Food Regulations 1957,
Statutory instrument No. 1066. This lists the go synthetic

112
COLOURING MATTER

dyestuffs which may be used for the colouring of the foods

(see Table I). It also lists the Natural Colours which may be
used (see Table II).
A further report by the Food Standards Committee on
Colouring Matters was published in 1964 which recom-
mends that the six colours marked with an asterisk in Table
I should be withdrawn from the permitted list and that a
further colour Black 7894 be added. This has not yet been
enforced. Under the proposed food labelling regulations,
flour confectionery is exempt from declaration of constit-
uents in prepacked goods, so that the use of colouring matter
will not have to be declared.

There are three primary colours~ red, X~!low, blue. None The
of these are obtainable by the admixture of any other Principles of
colours. Colour Mixing
Secondary colours are prepared by mixing together two
primary colours. The exact shade or colour obtained de-
pends on the proportion in which the primary colours are
used; thus, one can obtain an exceedingly large number of
secondary colours by altering the proportion of the con-
stituent primaries, i.e., red and yellow give orange shades;
red and blue, purple shades; yellow and blue, green shades.
Tertiary colours are mixtures of primary and secondary
colours, or of two secondary colours. I t is obvious that an
infinite variety of shades is obtainable.

By judicious mixing of the permitted dyestuffs it is possible Blending

to provide almost any desired shade, and the colour manu- Colours
facturers are equipped and prepared to recommend a suit-
able blend of dyestuffs for any requirement. As can be seen
from Tables I-II, the list of permitted colours varies from
country to country, and it is essential in any correspondence
with the colour manufacturer regarding colours to specify
the market or markets in which the finished product is to be
sold.
While some confectioners prefer to use powder colours
and make them up into solution, it is often easier to ask the
colour supplier to provide the colour in a more easily
handled form, i.e. solutions, or predispersed on flour. The
suppliers are also willing to recommend the quantities to be
used to get the required shade. Should the confectioner,
however, prefer to do this for himself, the following hints
may be helpful.
It should always be remembered that colours are decep-
tive in artificial light. For this reason they should be added -.----
E 113
 CAKE MAKING

'"....
;:l
0
"0
0
"'0
0
0
0
.....
"'"
-"'0
~~ C
~,-:::

~ §
~.....
til
~~
S
0
"'0
bO
:::
:;a
"'0
u
.....
'8
;:J

114
COLOURING MATTER

TABLE II
Other Colours

Group Colour Comments

I ~ Also known as 'Black Tack'. Ob- }

tained commercially by burning
sugars in presence of catalysts. I
I
Brown viscous compound used to
colour bread and rich fruited
cakes.
Cochineal Obtained from the dried female in-
---,
sect Dactylopius Coccus. Usually
produced as an aluminium lake
of the extracted colour and most
commercial liquid cochineals are
prepared from this lake which is
generally known as carmine.
Used for decorative work giving
an att~active pink shade.

2 Any colouring matter

natural to edible
fruits or vegetables

Alkannet
Indigo
Flavine
Ochil
Osage Orange Of no practical interest in confec-
Persian Berry tionery work.
Safflower
Sandalwood
Turmeric.

Annatto The colouring obtained from an-

natto seeds. May be in oleous 01"
aqu~us solution. The oil~soluble
form is of some interest for bis-
cuit fillings. The water-soluble
form is moderately stable in
baked goods giving al!.f~
shade.
Carotene Obtainable in various forms. Oil-
soluble forms of some interest for

__
Chlorophyll.
biscuit fillings giving a butter
~
A gu:en colouring extracted from
lucerne and nettles. Commercial
forms are usually the copper
complex of chlorophyllia. A dull
shade and of no practical value
in confectionery.
Saffron Still used in the West of England to
.___ provide a 'yellow colour. Has a
distinctive Havour. Obtained
from the stigmata of the Crocus
sativus.
 CAKE MAKING

TABLE II (cont.)
...
Group Colour Comments
3 Bole Insoluble earth colours are generally
Iron oxide of no interest in confectionery,
Carbon Black but ultramarine blue is some-
Titanium dioxide times used to whiten icing.
Ultramarine

Silver Permitted solely for the external

Aluminium colouring of dragees and the
decoration of sugar-coated flour
confectionery. May be used in
leaf or powder form.

4 The aluminium cal- These are, of course, insoluble, and

cium salts (lakes), are of very limited interest to the
of any of the sched- confectioner. They can be used
uled water-soluble for biscuit filling and decorative
colours work.

to fondant and icings in daylight. They should be added

drop by drop-preferably from a dropping bottle-to a
given weight of sugar until the particular shade required is
obtained. If a record is kept of the number of drops re-
quired for a definite amount of sugar, then it is possible to
get the same shades in artificial light by adding the recorded
number of drops to the given weight of sugar. Normally a
I per cent solution of the powdered dye in distilled water
will prove satisfactory for this purpose.

Testing of There is now a British Standard Specification for most of

Colours the dyes on the United Kingdom permitted list, but it is
often more convenient for a baker or confectioner to pur-
chase his colours in a diluted form. The testing of these for
colour strength is no easy matter, but the following method
may be recommended. -
Make up a I per cent solution of the colour by dissolving
I gm. in 100 ml. of water. Now take some untreated flour
and make it into a scald with boiling water. Into a basin
place 50 gm. of this scalded flour and stir in I m!. of the
colour solution. Note the colour against the standard colour.
If the tinting power is below the usual, then add further
quantities of the colour solution until the correct tint is
obtained. In this way the relative colour strength can be
evaluated.

1I6
 Nuts in Confectionery 11

\NUTS are used in various confections in order to impart_a

'particular flavour and to helpJ~y:..oducing a greater variety
of ~ypesi - --
~Almonds are the most important of the nuts employ._edin Almonds
conrectfoner~~h~y _can_ _Lo_ughly_b.e_ Jiiyide_d intQ _t_wo
distinct types-bitter_and sweet. The bitter almonds have
a
as an essent"i"ilf part 'of their composItIon subsfance known
~ amyg(j__attil. -There is also present an glzyme, emulSin, a
constituent of both types of almonds, which is capable of
hydrolysing the amygdalin into benzaldehyde, glucose, and
prussic acid. The prussic acid is separated off from the
benzaldehyde, when the essential oil of bitter almonds is
obtained.
Both bitter and sweet almonds are natives of Asia, Bar-
bary, and Morocco, but are now grown over a wide area of
Southern Europe and in California.
There are many varieties, however, such as Jordan,
Alicante, Valentia, Marconas, Longuetas from Spain, Baris
and P.Gs from Italy, Faros and Douros from Portugal and
Non-Pareil, Ne Plus, and I.X.L. from California.
The following analysis shows the average composition of
sweet almonds indicating their value as a food:
%
Water 6·0
Protein 24·0
Fats 54·0
Carbohydrates 10·0
Cellulose 3·0
Mineral matter 3·0
Calories per lb. 2,970

Un confectionery work almonds are used either whole;

split, filleted, nib, or ground, according to the type of goods
required to be made. They can be bought ready for use
in any of these forms. Formerly the almonds came to the
bake-house in one form only-as whole almonds. The
confectioner had to prepare them by blanching, splitting,
 CAKE MAKING

filleting, chopping, or grinding them to suit himself. Buying

almonds in this way did protect the purchasepfrom adultera-
tion. Today, however, if the various forms of almonds are
bought from a firm of repute there is little likelihood of
adulteration.
Preparation of The almonds are first of all freed from any foreign matter,
Almonds then blanched Dy placing them in boiling water for a few
minutes. When the skins begin to rise, they are easily
separated by pressing the almond between the thumb and
finger. In practice, the almonds are subjected to friction
between canvas bands in order to separate as many of the
skins as possible without breaking the nuts. The loose skins
are removed with a fan, and the skins are stripped by hand
from any almonds to which they still adhere. In this way the
whole blanched almonds are obtained, and these must be
dried before storing away, otherwise they will become
mouldy and mildewed. These are sometimes used in making
rich cakes such as Christmas and wedding cakes.
The whole blanched almonds are split by machinery to
form split almonds. These are used in the making of rich
fruit cakes, and for decorating the tops of slab and Dundee
cakes. They are also excellent as a decorative medium on
gateaux and fancies. Filleted and flaked almonds are useful
for decorating various kinds of large and small pieces of
confectionery. They are sliced very thin, and yet retain the
shape of the almonds.
The whole blanched almonds chopped up in small pieces
are known as nib almonds. These are also useful as a
decorative medium on tops of slab cakes, sides of gateaux
and on biscuits and other small confectionery. Ground
almonds are the whole blanched almonds ground as finely
as possible in a mortar or by machinery. The material is
employed in all classes of almond macaroon articles, also in
good cake mixings, and in the manufacture of almond pastes
and marzipan. There should be a small percentage of bitter
almonds in the ground product, but not in any of the other
varieties.
The modern factory method of preparing almond pro-
ducts ensures that the almonds are hardly touched by hand
from the time they are taken from the sack until they are
ready for use. Everything is done by machinery, including
blanching, splitting, filleting, flaking, chopping nibs, and
grinding ready for packing into suitable containers for sale.
Ground almonds are sometimes mixed with a cheaper
class of nut, such as apricot and peach-kernels. These
cheaper nuts influence the quality and flavour of the goods

II8
NUTS IN CONFECTIONERY

made, because they do not contain so much natural oil as

the sweet almonds, and so it is not advisable to use them in
high-class confectionery. A very small amount of bitter
almond is also frequently added to bring out the flavour.

Marzipan h~~ b~e~ in. use .for a long time by confectioners. Marzipan
lti~bOugnt by the confectioner in the form ora paste, which
~ontai~s ,sugar llnd ,g:r_?und aliiiOllii~ I? var~~~~ ~~hons,
accordmg to the grade and the pnce paId for It. SOme
c()nfectioners try to make their own marzipan· out of
ground almonds and sugar, but the results are mainly
disa ppoin ting.
In making large quantities of marzipan some heavy
machinery is necessary, such as an almond-blanching plant
and almond-grinding machinery with granite rollers; also
double-jacketed steam boilers and stirrers.
The almonds are first of all blanched in the usual way,
then they are steeped in cold water. After steeping, they are
chopped and mixed together with the required amount of
granulated sugar. This mixture is then passed through
grinding rollers. No syrup or egg whites are required to
make the paste smooth, as the almonds should have soaked
up sufficient water for pounding to prevent them become
oily. After the almonds are ground to a smooth paste,
the mix is transferred to a steam cooker, when it is heated to
0
220 F. and maintained under these conditions until it
reaches the required consistency. The whole is kept con-
tinuously stirred to prevent the paste from sticking to the
pan and so becoming burnt. When it shows no tendency to
stick to the pan it is ready. The marzipan is then stored in
air-tight containers ready for use.
Extra sugar, colours, and flavours may be added to it
as desired. This is often done in the factory in the produc-
tion of cake marzipans but can be added by the confec-
tioner himself. Up to I lb. of icing sugar to each pound
of marzipan may be used for covering cakes. A little
stock syrup may be added to moisten the paste if re-
quired.
Properly made marzipan should be as smooth and plastic Uses of
as potter's clay, and is very useful for many purposes. It Marzipan
can be used with advantage in all classes of cakes, if mixed in
during the creaming process-in the proportion of 2 or 3 oz.
to each pound offat employed. T.his_not onlyll_dpsJ:o-flavour
the cakes but also assists in keeping them moist for a longer
_ };!;riod, becau~:-Qflhe-mnural 2!l_m theaImonds. It also
increa;es the food value.

Il9
 ,
CAKE MAKING

T!_le _term 'marzi:Ran'~ould be used only when the nut

content of raw marzipan consIsts of1flnr<1l'Itls:-Foragood-
quality product the nut content shoiiid be 66t per cent.
Although there is no official standard for the almond con-
tent of marzipan, it is generally accepted that the nut
content should not be less than 25 per cent. This is known as
raw marzipan,' and from this product the full range of
almond goods can be produced.
When purchasing marzipan it is essential to know the nut
content, otherwise it will not be possible to use it to advan-
tage or have any basis for comparing the prices of products
from different manufacturers. The percentage of almonds
may be 25, 40, or 66! per cent of the product, and this
quantity will obviously determine the quantity of sugar used
with it subsequently.
When other nuts are used the products should be re-
ferred to as 'Nut Pastes' with a suitable prefix. A small
percentage of cereal in the product can be considered per-
missible as a mechanical aid to production.

Coconut* The coconut is the fruit of the coco-palm. The chief com-
mercial supplies come from India, Ceylon, and the South
Sea Islands.
Coconut oil is extracted from the kernels and is used in
the manufacture of margarines. The coconut shells are
sometimes reduced to· a finepo;der, and by cautious roast-
ing the colour of ground cloves and nutmegs is matched,
with the object of adulterating these spices. By roasting at a
higher temperature a charcoal is obtained which, mixed
with starchy material, is a close imitation of black pep-
per.
The fleshy portion of the coconut, after drying, is reduced
to various.· forms adapted to~ the -corifec1ioIfer;such-as
smeaded, coarse, medium, ~:)I::Jin!!_Q.esiccated coconut.
-It is used in various tart fillings or for macaroon goods;
also as a decorati~ium, either in the natural state or
carefUlly roasted fo a nu"f::brown colour. It may also be
coloured with vegetable or artificial liquid colours-and
'employed in th~ .decoration of cakes. -

Walnuts Walnuts are obtained from the walnut tree, a native of

Asia; it is now largely cultivated in the central and southern
regions of Europe.
When the walnut.oiLis extracted and.used._as_a vegetable
oil the residue is sold as cattle food. Shells are sometimes.
* This is spelt coconut, cokernut, or cocoanut.
120
NUTS IN CONFECTIONERY

crushed to a fine powder to serve as an adulterant of spice.

The skins of the walnuts have a strong acrid taste, which
is accentuated as the nuts become dry. When dry, the skin is
difficult to remove, but boiling in water for a few minutes,
then steeping in cold water for t hour, leaves them easy to
peel.
Walnl,lts are used in making.walnut..cakes and bread,.JillQ
for cake and ~ateaux decoration and c~oco~ate confection<':t:y.

Brazil nuts are the seeds of large trees growing in forests on Brazil Nuts
the banks of the Amazon and Rio Negro rivers. The kernel,
either whole or broken, is used in confectionery.
The nuts are blanched by boiling them for a few minutes,
then soaking in cold water, so that the skins are easily re-
moved. As they readily go rancid and acquire a bad
flavour, these nuts should be bought only in small quantities.
Not more than one month's supply!should be bought at a
time.
In chocolate work they are usually applied whole for
centres, but if soaked in cold water and crushed, then mixed
with an equal weight of sugar and put through granite
rollers, they make a nice paste useful for decorative pur-
poses or for cutting out as chocolates centres.

Pistachio_nutS,_QLgreen almOllds, as they are sometimes Pistachio

called, are cultivated mostly in the Mediterranean region. Nuts
They are elongated, green nuts about 1 in. in length. The
ridge is on the dorsal side, where it is also thickest. The
spermoderm is dark purple. The outside of the nut has a
brownish appearance, but the kernel inside is green in
colour. They have ~ _fl~v<?u.~_ .a:l:!proxim~til}g___!2_]ordan
almonds or Brazil nuts. The skin is removed by boiling and
hibbIng the nut between the fingers, as in blanching
almonds.
Pistachio nuts, whether whole or chopped, are recognized
by the carmine or brown colouring matter on the spermo-
derm becoming green when treated with an alkali. Almonds
and other nuts dyed with coal-tar dyes are sometimes
offered as substitutes, owing to the high price of pistachio
nuts. :r'hey--are-used-for flavouring and d~~
_c!ass confectionery produ~ts.

Hazel nuts are of some importance in Europe, both as a Hazel Nuts

table nut and for the production of hazel oil. The nut con-
tains about 60 per cent oil.
Ground hazel nuts are prepared from the kernels without
/'
121
 CAKE MAKING

removal of the fat, and are used in conjunction with wheat

and r_ye flour .i~ng_an<LConfect.ipneI:.y. Thq can
also be used _in. ~a~~_yar~l.ls.1Y:R~ L!U;;tj::ar.o_Qn_go.Q.ds_ in
place of ground almonds. As they go rancid quicker than
grouno-alffionds dO, they ·should not be purchased in large
quantities. A delicious flavour is imparted to confectionery
products by the use of ground hazel nuts.

Pine Nuts Pine nuts are the seed kernels or nuts of various species of
pine trees. They are highly prized for their delicate resinous
flavour.

Pea-nuts Pea-nuts, or monkey-nuts, have a bean-like odour and

flavour. They contain about 40 per cent of oil, which is em-
ployed in making vegetable fats. The ground nuts are sold
as a cheap substitute for ground almonds.
When fully roasted, they~_be made i~<? a s~ap
cQ!;oa QL.chocolate.

Soya Beans For 5,000 years the soya bean has been a staple article of food
with eastern peoples, but it is only within recent years that
its importance as a foodstuff has been recognized in this
country by our dietetic experts.
The soya bean is classed among the leguminous plants,
and exists in some 1,500 varieties. The seeds are shaped
either like an ordinary pea or bean, small in size, and of
many different colours-yellow, brown, green, and black,
and striped or spotted combinations of these colours.
From the nutritional point of view the soya bean is every-
thing that is desirable, containing, as it does, essential
nutritive constituents-fat, protein, and carbohydrate-in a
readily assimilable form. The oil in the soya bean contains a
large amount of lecithi!l and vitamin A, and in this respect
resembles butter, making the soya oil a most important
human food. This lecithin is identical with that in egg yolk.
It is only within the past thirty years that the process of
milling the soya has been perfected to produce soya flour in
a digestible and pleasant-flavoured form without detracting
from its nutritive value. This flour is said to preserve all the
good qualities contained in the bean itself. High-grade soya
flour is now available for all bakery purposes. It is of a pale
yellow colour and has a pleasant taste.
When used in confectionery and the general production of
small goods, soya flour can be used as an addition to, or to
replace, other ingredients. In wartime it helped to make
goods more palatable, and to improve their keeping
122
NUTS IN CONFECTIONERY

qualities. It is cheap to buy, and reduces costs. It can be

used in quantities up to 20 per cent in cakes and small goods,
biscuits, etc.
Table III shows the approximate composition and food
value of the various nuts.
TABLE III
I I Food
NUTS Water Protein Fat Carbo- Cellu- Mineral value in
hydrates lose salts calories
per lb.
Almond* 5·8 20·0 54·9 15·3 2·5 2·0 3,030
Coconut * 14·1 5·7 50·0 27·9 - 1·7 2,760
Dried walnuts * 2·5 17·0 66·4 JI·O 1-4 1·7 3,306
Brazil nuts * 5·3 17·0 66·8 7·0 - 3·9 3,265
Pistachio nuts * 4·2 22·3 54·0 16·3 - 3·2 2,995
Hazel nutt 9·3· 13·2 63-2 14·3 - - 3,177
Pine nutst - 3J.4 48·0 20·6 - - 2,806
Pea-nuts· 9·2 23·3 38·6 24·4 2·5 2·0 2,560
Soyajlourt 8·33 42·84 20·0 19·35 4·79 4·69 2,165

* Leach, Food Inspection and AnalYsis.

t McKillop, Food Values.
t C. J. Ferree, The Soya Bean and the New Soya Bean.
 Fruits Used
in Confectionery 12

UNDER this heading are included many ~f dried and

q:ystalli~ruits and flowers which <lLe~u§.ed in the manu-
facture of confectionery. 'Several kinds of fruits play an im-
portant part In the daily processes of the food manufacturer,
cOf!tributigg_jQ__!b.e food value as well as the aesthetic
a!!illtion qf the .products.l Although the succulent, easily
crushed_r~p'e fruit!>.ilrellluch.used inJood manl}facture and
add 1Q the. attractiveness of confectioner:y products, .the...dr.ied
fr~its, for many obvious reasons, are of the gt:_ejitg_ im-
portance to those who specialize in. the manufactur.e.of.cakes.
Of ail the dried fruits, the product of the vines take first
place. The grape vine grows at its best in the regions around
the Mediterranean Sea, and in other parts of the world
where there is a climate of the same type with suitable soil,
wintry rains, and sun-baked summers and autumns. The
sources of supply are greater today, for vines are now grown
in Australia, California, South America, South Africa, and
Israel, mostly on hillsides facing the midday sun.
Three essential conditions must be fulfilled to enable the
vine to produce fruit abundantly and of the greatest perfec-
tion. (I) Suitable soil of a calcareous nature, or of gypsum,
or even of hippurite limestone, also warm marly or loamy
limestone soils. The soil should be of a fatty character con-
taining plenty of potash salts, as these are necessary for the
production of sugars. (2) A bounteous water supply IS
necessary. (3) The climate must be semi-tropical.

Raisins Ripe grapes are converted into raisins and sultanas in

different ways. In the case of muscatels, the grapes are
allowed to hang on the vines for a few weeks after the cir-
culation of the sap has been stopped in the branches by
partly twisting and cutting them. This helps to retain as
much sap as possible within the grapes and increases the
sweetness of the fruit. The raisins are then treated in a
FRUITS USED IN CONFECTIONERY

similar manner to sultanas. After drying, the raisins have to

be stoned by machinery before the confectioner can use
them in his products.
1Raisins owe their importance to the fact that they have a
~e, a fine flavour, and also are valuable
s~eet~jng a~n~. They contain approximately 65 per cent
sugar, 2 per cent fat, and 2 per cent proteins, and their
calorific value is 1,300 calories per pound of fruit.
The raisins from Alicanti, Valencia, Italy, Australia, and
South Africa are most popular.

When the seedless yellow grapes that are to be converted Sultanas

into sultanas are ready the bunches are cut from the vines,
and gathered together and dipped into vats of potash lye,
flavoured with rosemary or lavender, with a layer of hot olive
oil on the surface. This treatment varies in different coun-
tries. The main objects of such treatment are to soften the
skin of the grapes, to make them bright and clear, and also
to sterilize the fruit. Yeast spores are always present on the
ripe fruit, and if these were not remov"ed, fermentation
would set up at a later stage.
After the dipping process, the grapes are dried by placing
them on wire or fibre mats or wire frames, each about a foot
from the other, in open sheds, to allow a free passage of air
currents and sunlight. The fruit is turned occasionally, so
that all parts are equally exposed to the sun and air. The
open sheds in which they are placed protect the drying fruit
from the occasional showers of rain. The effect of this drying
process is to evaporate the moisture from the fruit and con-
centrate the sugars and other solids.
In Australia the sultanas are dried on hessian mats on
racks until sufficiently dry. The fruit is then tipped into a
hopper which feeds a conveyor belt which takes the fruit
into a revolving drum through which warm air is blown.
This removes dust and stems, after which it passes over a
magnetic table, where any metallic particles are removed
before being packed in boxes or cartons.
Australian fruit is sold under the 'Crown' brand name,
and a tight specification is laid down for each brand. There
are six brands for light-coloured type-six crowns contain-
ing no dark berries, down to one crown containing more
than 50 per cent of light-coloured berries. Another crown
series are for brown-coloured types, with one grade of plain
sultanas consisting of fruit of any size of good appearance,
texture and of any natural colour.
Bleached sultanas are lacking in flavour, being bleached

12 5
 CAKE MAKING

by exposing the dried fruit to the action offumes from burn-

ing sulphur, i.e. of sulphur dioxide gas, which also acts as
a preservative.
. Sultanas should have a fine flavour and good colour.
They are valuable as a sweetening agent and 'have a liigh
.1ood-vame, They contain apI)roxiffiaTdy~·Q2:.:~t
sugar, 1 per cent fat, and 2 per cent proteins. The calorific
value is approximate,ly 1,260 calories per pound of fruit. The
food value of raisins and sultanas is not sufficiently recog-
nized by many people, but it is well known in the countries
where they are produced.
Sultanas are obtained from the seedless yellow graRes
gro"WiliilSmyrna, Persia, Afghanistan, California, South
Australia, and South Africa, and_a..D:..graded according to
quality .
.=--
Currants ~ied.fDrm of small black g@p'es originally
grown in Greece. There are several varieties of the special
vine tree which produces small, dark, luscious, seedless
currants. The best-quality currant is Eleme, which is a
large currant of fleshy character. This variety has a pleasant
sweet flavour when dried, but is generally too big for con-
fectionery use. Some well-known brands of currants are
Vostizzas, Gulf, Amelias, Patras, Pyrgos, and Australian.
Vostizzas are generally the best and most expensive.
The grapes of the currant vines, when seven years old,
ripen in the summer. The bunches are cut and placed in thin
layers on drying mats and turned occasionally. Evaporation
of the moisture takes place through the action of the sun.
The drying process takes from ten to twelve days, but
deluges of rain often spoil the crop during this period. When
dry, they are freed from stalks and stones by hand or
machinery, then sifted,. packed in quarter cases, and ex-
ported ready for sale.
Vostizzas and other high-class currants are generally
dried in the shade. This process takes about twice as long,
but it gives to the fruit a blue-black shade of colour, a better
flavour, and a fine silky texture. The shade drying consists in
hanging the bunches of grapes on strings and placing them
inside wooden huts exposed to the sun. Shade-dried currants
can always be recognized by their blue-black colour and
silky texture.
. Currants, when bought, should be bold and fleshy and
clean, and devoid of shrivelled, red, and fleshless berries.
The red berries spoil the flavour of cakes owing to their extra
acidity.

126
FRUITS USED IN CONFECTIONERY

Currants contain approximately 63 per cent sugars, 0'5

per cent fat, and 2 per cent proteins. Their calorific value is
not nearly so high as raisins or sultanas, but is approximately
85 0 calories per pound of fruit, so they need not be ignored
as a supply of potential food with a fair sweetening property.

These dried fruits contain l~e_qm\n.tities of tr~it

su_ga!-,s, often se~~ in crystal for~ i~ _I~i~ns.. Thell:.-fine
flavour ftn<iiqod value .are their !!l_jlj_n..aJtractions.

When they arrive in the bakery all dried fruits have been Preparation
compressed into compact packs at the packing stations. As of Fruit for
the vines are dried in the shade at ground level, dust and Use
stones gain access, and these must be removed before they
are suitable and safe to use in the bakery.
The normal procedure is to break open the packages and
empty the contents into a hopper of a fruit-cleaning machine
through which water is circulated in such a way that the
fruit is floated over sieves, and dirt and stones fall to the
bottom of the machine, into a sump from which they can
easily be removed. The amount of washing carried out will
depend on the characteristics and type of fruit, small dry
fruits being given longer treatment than fleshy fruits.
After the fruit has been washed it is dried and transferred
to a metallic table. It is desirable that the fruit should be
spread evenly and fall from one level to another so that the
sound of stones can be heard by the operator who is picking
over the fruit. On the table the fruit should be hand picked
and then transferred to an electro-magnetic table on which
any particles of metal will be held. This was essential when
wooden boxes nailed together or cartons with wire staples
were used, but today any particles found are generally
similar in size to the fruit itself. The use of wooden boxes and
wire staples on hardboard boxes is now mostly discontinued
because of the trouble which can arise from nails and staples
getting into the finished products.

Figs are among the cheapest of dried frults, and h~ay~ not Figs
been much-useclOy confectioners in tp.e .P~st, although
widely usedJor d~s~_rt_'Be_cause_ of their .high_sugar. content
~fociavalue t~ can be us~cl.to conserve _s~ugat: _~upplies.
Duiing the 1939-45 War a new interest was aroused in
them, and they were widely used in confectionery and bis-
cuits.
Figs are largely produced in countries bordering on the
Mediterranean Sea. They are wholesome, nourishing,
12 7
 CAKE MAKING

laxative. T~ey are preserved IJ!ainly by drying in tb-e sun al-

though they areoccasionally candied or crystallized. Their
sugar content is in the region of 60 per cent, and their
calorific value is approximately I , I 50 calories per pound of
fruit .

Dates Dates are abunaantly grown in the oases of the Egyptian

deserts and similar regions. The most remarkable thing
about the date is that it belongs to the same family as the
coconut. The palms are the most useful fruit-bearing trees
in existence, because their usefulness does not end with the
fruit; the sap, leaves, fibre, and wood are invaluable for
many widely differing purposes. The date is so different from
the coconut that it is difficult to realize their relationship.
Dates are mostly preserved by drying them by exposure to
the sun. Their sugar content is over 60 per cent, and their
calorific value is approximately 1,300 calories per pound of
fruit. That is to say, they have the highest calorific food
value of all the dried fruits. They are used by some natives
as an entire meal. In this country dates are mostly used as a
d essert, but they offer a valuable addition to our foods tocks,
and when _used with other foodstuffs will enhance their
palatability and food value. They are particularly popular
when used with walnuts in cakes, and in puddings.

Dried Apples, Large quantities of apples, pears, apricots and many other
Pears, fruits in the ripened condition, dried before packing, are
Apricots, etc. exported from many parts of the world, where the tempera-
ture, climate, and soil are suitable for their production.
Stone fruits, such as apricots, are deprived of their seed
kernels before drying. Apples, pears, etc., are cored before
drying, and are also cut into discs.
By exposing these fruits to the action of the a ir and sun-
light, the moisture is gradually removed from the fruits .
When thoroughly dry, the fruit is packed in lined cases and
stored in a dry, cool place.
These dried fruits are made usable by soaking them in
cold water for a few hours, when a portion of thy water is
absorbed and the fruit becomes serviceable. The charac-
teristic flavour and aroma are only slightly impaired by this
treatment of these fruits.
Dried apple rings contain about 59 per cent sugar, and
their food value is approximately I, I 30 calories per pound
of fruit. Dried apricots contain about 50 per cent sugar,
and their food value is nearly 1,040 calories per pound of
fruit.
PLATE I . a. The effect of varying amounts of sugar. A-Control.
B- Sugar X It. C-Sugar X It. D - Sugar X 2 .
b. The effect of varying amounts of baking powder.
A- Control. B- Nil. C- Baking powder X I~- .
D- Baking powder X 3.
c. The effect of varying amounts of milk. A- Control.
B- Milk X It. C- Milk X 2 . D- Milk X 2t.
PLATE 2. Illustrating the importance of using special cake flour
and high emulsifying fats in high liquor/high sugar cakes.
a. Varying the liquor/sugar ratio using normal fats and
patent flour.
b. The same liquor/sugar ratios using high emulsifying
fat and special cake flour.
 PLAT E 3

t"wo examples of flat

type cakes using
soft icing.
P LATE 4
Four examples of simple designs suita'>!.: ! :' r fondant gateaux.
 PLATE 5
Three examples of
simple designs
suitable for
:ttercr eam gateaux.

I
j

I
 i.J~ ~_. '! : ,f ,/
' ,#. , r
r'" ~ ~

P LATE 6

T hree typica l fi nishes for Torten

P LATE 7
1 s a u rhum .
a. A
b. ran ge 0 r othellos.
Ra Ja.
,-
,
 v _
-c ~.
r: :::
c... :::;.
pji~
;:l •
I"l
r-;

:3
2
-'
o
c...
 • '1'1, '

! ' /!:
'.' !
/1 :/, j'

, I '

I
'i

i,
1/ If,

PLATE 9.
Franglpa~ e an d J ap slices.
a. Orange sltces.
l.

..
,Af'
---
~ \
A. "
... ·t
,'"
 P LATE 10

a. R ear stator Oakes

mixer.
b. The Oakes
continuous mixer
head .

-•
• II
~
 P LATE I I
a. Morton Gri?lap
mIxer.
b. Con [rol panel for
m etering fl our.
c. Baker cake
machine.
P L ATE 1 2

a. A.M.F. continuou.<
cake mixer.
b. G as-fired band
oven .
 P LATE 13
a. Electro-Dahlen
infra-red shelf
ovens.
b. Reel oven.
 .~ --

PLATE 14

a, Baker Perkins
Swiss roll plant.
b, Th e Oakes
continuous m Ixer.
'

1
 PL ATE 15

~. Oakes depositor.
. Baker Copeland
depositor.

:
"1 I

)
 PLATE 16

Atlas tart and pi e

'2 .
plant.
b. Controll ed cake
oven .

}
 PLATE 17

a. Florida puff
paste plant.
h. Baked roll
coming from oven.
c. Forg rova 84 H
cake wrapping
machine.
FRUITS USED IN CONFECTIONERY

Fruits can be preserved by other methods besides drying. Crystallized

An additio!f 0 sugar to the ruit will act as a preservative Fruits
and in quantities above 50 per cent i-t.prev~nts the micro-
organisms from working. Consequently, if sufficient sugar is
added to any fruit it will preserve it from attack. Fruits that
have to be crystallized, such as apricots, cherries, plums, and
small good-flavoured pears, etc., should be just ripe and in
perfect condition. The kernels must be removed from stone
fruits by means of a special instrument similar to a hairpin,
or a special kind of steel fork devised for this purpose, so that
very little injury is done to the fruit on removal of the stone.
The fruit is then cooked to the desired degree of softness in a
dilute sugar solution, or in water, but the former is pre-
ferable. The fruit is next allowed to drain. A supersaturated
sugar solution is boiled up to the desired degree, usually the
hard crack, and the prepared fruit is dipped in it, so that a
complete coating of sugar covers the fruit. It is then sub-
jected to a dry heat, thus giving it a candied or crystalline
appearance .
Glace cherries are not subjected to crystallization. These
are preserved in a thick syrup or a supersaturated sugar
solution. When using glace cherries for the purpose ofmak-
ing cherry cakes or slabs the syrup has to be carefully washed
out of the cherries, and they are dried before use, to prevent
the cherries from sinking to the bottom and disfiguring the
cakes.
Crystallized fruits are mostly used in the decoratio~_Qf
cakes. The crystalline sugar can be washed off if desired, and
the fruits cut up to the desired shapes and placed on the
cakes as a decoration. They can then be washed over with a
good stock syrup or a gum-arabic solution to enhance the
brightness of the fruit.

The chief candied or preserved peels used by confectioners Candied P eels

<:tie lemon, orange, ancLcitron. These are all members of the
Oitrus family. The method of preserving the rinds of these
fruits are very similar in each case, although there is some
variation in the strength of the sugar solutions employed and
the time occupied in the process of preserving citron peel in
particular.

Lemon Peel is generally prep~d from a special variety of

coarse thick-rind lemons. The lemons are cut transversely
through the middle and the pulp is extracted. The caps are
then placed in a brine solution for several days to take out
the undesirable taste and open up the pores of the rinds, so
12 9
 CAKE MAKING

that they will absorb the sugar from the sugar solutions in
which they have to be placed. The caps ar~washed in cold
water to get rid of the salt, then they are placed in tanks
containing warm, dilute sugar solutions. A fermentation I
takes place, and the lemon caps absorb sugar from the I
solution. The caps are passed successively through other
sugar solutions each stronger than the preceding one, until
'f
they are thoroughly saturated. They are then placed on
draining wires and air-dried, then they are ready for send-
ing out to the market as drained caps, or for cutting up by
machinery into small, evenly sized pieces of fine cut peel,
then packed in boxes ready for sale. This is the general
method employed in making the best types of cut lemon peel.
The cheaper varieties oflemon peel are made from longi-
. tudinal strips, out of which some of the essential oil oflemon
has been extracted before preserving as above.
When the whole caps are drained, if it is intended to sell
them as candied caps, they are placed on wire trays and sub-
jected to a high temperature for several hours in a drying-
room or oven. The heating sets or fixes the sugar and hardens
the caps. After cooling i.n a dry, cool room, they are ready
for packing in cases for sale. The candied caps have generally
a better flavour than the other varieties.
Orange Peel and candied orange caps are prepared in a
similar manner to that described above, using thick-rind
oranges for this purpose.
Manufacturers, besides selling cut lemon and orange peel
as such, also mix the two varieties in roughly equal propor-
tions and sell as mixed peel. When purchasing these peels,
buyers should see that the samples submitted are of good
colour and flavour. They should not lose colour on baking as
some of the cheaper peels do. JlyLp.eels....when._add.ed._to
cakes
--- impart
..
~-.~
an excellent flavour.
There is about 66'5 per cent sugar in candied peel, and
the approximate food value is 1,250 calories per pound.
Citron Peel is also prepared in a similar manner to lemon
peel, although there is some variation in the strength of the
sugar solutions employed, and the time occupied in the
process. The best caps are usually cut longitudinally for
whole caps, although they are sometimes cut transversely
for those caps that have to be thinly sliced by machinery
ready for use on ~asa!<~.
Citron can be bought either as drained citron caps or
candied citron caps, or sliced citron, or even as cut citron.
The popular use for it was as thin slices for decorating the
top of Madeira cakes prior to baking them. This assists in
FRUITS USED IN CONFECTIONERY

causing a nice crack on this variety of cakes by slightly

toughening the cake batter where the peel has been placed.
When the slices of peel are cut too thick, they look ugly, and
their weight may cause them to sink into the cake and
incidentally spoil its appearance. After baking is com-
pleted the citron peel should be washed over with stock
syrup to soften it and improve its appearance. Very few
Madeira cakes are finished in this way today. The small
cuts of citron peel are used in rich cherry and Genoa cakes.
The sliced citron may also be employed for decorative
purpose on gateaux and other cakes.

Angelica is a perennial umbelliferous plant that is cultivated Angelica

for its aromatic stem. It also grows wild in many ditches and
swampy places in England. The method of preparing as
drained angelica or candied angelica is very similar to that
employed in candied or drained peels.
The drained or candied stems are used in confectionery
mostly as a decorative agent, although it is sometimes used
for its aromatic flavour in confections.

Ginger is obtained from the root stock of the herb Z,ingiber Ginger
Oificinale, which is a native of India and China, although
now cultivated in America, Australia, and Africa. The root
is cut up when the plant is a year old. The cut roots are
thoroughly cleansed and boiled in a weak sugar solution
until soft, then stored in earthenware jars and packed with
syrup ready for sale.lCrystallized ginger is made by soaking
the prepared roots in sugar solutions until saturated, then
heating until the sugar crystallizes. I

Lilac violet, and rose ,[letals are the three main forms of Crystallized
~-flOwers. Aft~r th~temsana decayed petals have Flowers
beenremovea~ the flowers are placed on tinned wire fraIlles
in tiers; underneath each tier is a shallow tray to catch excess
syrup. A thin sugar solution is allowed to drip through th~ ,
tiers of flowers until they are thoroughly saturated. They
are then dried by gently heating or exposing to the sunlight.
1:.h(~se cry.~tallized flow<:rs have an excelle~t fl<l:,:£ur and
,!:re mostly used as decOl:ati~ents_Qn_6)llfectionery.

Bottling is one of the easiest and most simple methods of Bottled Fruits
preserving fruit, and from an economical point of view the
most important, since it ensures a supply of fruit when, in
the ordinary course of events, fresh fruit is not available. It
is generally bottled in vacuum bottles made to withstand
CAKE MAKING

the heat of sterilization, and with glass or metal lids, with a

rubber ring to act as a washer between :rile lid and the
bottle, the lids being secured to the bottles with either a
spring clip or preferably a screw band. The bottles must be
sterilized before the fruit is added to them.
All fruit to be bottled should be quite sound and free from
blemish. Gooseoerries are bottled when green and under-
ripe. Strawberries, raspberries, loganberries, currants,
peaches, apricots, and cherries should be ripe and quite
firm when required for bottling. Plums, greengages, and
damsons are bottled when nearly ripe. All fruits should be
bottled as soon as possible after picking to get the best re-
sults.
The fruit is graded before bottling to sort out the best for
this purpose, the fully ripe and under-ripe and blemished
fruit being set aside for jam- and jelly-making purposes. The
best fruit is graded into two sizes, large and small, each be-
ing bottled separately. The fruit should be washed in cold
water and drained under cover. It is then freed from stalks
and stems. Goosebe~ries should be hulled. When the fruit
has been prepared and dried it is carefully packed as
tightly as possible without crushing it into the sterilized
bottles, filling them quite full. The bottles are sharply
tapped to shake the fruit into position. They are then filled
up with boiled water. The rubber rings and screwbands, or
lids and clips, are then fitted on to the bottles, and they are
sterilized by placing them in a boiler or sterilizing pan, so
that they are completely covered with tvater, A gradual in-
crease in temperature is required, so that the heat will
penetrate to the centre 'of the pack. The length of time re-
quired for cooking depends chiefly on the nature and hard-
ness of the fruit. The temperature of the pack is raised
slowly over a period of It hours to 1700 F., and then
maintained at that temperature until the fruit is cooked.
Soft fruits such as raspberries, loganberries, and straw-
berries, require 10-15 minutes at 1650 F. Apples require
about 20 minutes at 1700 F., pears 30 minutes, and apricots
15 minutes. Plums, greengages, gooseberries, and damsons
require about 20 minutes. Blackcurrants and red currants
0
require 20 minutes at 180 F. Cherries require 30 minutes
at 1900 F.
When cooking is completed, the bottles are removed from
the sterilizer and the screwbands are immediately tightened.
Faulty bottles are discarded, the bottles are wiped clean,
and, when quite cold, are stored in a cool dry storehouse,
away from the light. If the storeroom is damp the rubber
FRUITS USED IN CONFECTIONERY

bands become damp, and mould growth sets up around the

bands, which would, in time, force its way into the bottles.
The fruit loses its colour if exposed to the light. Fruit
bottled in this manner will keep fresh for a considerable
period.

In many cases fruit bottled in syrup is preferable to that Bottled Fruit

bottled with water. The strength of the syrup used varies with Syrup
with the type offruit being bottled. Blackcurrants, cherries,
apples, and plums require 4 lb. sugar per gallon of water.
Strawberries, raspberries, loganberries, and other soft
fruits require 5 lb. sugar per gallon of water. Pears, currants,
apricots, damsons, and greengages require 6 lb. sugar per
gallon of water. Gooseberries are generally bottled in water,
and as a result are very sour. If 2 lb. sugar per gallon of
water is used to cover them the flavour is very much im-
proved. A stronger solution of sugat than this will cause the
gooseberries to shrivel up.
The syrups are made by boiling the sugar and water
together, then allowing the solution to cool, and straining
through a jelly bag before using to cover the bottled fruit.
When the fruit has all been bottled and covered with
syrup and lids put on, it is sterilized in the sterilizing pans
by heating to the same temperatures as those already given,
and maintaining these temperatures for the same time as
that given for the fruits when bottled with water only.
Fruits preserved in these ways are excellent for making fruit
pies and flans.
Fruit pulp is generally prepared when the fresh fruit is in
season by boiling the fruit with or without sugar, in a
jacketed pan, such as is used for jam making. Only whole
and sound fruit must be used for fruit pulp. The fruit is
boiled gently at first, then more briskly until it is pulped.
Generally 2 or 3 grains of salicylic acid or other preservative
is added to prevent acid formation. The pulp is then canned
or stored in a cool, dry place, ready for use in jam-making,
etc., when required.

The canning of fruit is a highly scientific process carried out Canned Fruit
in factories specially designed for this purpose. The principle
is much the same as that applied to fruit bottling. The fruit
is first washed, then graded into various sizes by machinery,
before filling into the cans. All bruised and broken fruit is
removed, and any deformed specimens that would look
unsightly when the cans are opened, also any over-ripe
fruit that might go mushy when cooked, are rejected.

133
CAKE MAKING

The cans are then filled nearly to the top with hot syrup
of the required density. Each type of fruit ~quires to be
cooked in a sugar syrup of a density suitable for that type.
The lids are next clinched on to the cans by a rotary clincher.
They then go to an exhaust box where a vacuum up to 121b.
is applied, and at the same time the temperature is raised.
It is important to note that if they are put through the
exhauster without lids, the top fruits are bleached; that is
why they are first put through the clincher with the lids
lightly fixed. The cans are not air-tight at this stage, as it
would be no use passing them through an exhauster if they
were, but the presence of the lids prevents bleaching, and
the raising of the temperature prevents the re-entry of the
air when the cans leave the exhauster.
The exhaustion process is necessary on account of the
natural evolution of gas, which goes on in spite of the
most rigorous precautions, to ensure that there are no live
organisms in the cans when they leave the factory. If this
gas were to be evolved in cans already at atmospheric pres-
sure, swelling would be inevitable and blowing likely.
Complete exhaustion is unnecessary, and it is found, in
practice, that the 12 lb. vacuum applied is sufficient. When
vacuumizing is completed the cans are sealed by machinery
which puts a double roll on the lids, making them air-
tight.
The cans offruit are then cooked. The optimum tempera-
ture and time of cooking have been determined after con-
siderable experimentation. The temperature of cooking lies
between 200 0 and 212 0 F., and in any given instance de-
pends on the type of fruit, as well as the size and ripeness,
etc. Strict adherence to the temperature known to be most
suitable for any particular fruit is achieved by thermostatic
control.
After cooking, the cans of fruit are passed through a
water-spray cooler, and at the same time are subjected to
l:l.ir cooling induced by a draught of high-speed fans.
After quick cooling the cans are packed ready for dis-
patch.
The whole process is continuous, and is carried out on the
conveyor system.
Fruits are also preserved in bulk for jam-making, particu-
larly by means of sulphur dioxide. A method for smaller-
scale use has been evolved by the Campden Research
Station using a special solution marKeted by them, as well
as by the use of tablets of meta-bisulphite. The active
principle in each case is sulphur dioxide.

134
FRUITS USED IN CONFECTIONERY

Before the fruits can be used in confectionery products the

fruit pulp must be boiled to remove the S02.
Deep freezing is extensively used for preserving fruits
which can later be used in the fillings for cakes and fruit
tarts. By this method colour and flavour are preserved.
Accelerated freeze drying is a new development which has
been applied to certain soft fruits with considerable success.

135
 Jams and Jellies 13

THE essential feature of jam production is uniformity. It is

quite easy for an amateur to make a boiling of jam which
might be considered perfect from every point of view, but it
is another matter to reproduce the same results regularly
under factory conditions. Some of the difficulties with
which the jam manufacturer has to contend are seasonal
variations, and changes in the fruit due to conditions of
cultivation, harvesting, and storage. Analysis of the fruit
does not always give sufficient information to enable a per-
fectjam to be made at the first trial, therefore an expert jam
boiler is still required in the jam factory. Although jam
production is a highly scientific process, the art still lingers
on under strict scientific control.

taw Materials The raw materials used are of first importance, and ex-
perience in choosing and blending fruit is very necessary.
The jam manufacturer has four classes of fruit to choose
from:
(I) Fresh fruit.
(2) Frozen or chilled fruit:
(3) Canned fruit' or fruit pulp.
(4) Fruit preserved hy sulphur dioxide.
These are placed in their order of merit as regards their
suitability for jam-making, and while fresh fruit is used to
produce the best jams, fruit preserved with sulphur dioxide
is the most convenient for handling in the factory. It is for
this reason, and also because large stocks of fruit may be
preserved in this way for making jam when the fresh fruit is
not available, that jams made from preserved pulps occupy
a very important place in the industry.

Raspberries There are various types of raspberries well suited for jam-
making, but most of the usual canning varieties, such as
Pynes Royal, Lloyd George, or Norfolk Giants are the best.

136
JAMS AND JELLIES

Those varieties which show an excessive number of seeds

should be avoided. Scottish raspberries are always welcome
in this jam, because the seeds of this fruit retain their fresh
appearance longer than most English fruits. When English
fruit is used the jam may take on a stale appearance after a
lengthy storage. The fruit should be passed through a fine-
mesh sieve to remove plugs, stalks, and hard berries.

All strawberries are not really suitable for jam-making, so a Strawberries

large tonnage of the pulp is imported, chiefly from Holland
and 'Russia. Some of the imported strawberries arrive in
cans, but the bulk arrives in casks, having been preserved
with S02. The best varieties of English strawberries for
jam-making are Stirling Castle, Ruskin, Royal Sovereign,
and Paxtons. Jam-making strawberries should always be
firm and free from plugs and stalks, also the fruit should be
carefully picked over to remove those with hard black
patches. This is a blemish particularly liable to be present
with Paxtons. Uniformity in strawberry jam is attainable
only by blending different types of strawberries. This helps
to compensate for seasonable and other variations. A boiling
may be made from equal proportions of Ruskins, Paxtons,
and Dutch pulp.

Most of the canning varieties of blackcurrants are suitable Blackcurrants

for this jam. The fruit should not be too ripe, nor too under-
ripe; otherwise the jam will contain tough skins and there
will be floatings of the fruit to the top of the jars. These are
the main difficulties in making blackcurrant jam. To avoid
this trouble, it is necessary to boil the fruit or pulp with water
until it is tender, before adding the sugar.

These are a good fruit with which to make either jam or Gooseberries
jelly. They can be cooked either ripe or under-ripe, but are
at their best for jam-making before they are fully ripe. There
are many types of gooseberries, the small green type being
useful for jam-making, also the large red type, while the
small, red, hairy type are most suitable for making goose-
berry jelly.

The best plum jam is made from the two varieties of egg Plums
plums-the Red and the Yellow-and Victorias. Other
varieties are used, but are better mixed with one of those
mentioned. They should be boiled until tender before the
sugar is added. Too many stones are undesirable in plum
jam, so about one-third of the fruit pulp is sieved through a

137
 CAKE MAKING

coarse-mesh sieve to remove the stones, unless a stoneless

plum jam is required, then all the stones arp removed en-
tirely by sieving all the pulp.

Sugar Either cane or beet sugar may. be used in jam-making, pro-

vided it is a good grade of un blued sugar. It is often used to-
day in the form ot' a 'syrup, which is added hot to the boiling
fruit.
Liquid glucose, or invert sugar, may also be used to help
in retarding the crystallization of sucrose during storage, but
not more than 25 per cent of the sugar should be replaced
thus.

Pectin There is a quantity of natural pectin in all fruits, but some

contain more than others; for instance, apples, gooseberries,
and citrus fruits are very rich in pectin, while strawberries
are naturally deficient in it. Pectin is one of the main factors
in the jam which cause it to set firm.
Pectin can be obtained either as a powder or in liquid
form, as a 5 per cent solution. It is added to those fruits that
are deficient in pectin. Either form can be used. The liquid
apple pectin is cheaper than the powdered pectin, and per-
haps more convenient for use in the factory. The powdered
citrus pectin may be preferred by some, as there is no
flavour or odour with it, and it is of uniform setting
power.
Apple juice, gooseberry juice, and red currant juice were
much used before pectin came into vogue on account of the
natural pectin in these juices, but these are now used only in
making mixed-fruit jams.

Colouring Only permitted fruit colours should be added to jams. They

Matter should be used in liquid form, I~OZ. per pint of water. They
should be bright and clear and not liable to fade.

Acids Tartaric or citric acid may be added to jam to improve its

setting and prevent graining of the sugar. A convenient
form of either acid is a 50 per cent solution in water, i.e.
10 lb. per gallon of water. Acids are often included in jams
to make up for a deficiency of natural acid in the fruit, so
as to increase the amount of inversion. The amount of in-
version of sugar during boiling is very important in pre-
venting granulation. If the percentage of invert sugar is
below 25 per cent, acid should be added; I oz. per I 12 lb. of
jam will be sufficient, but the actual quantity that should
be used will depend on the acidity of the fruit, and on the
JAMS AND JELLIES

length of the time taken to boil and fill the jam. The pH of
the jam should be between 3'2 and 3'4'

It is very important that jams should be boiled correctly, in Jam. Boiling

order to avoid such troubles as fermentation, granulation,
bad colour and flavour, mould development, and bad set-
ting. After preparation, the fresh fruit or fruit pulp is
weighed out, water as required is added to it, and it is placed
in the steam boiler and the steam is turned on. It is generally
necessary to boil the fruit for a few minutes, either to soften
the fruit or to remove some of the S02' The maximum
amount of S02 permitted in jam is 100 parts per million.
Blackcurrants require more water than other fruits, and
also require more boiling at this stage. After a few minutes
boiling the sugar is added, also any required colouring
matter and acid. A small amount of butter or nut oil
should be added to prevent frothing and formation of scum.
About five minutes before the end of the boiling period liquid
pectin is added, if this is necessary. Pectin should not be
added too early, otherwise some of its setting properties
may be destroyed owing to the formation of pectic acid.
When dried pectin is used it is generally mixed with five times
its weight of sugar, and added before the bulk of the sugar.
The jam-maker uses a thermometer to get it to the correct
temperature, but a 'drop' test is also employed to make sure
that the jam will set. After the first boiling of any particular
fruit it is only necessary to use the thermometer to get it to
the correct temperature. The temperature at which a
boiling ofjam is considered to be ready is determined by the
concentration of solids precisely when the correct set is
obtained, as shown by the 'drop' test. There should be about
70 per cent soluble solids when the jam is ready. Those
fruits with the higher sugar content, such as strawberries,
require a higher finishing temperature than those fruits,
such as apples, with a lower sugar content. There is only a
matter of a few degrees difference, so that it requires very
careful watching. Strawberry jam should finish at 222-
0
224 F., whereas apple jam should finish at about 219-
0
221 F. Since the finished weight of a boiling is dependent
on the time of boiling, this gives an additional check on the
correctness of the boil. The maximum tolerance is 1 lb. in
1 cwt. jam. It is generally checked by tipping the jam into a
tared cooling pan.
The first boiling of any particular fruit is of necessity in
the nature of a test boiling, and if the set, the soluble ex-
tracts, and the invert sugar are found to be correct, then

139
CAKE MAKING

subsequent boilings should be standardized. By adding each

ingredient at the correct time, keeping the steam pressure
constant, seeing the steam traps functioning properly, and
using the correct temperature for the boiling, the finished
weight should be constant. The soluble extract and the
amount of invert sugar should not vary if the method of
making is standa;dized.
Boiling under vacuum is becoming popular, although it is
considered more difficult to control. The advantages of this
method are that lower boiling temperatures are used, and in
addition it is virtually a closed process so that flavour can be
controlled.
In recent years there have been developments in jam-
boiling processes on a continuous principle both in open-
pan jam boiling and under vacuum.
When the jam is ready it is transferred to coolers, where it
is allowed to cool a little before filling into sterilized jars for
the domestic market. It must not become too coo], as this
fosters premature setting and spoils the final set of the jam.
If it is filled while too hot, the fruits and stones may show a
tendency to float, so that there is an uneven distribution in
the jars. There is some diversity of opinion as to what is the
best filling temperature, but many manufacturers fill at
180-200° F. It can either be filled by hand into sterile jars
or through a feed tank by machine. When the jars are filled
they should be cooled quickly in order to preserve the colour
and prevent further inversion of the sugar.
A round of wax paper is placed on the top of the jam in
the jars while it is still hot. This paper should be impervious
to moisture, and should be securely sealed to the top of the
jars.
Parchment closures for the tops of the jars are only satis-
factory if the jam has been correctly boiled and the storage
conditions are good. Parchment tops let through both air
and water vapour. This latter will be absorbed by the jam
in a damp atmosphere, and will be given off if storage
conditions are too dry, unless some other form of protection
is available. Dampness causes mould and dryness causes
crystallization. The modern method of sealing jars of jam
with metal closures is best, as then the external atmospheric
conditions do not affect the keeping qualities of the jam.
When metal closures are used it is necessary to make sure
that the jam is sterile and that the insides of the caps are also
sterile. This can be done by passing them through a
sterilizer, while shielding the main body of the jars from the
heat, in order to avoid discoloration and over-inversion.

140
JAMS AND JELLIES

For confectionery purposes jam is poured into 28-lb. con-

tainers, generally non-returnable tins, although polythene-
lined cartons are now extensively used. Bulk delivery III
IQ-15-cwt. stainless-steel units is now being developed.

These are prescribed in the Food Standards (Preserves) Standards for

Order I 953, No 69 I, and are as follows: JalD
(I) Jam shall contain a percentage of soluble solids of
not less than 68t per cent unless packed in hermetically
sealed containers, when it shall contain not less than 65
per cent.
(2) The fruit content of jam shall be not less than as
specified in Table IV.
TABLE IV
Minimum Fruit Content
j
-
DESCRIPTION OF JAM Fruit content
(%)
Blackberry or bramble 38
Blackcurrant 25
Damson 35
Gooseberry 30
Gooseberry and raspberry 30
Gooseberry and strawberry 30
Greengage 38
Loganberry 30
Melon and lemon 40 (8)
Melon and pineapple 40 (5)
Melon and ginger 40 (1)
Raspberry 30
Raspberry and gooseberry 30
Raspberry and loganberry 30
Raspberry and redcurrant 30
Redcurrant 35
Strawberry 38
Strawberry and gooseberry 35
Youngberry 38
All other varieties 40

(3) Except as provided in paragraph (4), the first-

named fruit in all mixedjams shall amount to not less than
50 per cent and not more than 75 per cent of the fruit
content.
(4) Where figures appear in brackets in the second
column of the table above, the figure in each case denotes
the minimum quantity by weight of the second-named
fruit to be contained in the finished jam expressed as a
percentage based upon the number of parts by weight of
the second-named fruit required to be present in 100
parts of finished jam.
 CAKE MAKING

General No jam shall contain any acid other than citric, tartaric,
or malic acid. ::l

Standard for (1) Each 100 parts of mincemeat shall contain:

Mincemeat (a) not more t4an 0·5 part of acetic acid (80 per
cent or glaci;:tl) ;
(b) not less than 30 parts of added sugar;
(c) not less than 30 parts of dried fruit and peel;
(d) not less than 2·5 parts of suet or equivalent fat.
(2) The percentage of soluble solids contained in mince-
meat shall be not less than 65 per cent.

Confectioners' These products are largely manufactured by preserve manu-

Lem.on Curd facturers today, but for those wishing to make their own
product, the following information and recipe will be of use.
First of all, a standard specification is given as follows:
(1) Each 100 parts of fruit curd shall contain not less
than
(a) 4 parts offat;
(b) 0·33 parts of citric acid;
(c) 0.125 parts of oil oflemon (or 0·25 parts of oil
of orange);
(d) I part of dried whole egg, or It parts of sugar
dried whole egg, or 3f parts ofliquid or frozen whole
egg, or 4! parts of shell egg.
(2) The percentage of soluble solids contained in fruit
curd shall be not less than 65 per cent.
No restriction is made with respect to stabilizers or gelling
agents. In general, bakers' curds are made from the in-
gredients specified above, together with starch in the form of
corn-starch, flour, or both. Sago flour or specially prepared
starches, such as Feculose, are -sometimes used. Stabilizers,
such as gelatine, solium aglinate, and Irish moss, are also
advocated but are inferior to starch.
The following recipe given by Corn Products Ltd. pro-
duces a satisfactory lemon curd which will bake well.
lb. oz.
Sugar 40 0
Globe 3A Glucose 20 0
Margarine 7 8
Wheat flour 5 0
Cornflour 6 0
Citric acid 12
Dried egg yolk 2 0
Dissolve the egg yolk in 7! lb. water. Mix the flour with
23i lb. water. Dissolve the citric acid in t pint of water.
 JAMS AND JELLIES

Mix the sugar, glucose and margarine and stir in the

creamed flour, citric acid solution, and egg solution. Heat
the mixture at about 19oo F. Colour and flavour just before
pouring into jars.
The flavour of this product can be enhanced by the use of
oil of lemon, or oil of orange, in the proportions specified.

Fruit and piping jellies of various colours and flavours are a Fruit and
very useful commodity for use as fillings or for the decoration Piping Jellies
of cakes and gateaux.
There are great differences in some of these products, not
only in flavour but also in quality and smoothness. Goodjelly
should be bright and clear, have an attractive colour and
flavour, should not be too expensive, and when used should
be perfectly smooth, and retain the form in which it has
been piped out. These qualities in a confectioner's jelly are
obtained in a variety of ways, but the best results are ob-
tained by the use of good materials, boiled in the correct
manner and acidified at the right time.
Natural fruit jellies have generally the best colour and
flavour, and make excellent fillings, but are sometimes
inclined to be short when used as a medium for the decora-
tion of cakes, or else are runny and flow out on the goods, so
that they do not retain the form in which they have been
piped out. Reinforcing fruit jellies with either liquid or dried
\ pectin has helped the modern manufacturers to produce
\ better jellies without these faults. Some jellies are not pro-
~ duced with dried pectin alone as the jellying agent.
I Agar-agar is another reinforcing agent much used in the
making of piping or confectioners' jelly. Agar-agar is the
dried form of a red seaweed found along the shores of
California and Japan. It can either be purchased in powder
form or in a dried stringy form. It consists principally of a
carbohydrate-GeLose-which is similar in properties to
fruit pectin. Agar-agar is insoluble in cold water, but swells
and absorbs large quantities of it when soaked for 12 hours.
When a solution is boiled gently for 3-5 minutes it goes into
a colloidal solution that sets firm like a jelly when cool.
Leaf gelatine has also been used as a reinforcing agent in
piping jelly. This has only about half the water-absorbing
power of agar-agar. The jellies made with it are good and
clear, and set nicely when the correct quantity has been
used.

Jelly-making is a process of preserving fruit juices which can Natural Fruit

be carried out by two successive operations. Most soft fruits 'Jelly

143
CAKE MAKING

are fairly suitable for making jelly, except, strawberries,

since they are lacking in both pectin and aci2r. Strawberries
can be made into jelly only if they are mixed with some
other fruit juice strong in pectin, or if the prepared pectin is
used with the strawberry juice.
Except in the making of gooseberry and apple jellies, all
fruit should be fully ripe, because then the flavour is fully
developed, and the yield of juice will be greater.
The fruit should be picked over to take out any unsound
and bruised fruit, and then it is washed, the proper propor-
tion of water is added to it, and the whole is brought slowly
to the boil and then allowed to simmer until the fruit is
quite tender.
Some fruits require only a small quantity of water, be-
cause they already contain plenty of juice.
Redcurrants, raspberries, and loganberries require only I
gal. water to 21 lb. fruit.
Blackcurrants, gooseberries, apples, and plums require I
gal. water to I I lb. fruit.
When the fruit is sufficiently soft the juice is strained or
separated from the pulp, by passing it through a jelly bag or
a filter press, to obtain the pectinous juice. The pulp may
again be boiled with more water to obtain more juice of a
lower quality.
The quantity of sugar required to make a jelly from the
fruit juice depends to a large extent on the quantity of pectin
in the juice. This can be estimated by testing it for quality.
Take a spoonful of juice in a cup and add three spoonfuls of
methylated spirits, shake together, then carefully decant
off the spirits. Pectin is insoluble in alcohol and is thrown
out of solution, so that it should settle out as a jelly-like clot
at the bottom of the cup. This clot should be examined. If it
is fairly solid the j~ice is- rich in pectin, and rib. 2 oz. sugar
can be used per lb. of juice. If the clot is weak the juice is
only moderately rich in pectin, and I lb. sugar should be
used per lb. of juice. When little or no pectin is formed, then
some other fruit juice rich in pectin should be used with the
juice, or a proportion of liquid or dried pectin can be used,
and only I lb. sugar per lb. of juice.
It is important to have the proportion of sugar in a jelly
exactly right. When too much is used the jelly will be too
sweet and will not set properly. When too little is used the
jelly will be tough. If the jelly is boiled too long with the
sugar it will be ropy and syrupy.
When boiling the jelly it is necessary first of all to heat the
juice until nearly boiling, then add the sugar, and have it all

144
JAMS AND JELLIES

. dissolved before the mixture boils. Stirring during boiling

spoils the clear colour of the jelly.
Some jellies require only a few minutes' boiling, others
may require up to 15 minutes' boiling, to reach the desired
degree of jellying. The thermometer is used and the drop
test. About 220-221° F. is generally found to be the correct
temperature at which the jelly will set when tested.
With experience one soon gets to know when a boiling of
jelly has reached its maximum setting point. The over-
boiling of a jam or jelly destroys the pectin and acid
combination, and gives a sticky syrupy jelly. The sugar
content of the jelly should be about 65-68 per cent when
finished.

It is impossible to make fruit jellies from some of the most Fruit Jelly
popular flavoured fruits, owing to their deficiency of pectin with Pectin
and acid, but this deficiency can be overcome by the use of
powdered pectin and acid solution. The standard recipe to
use is as follows:
lb. oz.
Sugar 50
Fruit juice 50
Pectin 4-8
Acid solution 3-6
The pectin and acid used depend on the available supply in
the fruit juice.
Yield about 84 lb. for 65 per cent soluble solids.
lb. oz. Lower Cost
Sugar 50 Jelly
Fruit juice 42 8
Pectin 8
Acid solution 6
Yield for 65 per cent sugar jelly 77 lb.
Method of making jelly with pectin:
Place the fruit juice in the boiler. Mix the powdered pec-
tin in a basin with 5 times its weight of sugar taken from the
total sugar to be used. Before heating the juice, sift this
sugar pectin mixture over the juice while stirring it in the
boiler. Bring the mixture to the boil, add the main portion
of sugar, and boil to about 220-22 1°F. Cool the jelly
slightly and add the acid, then pour into sterile jars.

There are a vast number of recipes for making confectioners' Confectioners'

piping jelly, either with agar-agar as the main jellying Piping Jelly
agent or with powdered liquid.
F
 CAKE MAKING

The following recipe can be utilized by those confec-

tioners who wish to make this commodity:'1I
lb. oz.
Agar-agar 4 Soak together for 12 hours, then bring to the
Water 10 0 boil and allow to simmer for 3 minutes, and
strain through a hair sieve into the sugar
.solution.
Sugar 20 o Bring slowly to the boiling point, then boil to
Water 6 4 2400 F., add the agar-agar solution and boil
the mixture to 220 0 F.
Apricot Heat the apricot puree until boiling, then pass
puree 12 o through a fine sieve into the boiled solution.
Allow the mixture to cool a little.
Tartaric Add to the jelly, then pour into sterile jars,
acid cover with waxed discs, and tie down with
solution 4 strong greaseproof paper.
Colour and flavour as required.
The tartaric acid solution is made by dissolving I part
tartaric acid in 2t parts water. It is always added to the
batch just before colouring and flavouring and pouring.
An alternative is as follows:
lb. oz.
Powdered agar-agar 4 Steep overnight and b~il to 220 0 F.
Water 7 8
Glucose 25 0 Add and
Sugar 10 0 boil again to 220 0 F.
Tartaric acid 01 Add and cool quickly
Colour and flavour as desired
Using sodium alginate the following formula can be used:
Parts by weight
Manucol SS/LM 1·7
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate 0·35
Sugar (sucrose) 70·0
Glucose syrup 44·0
Citric acid 0·75
Water 110·0
Colour and flavour q.s.
Procedure Mix together in the dry state the SSjLM, the tetra-
sodium pyrophosphate, and half the sugar, and stir into 100
parts of the water. Heat until dissolved, and then add the
other half of the sugar and the glucose syrup. Boil down to
221-223° F. or 105-106° C. (see Note I below for laboratory
scale batches). Add the citric acid, colour, and flavour,
which have previously been dissolved in the other 10 parts
of water, and stir well. The above formula gives approxi-
mately 161 parts of finished piping jelly.

Notes (1) In laboratory-scale trial batches the boiling tempera-

ture is not an accurate guide. In such cases boil down until
the batch weight is 150 parts before adding the citric acid,
colour, and flavouring as directed above.
JAMS AND JELLIES

(2) Some glucose syrup, as supplied, has an acid reaction

which should be neutralized before use.
(3) To reduce the chance of including air bubbles, the
mix should be allowed to stay hot for some time after boiling
and before introducing the acid.
When a confectioner has made open fruit tarts or flans he Cornflour
finds it necessary to cover them over with some type of jelly Jelly
to enhance their appearance and also to preserve the fruit.
Apricot puree, which has been coloured and flavoured
to match the fruit, is sometimes employed for this purpose,
but often the confectioner prefers a jelly made with corn-
flour and mixed with apricot puree. To make this jelly the
following ingredients are required:
lb. oz.
Water 2 8
Sugar •I
Cornflour 2
Apricot puree 2
Colour and flavour
The water and sugar are brought to the boil in a copper
pan; then the cornflour, which has been mixed with a little
of the water, is added and the boiling continued. The
apricot is then added, and the whole is brought to boil
again. Finally, the necessary colours and a suitable flavour
are incorporated.
Another very useful jelly for covering fruit flans and tarts Arrowroot
is made from arrowroot. The following ingredients are re- Jelly
quired:
lb. oz.
Water 3 12
Sugar 4
Arrowroot 8
Water 2
Orange colour
Carmine colour
Strawberry essence
The water and sugar are boiled together in a copper pan.
The arrowroot is mixed with the remainder of the water and
then added to the boiling sugar solution. The whole is
boiled together for 5 minutes, when it will be quite thick.
The colours and flavour are then added and the jelly is
ready for use. This is the jelly generally employed for
covering strawberry tarts when the strawberries are in
season. It is applied while still hot.

147
 CAKE MAKING

Many other types of jellies are used by the confectioner,

but those given above are sufficient for mtfst purposes. If
they are required to set firmer, a little gelatine can be
added; for instance, in the case of the arrowroot jelly up to
4 oz. gelatine, which has been soaked in 2 pints water, can
be added and a jel~y is obtained that will set firm.

Quick-setting There are a number of quick-setting pectin jellies which set

Jellies in the cold. The pectin component is sold as a liquid, suit-
ably sweetened, coloured, and flavoured in some cases.
When this product is to be used the quantity of liquid
pectin is weighed, and to it is added the predetermined
quantity of the acid component and stirred slowly, and then
the mixture is used as quickly as possible before the gel
forms. It is general practice to make up only small quanti-
ties so that it may all be used before it has time to set in bulk.
Gums and 14
Jellying Agents

GUMS have been used in the bakery for very many years, but
of more recent years an increasing number have found their
way into flour confectionery, either in the manufacture of
prepared materials or used directly in the baked product.
The sources of gums are very widespread, and classifica-
tion of them may be considered under the following head-
ings:

These are found in: The Exudates

North, Central and South West Africa
Asia and Asia Minor
India and adjacent countries
Australia
South America
Europe (to a small extent)

These are located around the shores of the following: The Seaweed
Japan Gums
United States of America
England and Scotland

These are manufactured from starches obtained mostly The Starch

from: Gums
America
East Indies
The United States and certain European countries also
supply the main gelatine requirements of the world.
Gums can be divided into four main categories:
A Animal-Gelatine and such substances as are covered
by this term, i.e. glue, casein and the albumens.
B Vegetable-Such as Arabic, Tragacanth.

149
 CAKE MAKING

C Marine-Irish Moss, the Alginates, and Agar-agar, to-

gether with fish glues. 1-'
D Synthetic-this class of gum is coming into greater use
at the present time, due to the pioneer work carried
out in Germany. These are cellulose synthetics, and the
products 9f ,these researches were marketed under
various trade names.
All gums are not edible. They can be divided, according
to their behaviour in water, into two classes-Iyophillic,
which means 'water-loving', and lyophobic, which means
'water-hating'. The former includes water-soluble or water-
dispersible gums, adhesives, and also dextrins, which either
swell in water to form mucillages or are soluble in water.
The second class will not swell or dissolve in water, and so
are usually inedible. Most edible gums, particularly those
used in the food industry, fall into the lyophillic ciass.
Anim.al Gum.s Gelatine and glue are the principal animal gums today.
Gelatine and Glue They are nrotein_ilL.!;haracter and so have the a~ Jo
swell in cold water and dissolve in hot water.
In production, gelatine can be divided ir'lto three main
groups:
(a) Edible gelatine
(b) Photographic gelatine
(c) Inedible gelatine
The edible grade is usually marketed in the forms of:
(i) Sheet gelatine
(ii) Flake gelatine
(iii) Powdered or 'Crystal' gelatine.
(I) MANUFAC- __The two main sources of raw materials for the making.of
TURE OF gelatine are hide trimmings ar{dbOiies: -
GELATINE --'the trimmings- are-cleanea~]jy a preliminary soaking in
water, and soaked in successive baths of lime water, each
bath of increasing strength, which removes hair, blood, and
other undesirable matter and causes the hide to swell,
making available by a chemical reaction called hydrolysis
the...two main proteins in .gelatine which are coll<l;gen anq
o~ This process may take up to tllre'e months. \\Then the
liming process is finished the material is washed almost free
of lime with water and treated with sulphur dioxide, which
removes the residual traces of lime, and bleaches and re-
duces the alkalinity. After this treatment the stock is ex-
tracted several times with hot water in successive stages. The
highest grade of edible gelatine is produced in the first
extract between 60° and 70° C. Successive extractions are
GUMS AND JELLYING AGENTS

made at higher temperatures up to 100° C., the last extrac-

tions being carried out at temperatures above 100° C. in an
autoclave.
The first extracts possess better colour and gelling power,
and have a higher viscosity than the products from subse-
quent extractions.
The last extracts, carried out at higher temperatures, pro-
duce what are known as glues, and these are classed as in-
edible.
The extracts contajning the collagen and ossein are then
filtered, and, for the highest grades, further clarification is
effected by treatment with blood albumin or egg albumin.
From these clarified extracts, a firm jelly is obtained
which is further dried to give either sheet or flake, and these
are further ground to give the crystal or powder variety if
desired.
The grade of gelatine depends upon the colour, flavour,
smell, and chemical impurities. With a good grade there is
never more than 3'25 per cent mineral matter, and the new
Statutory Regulations governing the quality of gelatine
include the limit of 3'25 per cent of ash. These limits can
briefly be enumerated as follows:
Arsenic 1·4 parts per million parts of gelatine
Zinc 100
Lead 10
Copper 30 "
There is also a statutory limit for sulphur dioxide, which at
present is 1,000 parts per million parts of gelatine.
Gelatines for food purposes containing over the pre-
scribed limits of impurities are rejected.
Essentially the same process is applied to the extraction of
gelatine from bones after the bones have been treated. They
are degreased by an organic solvent, and the calcium
phosphate and other minerals are dissolved away with acid,
the remaining collagenous material being treated in the
same way as that from hide.
As..alr~ad.y PQinte,d out, glues are reallyanJ!!furior._for.m (2) MANUFAC-
of gelatine and are extracted from the liide trimmings. _at- TURE OF GLUE
higher temperatures-at 'atmospheric' -pressure, and also in
pressure vessels after the extractions at 100° C. have been
made.
The colour Qra.good edible grade of gelatine should be 00 Properties cif
E!0re than a gale. golden"y'~llow__,_andThe produash~ Gelatine
fairly free from odou~ ~.nd flavour of any' ki!J,d. '
Jt should yield~~rlectly:a:ear_.aru!l?ri.ght gel on making
~ - -
up in water and should be free from any sediment.
 CAKE MAKING

Jelly strength and viscosity cannot, of course, be specified

rigidly, as various users demand various! strengths and
viscosities.
Gelatine swells cons~<ie.0bly in sold water and dissolves
completely in hot water. - - -
-----:GelatIne als_!)_'p_p~sesses_the _remarkable _R:r:_{n~erty of being
<ible,_under-certain. conditions, to combine e~ an
acid or an__alkali.. It can dO-this only when it removeSfrom
its 'isoelectric point', i.e. a pH value which is fixed for
gelatine. The isoelectric point for gelatine is 4'7. Thus at pH
values above 4'7, i.e. tending towards the alkaline side, it can
combine with acids, and conversely at pH values below 4'7,
i.e. tending towards the more acid side, it can combine with
alkalis.
Another interesting point to note is that, at the isoelectric
point most of its properties, such as viscosity, solubility,
osmotic pressure, etc., are at their minimum values.
Uses of Gelatine Edible gelatines are used in such food preparations as:
Table jellies
Fruit gums and pastilles
~rshmallo~
GI~edg29ds
Stabilizer for ice~cream
Meat extracts, galantines, brawns, etc.
Mayonnaise and salad cream
Flavour emulsions
Bu~m_s _and related p~o_9_ucts
And many other foodstuffs
Fine-grade gelatine has application also in pharmaceuti-
cal products such as:
Capsules
Pill coatings
Emulsions
Lozenges
Toothpastes

Vegetable Very generally, vegetable gums can be divided into two

GUIDS sections:
(a) The exudates.
(b) The seed extracts.
(a) Exudates These are found in North, Central and West Africa, Asia
and Asia Minor, India, Australia, and South America.
(I) Gum Arabic J_~~t grade of thi~ _gu~ i~_called Acacia. The gum

15 2
GUMS AND JELLYING AGENTS

was probably known as early as 2000 B.C. The Egyptians

used it in paints of various kinds, and trading in this gum
in Northern Egypt was known as early as the seventeenth
century B.C. It is an exudation collected from a number of
species of the acacia tree, probably about 400 in number,
and usually occurs in 'tears', so called from the shapes of the
exudations. This type of exudation dries and forms nodules.
The collection of this gum is a casual trade carried on by
natives, who barter the gum, which is later exported. The
origin of the name arises from the ports of export and not
because it originates from Arabia. Botanically the gum is
widespread in Africa, stretching from Dakaar and Senegal
on the West Coast across the continent to the Red Sea,
through Arabia, portions of Persia, India, and finally Aus-
tralia.
It is also found in sections of the lower United States,
Mexico, and Central America.
The principal sources of supply are Sudan and French
Senegal, and one of the main ports of export is Aden.
The exudations arise where damage, either deliberate or
accidental, arises; apparently the greatest yields arise from
'sick' trees and bushes. The exudations are due to infection
at the site of the damage. This state of affairs can be com-
pared with a cut finger.
In the Sudan the gum collected from cultivated trees is
called 'Hashab geneina' and from wild trees is called
'Hashab wady'. The best quality is colourless, or whitish,
and the lower grades are dark with an astringent flavour,
owing to the inclusion of dark-coloured tannins. The best
grade comes from Kardofan in the Sudan, and the less pure
gum is known as Senegal gum.
It is used in food in fruit gums and as an emulsifier. It is Uses of Gum
also used in adhesiv~olishes-, printing, textites, the Arabic
sizing of paper, in the production of inks, and in pharma-
ceuticals. Confectiollers_us___~glaziI!g_almond_a__Qd
marzi pany-rod ucts.
The gum is known by several other names, such as
Turkey Gum, Gum Senegal, Sudan Gum, East Indian
Gum, Wattle Gum (Australian origin), and Scent Gum-a
lower grade. The world production is in the region of 30-50
million per year.
The word 'Tragacanth' comes from the Greek meaning (2) Gum
'goat thorn'. The gum is an exudation from the Astragalus Tragacanth
shrub, which grows in desert places. Unlike gum arabic, it
changes during exudation due to a change in the soft cells of
the pith. It forms ribbon-like bands which are snapped off

153
 CAKE MAKING

as they flow out and, here again, the plant has to be a sick
plant. This is effected by impoverishing1/the roots or by
burning the tops of the shrubs. It originates in Persia, Iraq,
Khurdistan, Turkey, and Syria, and the best grades come
from Khurdistan and Iran. It is usually ground for the food
industry into ~ Eulverized white powder which does not
completely dissolve in water, but swells and forms a
mucillage, which is far stronger than gum arabic.
Gum tragacanth is used as a basis for hair creams and
cosmetics, in the production of confectioners' gum paste,
and as a stabilizer for emulsions, it is also used with phos-
phorus in the manufacture of match tops.
The two main constituents are tragacanthin, which is
water-soluble, and bassorin, which is insoluble in water, and
the amounts of these two substances determine its quality.
In normal gums 20-40 per cent is tragacanthin and 60-70
per cent bassorin, and the better grades contain more of the
latter. The gum is believed to consist chemically of poly-
saccharides. The viscosity of the mucillage is increased by a
short period of boiling or by a process of ageing. Too long a
period of storage deteriorates the mucillage. The viscosity of
the mucillage can be raised to a maximum by passing it
through an homogenizer four times.
It has been found that the addition of a mucillage of
acacia gum in any proportions to one part of a mucillage of
gum tragacanth results in a viscosity lower than those of
either constituent.
The price of the gum is fairly high, and because of this, it
is often adulterated with cheaper gums. Lead carbonate has
also been found as an adulterant.
(3) Gum Karaya Also known as Sterculia Indian Gum, or India Traga-
canth Gum.
India is the sole country of origin of this gum, which
comes from trees of the genus Sterculia urens. The trees grow
from 25 to 30 ft. high and are tapped by making five or six
deep incisions about 21ft. long and deep enough to reach
right into the heart of the wood to get an exudation. It is
collected by natives, during periods of scarcity of work, in
irregular knobs every two to four days. The best-quality
gum is collected between March and the middle of June,
although the gum is obtainable throughout the year. After
about nine months of yielding the trees cease producing for
about two to three years, and then again yield gum.
It is marketed and sorted in Bombay, the best grades
being white and the poorest dark in colour. The remnants
of bark and tannin which usually contaminate the raw

154
GUMS AND JELLYING AGENTS

deliveries are removed by air flotation. The gum possesses

the odour of acetic acid, due probably to the presence of a
substance called a galactan. This gum swells in water, but
does not dissolve completely, except under heat and pres-
sure, such as by heating in an autoclave.
It is used in the cosmetic, food, and textile industries, etc.
Gum karaya is often used as a substitute for gums tragacanth
and arabic, and has been found in laboratories as a consti-
tuent of several so-called fat extenders.
Also known as Indian Gum or Gatti Gum, this is an (4) Gum Ghatti
exudation from a large tree growing in India and Ceylon
called Anogeissus Latifolia; the best grades are exported in
globular tears and ground in the importing countries. The
poorer grades are not exported.
Gum gahtti is not entirely soluble in water, but swells and
has to be heated under pressure in an autoclave to form a
viscous adhesive mucillage. It is found in a variety of pro-
ducts, including pharmaceuticals, for which gum acacia is
directed to be used, and some baking emulsions made by
laboratories, although it is not considered to be a very good
emulsifier. It is purified in much the same way as gum karaya
and is ground to a white powder.
Also known as Locust Bean Gum, Locust Kernel Gum, (b) Seed Gums
Tragan, Tragasal, Gatto, St. John's Bread Gum or Hydra- ( 1) Carob Seed
gum. Gum
The whole fruit is the familiar 'locust' that used to be sold
in confectioners' shops. The gum is extracted from the
seeds of the tree which belongs to the bean family, called the
Carob, or Locust Bean Tree, Ceratonea Siligua. It grows in
Cyprus, Egypt, and the Mediterranean countries.
The fruit is cut open and the seeds separated by treat-
ment in rollers and crushers and then are roasted at 1500 C.
This turns them a golden brown colour. The partially de-
hulled seeds thus roasted are then extracted with 20 times
their weight of boiling water. The viscous extract is then
filtered and the clear filtrate is evaporated to a pasty mess
containing about 25 per cent moisture. This pasty solid is
dried in the air in trays and yields carob gum. It can be used
as a substitute for gum tragacanth for many purposes, and
is also found in a number offat extenders. It also has quite
high emulsifying powers.
This comes from a shrub of the order Rosaceae, which has (2) Quince Seed
very shallow roots and the leaves, the flowers and the fruits
of which are like apples or pears. The number of seeds in
each fruit varies from thirty to seventy-five. The usual article
of commerce is the dried seed, which comes from fruits

155
 CAKE MAKING

grown mainly in Persia, although lesser quantities are im-

ported from Iraq, Portugal, and South Africa. The Ameri-
can quince is primarily utilized as a canned fruit or in the
manufacture of jellies or preserves.
I t is usually left to the consumer to extract the gum from
the dried seed,_ si!,!ce the process of commercial extraction
would make the price of the extracted gum prohibitive.
Two parts of seed are agitated for t hour with 100 parts of
water, after which the seed hulls are strained off and the
strainings will give the required mucillage. The highest
amount of gum can be extracted from the seed of the
Persian Quince.
This gum is approximately 10 times as effective as
gelatine as a stabilizer in ice-cream, though when the ice-
cream melts it does not do so uniformly, as is the case of ice-
cream 'mixes' stabilized with gelatine.
The mucillage from quince seeds is used extensively in the
cosmetic industry as a demulcent in hand lotions, hair
waving and cleaning lotions, and in medicinal preparations.

Marine Gums lJq>ical marine gums_are_b~ Moss, an~ Alg.~~t~s,

)Yill.ch_are all closely related and alrIiavetheir-ungm m
~e~e_d_oL..algae._They are located maln1y round the
shores of Great Britain, Japan, and the United States.
The hydrophyllic gums are derived from two main groups
of algae known as brown and red. The major classes of brown
algae are called fucoids and kelps, and these yield gums of
the algin class. The red algae yield gums of the agar class.
This classification can be made clearer by illustrating it in
a diagram:

Apart from this classification, the seaweed algae can be

further divided into: (a) submerged weeds, which grow as
deep as five fathoms, and (b) rock adher:ers, which are
found between low and high tide levels.
The alginate gums were accidentally discovered in
about 1883 during investigations into the chemicals from
seaweeds, and their discovery was due mostly to the work of
an American chemist called Stanford. He found that
alkaline extracts of the brown algae yielded products pos-
sessing unusual gelling properties.
A little more detail can be given about representative
GUMS AND JELLYING AGENTS

gums from the seaweeds starting with the well-known agar-

agar.
This is also known as Japanese and Chinese Vegetable, (I) Agar-agar
Seaweed Isjngl~, and Kanten.
-:;gar is produced from the red ahme which is found round
the coasts of Japan, Australia, Mexico, California and the
Malay Coast. Production of agar from seaweed dates back
as far as the seventeenth century in Japan, and an interesting
story is told about its discovery. The remnants of a species
of seaweed which had been served as a food had been thrown
on the ground on an extremely cold day. The fragments
froze -hard, and the host, thinking they could be used as a
delicacy, gave some to a priest who tasted the jelly produced
and expressed his delight by naming it 'Kanten', which,
literally translated, means 'Frozen Heaven'.
Each country has its own methods of collection, but
normally agar is collected by divers who go down and
collect the seaweed from the sea bottom during May to
October, and bring the weed to the surface in bundles. It is
laid out in the sun and bleached for three or four weeks on
the sea-shore. It is then taken to the mountains, and the
agar is extracted during the winter months. It is first cleaned
by washing with fresh water to remove salt and other im-
purities, then pounded heavily with wooden pounders, after
which it is boiled for 30 or 40 hours and allowed to settle
undisturbed in layers. The top 70 per cent, when skimmed
off, gives the best quality agar, and the remainder is of
inferior quality. The thick solution is poured into trays, and
when cool and set to jelly it is squeezed through the small
holes in the bases of trays or presses, and comes out in
strips which are dried and bleached in the sun. The climate
plays an important part in production, and a right combina-
tion of bright sunlit days and cold frosty nights is essential to
successful production.
The Americans clean and cook under pressure and extract
the agar after suitable clarification of the extract by a
comparatively new process known as freeze dehydration.
The gel, after being frozen for two days at 14° F., is thawed
and the water removed in a rotary vacuum filter. The pro-
duct is then dried in hot-air dryers, after washing, to 35 per
cent moisture. After further purification the agar is dried to
20 per cent moisture. This process gives a very good grade
of gum.
A good jelly can be obtained with a t per cent solution,
but a gel can be obtained with as little as I part in 500
parts of water. This gum is used for jellies and sweets, water
-J

157
 CAKE MAKING

ices, marshmallows, and also in the manufacture of N~­

chatel cream che~~!--It can also be taken dryas a cure for
constiparwnana-is extensively used in bacteriology.
Ageing, or prolonged storage, reduces the swelling power
of agar, and some authorities claim that it loses 60 per cent
of its swelling capacity in three years. Freezing also reduces
swelling power, but this is restored on heating. Agar also
possesses eight times the gelling power of gelatme anals
capable of setting_tQ a g~l without refrigerat~on. '
(2) Irish Moss Other names by which this gum is known are Carragheen,
_darrageen-Moss,-Pearl..Moss,_.li_ock Salt Moss, etc. __:;>

It is derived from seaweed called Chandrus crispus, and is

collected from the Atlantic round the British Isles and the
American Atlantic coast. It is collected during the period
from May to September from small boats called 'dories' at
the ebb tide with 15-2o-ft.-Iong rakes. A 'Mosser', as the
collector is called, can, by hand, strip a section of rock bare
of all seaweed, and in about four months the growth will be
just as luxuriant as ever. It is stated that a good 'Mosser' can
collect anything up to 400 lb. of 'Moss' during the season,
working in periods of 4 hours. Moss so gathered yields a high
price for food and drug purposes, while that gathered between
I and I4 ft. below ebb tide is used in the paint industry.
Irish Moss is treated in much the same way as agar, and is
sun bleached and dried to about IO per cent moisture. The
salt inherent in the growth must not be removed, or the
jellying properties are impaired. The mucillage is normally
extracted by the consumer, but some of the dried extract is
available commercially. The best quality is that which is
collected in September by hand. Mechanical means can be
employed, but a great deal of undesirable waste from the sea
bed is also collected in the process, and this foreign matter
impairs the jellying properties -of the gum.
It is used in cosmetics, pharmacy, boiler-water com-
pounds, and in the production of non-settling chocolate
drinks. As far as its action in boiler-water-conditioning
compounds is concerned, it is probable that by exercising
some colloidal action it prevents the hardness salts, which
are thrown down by the softening and conditioning com-
pounds, from coagulating into hard masses at the bases of
boilers and in the boiler tubes.
Finally, some details about the alginates.
(3) Alginates This class of gums was discovered by an American chemist
called Stanford in 1883. This particular gum comes from the
seaweeds Laminaria and Macrocystis.
The seaweed is collected mechanically by barges with
GUMS AND JELLYING AGENTS

underwater cutting equipment, the weed being brought to

the surface by inclined chain elevators. The barges have a
capacity of about 300 tons each. The kelp is leached with
dilute hydrochloric acid, drained and shredded, and is
digested with caustic soda solution at pH 10.
The gelatinous mass so produced is distintegrated in a
hammer mill, about six volumes of cold water added, artd
the whole mass is then adjusted to pH 10·6-11 ·0. For boiler
compounds the pulp is dried at this stage and sold. If re-
quired for other purposes the pulp is clarified and filtered
through a filter press.
The filtrate is then treated with calcium chloride to throw
out the alginic acid as a surface scum of calcium alginate.
This is washed, chemically bleached, converted to alginic
acid, and after more purification is converted to sodium
alginate by sodium carbonate additions. This constitutes the
product commercially available tod<iy under such names as
Manucol, etc.

These gums have a basis of cellulose derived from wood Synthetic

~he pulp is treated ~ various chemicifsiil diverse Gums
ways to form 'woolly-like' materials which possess re-
markable emulsifying and stabilizing abilities. These syn-
thetic gums were developed in Germany before the war and
have gained popularity in this country and the United
States. They_baYk..a high emulsification power and can be
manufactured completely pure ana to (iefi;;:iie standards.
T~s~ualities are almost insoluble in hot water
and almost completely dispefSl@e III colO;-Put to.prepare
~er_dispersions they musfliC"i£eated nrst wit~·h.ot )Y:<_:l.ter
then-allowed to cool- for about 12 hours, after which the dis-
persion is diluted with cold water to "produce~ complete
dispersion.
Synthetic.gums can be used ~r: many/<:>_odst_!lffs and form
Ihe.inain.emulsifier in-manyemulsions; they are also used in
mayonnaises. and sauces as thickeners. They are practically
non-putrefactive and non-poisonous.

Pectin is the name given to a mixture of polysaccharides Pectin

foundJn.Jmit~and:SQ1Ile rQQ.ts~hl~g~
when it is boiled-with.sugar.
The composition of pectin is a complex one, and it is now
customary to classify the pectin substances under the
following headings :-{-I) protopectin; (2) pectin; (3) pectic
acid and its derivatives~~g. mdEyl _pe£tate, w1i_ich~is:p_re~·
__J.ent in all Eectin E!"~para!i'?_!ls.
159
 CAKE MAKING

( I) Protopectins These occuLin_plant tissues, but are insoluble ~y:r.

T:hey are c~~verted into pectins by hyclrolysts,WIlich can be
bm,ught_abouiby-acids,' including fruit::aCia~~~ted
or ~y !!!!. w.z.~m~ ,p_r.otopectin~se.
(2) Pectin ~is is_.a---water=soluble__substa,nce which occurs in all
frui . It is a macromolecular substance whIch, w-rren
hydrolysed, yieids' galacturonic acid, galactose, arabinose,
and acetic acid.
Galacturonic acid is derived from galactose, the mono-
saccharide which, with glucose, results from the hydrolysis
of lactose. The acetic acid derives from the methoxy groups
eHa'O-which are present in all pectins.
Arabinose is a monosaccharide which contains five carbon
atoms and is called a pentose.
Pectin appears to consist of methylated galacturonic acid
residues combined with pentosans. The pectin molecule is a
long chain of these units combined together in a manner
similar to starch. There may be over a thousand units in the
chain. Pectin from different sources has different physical
properties which may be influenced by the number of
galacturonic acid residues combined together in the mole-
cule, the number of methoxyl groups which each one con-
tains, and the proportion of pentosans present.
Pectin was first isolated by Braconnat in 1825, and after
some years a process was developed for its commercial
manufacture, but it was not produced in this country until
1917. Originally the pectin was in a liquid form, but today
it is available in a highly concentrated powder form.
The setting ofjam is d!!e to_a~ination of the pectin in
thTfruit, quantity of sugar used, and ~.
d' - -In an acicl"medium-the 'pectin 'is negatively charged, the

addition of sugar affects the pectin-water equilibrium, the

destabilized pectin conglomerates and so forms a network of
fibres through the, jelly. This structure is capable of sup-
porting liquid~
The continuity of the pectin network and the denseness of
its fibres are determined by the concentration of the pectin.
Thus, the higher the concentration, the denser the fibres and
the structure. The rigidity of this is affected by the sugar
concentration and the acidity, the higher the sugar con-
centration, the less water there is for the structure to support.
Acid toughens the fibre of the network, but unduly high
acidity affects the elasticity and results in either a tough
jelly or destroys the structure due to decomposition of the
pectin or hydrolysis of it. On the other hand, low acidity
results in weak structure and a slack jelly.
160
GUMS AND JELLYING AGENTS

Gel formation occurs only within a limited range of \

hydrogen-ion concentration, the optimum for jams being
pH 3-3'5. Beyond this no gel formation occurs.
The firmness of the gel depends on the quality of the gel as
well as the quantity, and normally about I per cent of pectin
is adequate.

The importance of starch as an ingredient in many con- Starch

fectionery products, such as cornflour jelly for use in flans
and as a thickening agent for custards, is due to its ability to
swell when heated in water and form a gel.
This function of starch is also of fundamental importance
in the production of fermented goods, when the freshness
and keeping qualities are influenced by the degree of
gelatinization which takes place on baking.
Starch consists of two fractions (a) amylose, (b) amylo-
pectin, both of which are 10ng-cJ:1ain carbohydrates, the
amylose being built up of hundreds of glucose molecules,
the amylopectin of over a thousand glucose molecules
arranged in a branching and sub-branching tree-like struc-
ture.
Starch can be chemically treated so that swelling occurs)
in cold water, and such prepared starches are finding an in-
creasing industrial use in many industries besides food.
 Chocolate 15

~itia:n..o£cho.colate.and/.oL_cocQa.p_~der to flour con-

~ecti2!!.e_ry_:e.roduS~ giyes the!ll_ ~. <!i~tincti~ve
flaYQ!!Lan~p-p'@r~nce.
At one time there was a tendency to use little more than
chocolate colour in the cheaper types of cakes; a very bad
practice. Today the law requires that cake described as
chocolate must contain 3 per cent of dry non-fat cocoa solids.
A code of practice on the use of the word chocolate lays this
down quite clearly. This is 3 per cent in the moist crumb of
the baked cake as sold, excluding fruit, nuts, filling, etc.

History of Although chocolate manufacture has only been developed in

Chocolate Europe during the last hundred and fifty years or so, its
great value as a food-stuff has been known for many centur-
ies. There are many books dealing with the history of it and
telling of its manufacture, such as: Cocoa-All About it, by
'Historicus'; or Cocoa and Chocolate, by R. Whymper; or
Modern Methods of Cocoa and Chocolate Manufacture, by H. W.
Bywaters. All these books give a vast amount of information.
Here, it is proposed to give a brief idea only of how choco-
late manufacture has developed in Europe, and an outline
of its food value and uses. -
Chocolate was first discovered in the early sixteenth
century by the Spanish explorers, who found it used very
widely in the best circles of Mexican society as a drink
called 'Chocolatl'. This drink was actually a cross between
cocoa and chocolate as now known, being a very thick
chocolate drink. It was prepared by a primitive and
laborious process, basically, however, the same as modern
chocolate manufacture.
The biological name for it, Theobroma cacao, means 'The
Food of the Gods', for the Mexicans considered it a divine
product. The Spaniards, however, had more practical ideas,
and took the recipe back to Spain, where they kept it a close
secret and managed to hold the monopoly for over a cen-

162
CHOCOLATE

tury, after which it slowly spread to Italy, Holland, and

France.
Raw cocoa first appeared on the English market in the
early eighteenth century, and manufacture was started in
the west country, as Bristol was then the principal port for
the West Indies. Previous to this, the drink had been im-
ported from Spain as an expensive luxury, costing lOS. per
pound, then an exceedingly high price indeed. This drink
was apparently known as 'Jocolatte'. At least that is what
Pepys called it when he saw it in 1664.

Chocolate was at one time regarded as a luxury, but when it Chocolate as

is partaken of in moderation it becomes a sustaining and a Foodstuff
useful food which is now regarded as an almost essential
commodity. It is a very pleasant sweetmeat and makes an
agreeable addition to other foodstuffs. It is now regarded as
a necessity for the armed forces as an emergency ration, thus
acknowledging its great food value. One pound of chocolate
supplies about 2,515 calories.
The average composition of chocolate is as follows:
%
Proteins 4·8
Fats 32·5
Carbohydrates 59·5
Theobromine 1-2·5

Theobrorriine is an alkaloid possessing stimulative proper-

tIe_s. Chocolate is rather more expensive than many other
foodstuffs, but good chocolate cannot be made cheaply,
because the best raw materials must be selected for its pro-
duction, and elaborate processes are involved in its manu-
facture to produce the best grades.

It is .generally known thi!LQoth-choco!ate-aacLcoc.oa-.a_r_e Manufacture

made from the same Rrjn~.ipaljng.t:.edient, the cacao bean. of Chocolate
Cacao trees grow only in tropical climates, and the fruit is in and Cocoa
the form of large pods, similar to a melon, but with slightly
more pointed ends. The cacao beans correspond to the seeds
of a melon, but are about the size of almonds, and each pod
holds thirty to thirty-five beans. Each tree bears fourteen
pods, and there are nominally two crops per year, so that
each tree produces approximately 3 lb. of usable beans per
annum. The fruit when ready for harvesting is of a rich
golden-red colour.
The characteristics of the beans vary very considerably
according to the district in which they are grown. The
Spaniards were not long in finding that cacao trees grew
CAKE MAKING

considerably better in Latin American countries other than

Mexico, both north and south of Panama, tfotably Vene-
zuela, which remains to this day one of the regions where
the finest cacao beans are grown. They were also responsible
for the transplanting of the cacao trees to the West Indies,
which was a very: successful experiment. Since then cacao
planting has steadily progressed westwards, first to other
Atlantic islands, and then finally into West Africa, which is
now by far the greatest producing region of all. The beans
are harvested with success in Ceylon,Java, and Samoa. The
cacao beans from these different regions have quite different
characteristics, and one of the arts of chocolate-making is
the correct handling and blending of the different varieties.
When the beans come to this country they have already
been fermented and partially dried out. The ftayol![ is
g~vclQ2ed during fermentat~o!l, _anjmpo~st_<!ge in the
process.
~~ ~he _fU'rther-processing~~of the .cacao beans has the
object of building-up-a-good-chocolate flavour, and of re-
moving excess a«id and moisture, th~ l!ltter being_parlicu-
~arlyinji_irIoli;to ·chocolate. In the chocolate factory the
beans after blending are first mechanically cleaned to re-
move any dirt, pieces oftne original husk, sacking, etc. Next,
they are roasted-this being a very critical stage in the
manufacture, as the degree of roasting exercises con-
siderable changes in the flavour. The temperature of roast-
ing varies between 100 0 and 135 0 F. In Mexico the beans
were roasted in small quantities over an open fire; in a
modern factory they are roasted in large quantities either in
batch or continuous roasters.
Cacao beans contain about 40-50 per cen~ Ja~ao
butter, also proteins, carbciliydrates such as starch, fibre,
traces- oC sligar,niineralsaIts, moiSture; and other ~nt
products. - - . -
-The roasting_process extracts_~ large part of the mQigur_e,
and removes many unwanted acids; the hea~ @.!!_ses J!!l
active d<;v~loPIll~_~l of flayour inside the beans, and-modifies
ihe colour.
Next,the shell with which each bean is covered is re-
moved by a winnowing machine. These shells have con-
siderable value as feeding-stuff owing to their vitamin
content. Only the kernels or nibs, as they are called, are of
value in making chocolate.
The cacao nibs are ground by passing them through steel
rollers. Heat is generated and a rich reddish-brown liquid is
produced which sets hard on cooling. This is the un-
CHOCOLATE

sweetened block chocolate, with the following average

composition:
%
Moisture 4-5
Fats 45-55
Nitrogenous matter 13-15
Starch 21-23
Ash 3-3·5
Silica 0·1--0·3
Theobromine 1·3-1·5
Cellulose 3-4
Total nitrogen 2·1-2·2
To make chocolate, sugar must be added to this ground
mass, together witli any desireq::1_laY0l!nngs."Tneflavolirffig
generally used is vanilla. The sugar used is always ilie best
~stal sugar p-uly'eriz~d-t:oa nne-pOwderwith-liam-
mer mills. The sugar and cacao mass are niixe<rtogether
for the most-part in tneMelangeur machines, which were
introduced in France and Switzerland in the latter part of
the last century, and are still known by the original French
name. Extra cocoa butter is addedJQ bring.the_CQOsistency
o(_the fiiiis11ed Gh.ocolate to th_<"<_desi!:ed ckgre_e of fluidity. _
Cocoa butter is expressed from the unsweetened chocolate
~akir:!g ofcocoa. In the Melangeur a thorough blend-
ing takes place, and the grains or particles of cocoa and
sugar are reduced to a very small size. The proportions de-
pend on the purpose for which the chocolate is required.
In recent years milk chocolate has become very popular.
Fresh milk (liquid) cannot be added to chocolate, owing to
the amount of water it contains. The milk is incorporated in
the form of milk crumb. Milk chocolate crumb is made from
fresh milk which is condensed, to which sugar and cacao
mass are added.
The mixed chocolate is next further ground through
powerful roller mills, known as refiners. It is passed through
many times, the number varying with the degree of refine-
ment required. If this is not done the granules of sugar and
cocoa appear like grit in the chocolate.
After the grinding comes the process known as 'conching',
again French-Swiss in origin. This process ensures that the
chocolate will be smooth eating. In this machine the choco-
late is buffeted about in a hot condition for periods of up to
72 hours, to effect a great improvement in smoothness to the
tongue, and also in flavour, the whole mixture being
amalgamated into a homogeneous mass. The chocolate is
then ready to be run into moulds and set, ready for distribu-
tion. This product is then known as 'couverture'.
It will be appreciated that it reqiures consIderable skill
 CAKE MAKING

and also expensive equipment to manufacture a good

chocolate. ~l
It was not possible to manufacture chocolate as it is now
known until comparatively recently, when efficient grinding
machines became available.

Types of When a confecti~ner buys chocolate he can make important

Chocolate decisions with regard to flavour. The differences in flavour
are produced by the manufacturers by: (r) choice of beans;
(2) blending of nibs; (3) degree of roasting; (4) percentage
of added flavours; (5) amount of sugar used; (6) process of
manufacture; (7) maturity of the chocolate; (8) percentage
of cocoa butter. Combinations of these variable factors
produce numerous grades of chocolate. Some manufacturers
run as many as seventy types of chocolate couverture to
meet the demands of their various purchasers. The differ-
ences refer to the percentage of cocoa butter, sugar, added
flavour, blend of beans, method of production, and fluidity
of the product when melted. Lecithin is widely used to im-
prove this factor. But couvertures are manufactured ex-
~vely_f[om cocoa, sugar, arid cocoa butter, an.c19J!..];>e
guaranteed for purity.
- The demands ofthe flour confectionery trade for chocolate
couvertures are very different from those of other users.
Chocolate, as normally made, has a short break. It also con-
tracts considerably on setting, which is a very necessary
characteristic if it has to be set in moulds. Both of these
features are undesirable in the flour confectionery trade,
because when chocolate contracts on a cake the area is so
large and the film so thin that it easily cracks, both through
shrinkage and its own inelastic nature when set. It is like
trying to coat a bath sponge with a film of thin glass. Again,
when a cake covered with normal chocolate couverture is
cut with a knife the chocolate cracks and tends to split in all
directions. This led to the development of soft-cutting
chocolate coverings.

Tempering Considerable skill and care has to be exercised when melting

Chocolate for and tempering chocolate couverture for use in flour con-
Use fectionery, not only care in the manipulation of the choco-
late itself but also in the choice of the ingredients with which
it has to be mixed, otherwise the familiar fat and sugar
bloom will become evident. The technical explanation of
this fault is that cacao butter is the natural constituent of the
bean and is a mixture of glycerides of different melting
points. It is easily supercooled, and the liquid can be brought

r66
CHOCOLATE

below its setting point without visible crystallization taking

place. This is one of the characteristics that has to be studied
during manufacturing operations. While the solidification
is taking place the volume change in the case of crystallized
fractions is sufficient to cause an uneven distribution of the
fats, and some of the lighter fractions rise to the surface in
the plastic mass. The result is that the surface of the choco-
late becomes covered with the fat crystals, usually of a
streaky formation; therefore, in order to ensure the best
results, it is important to consider thoroughly the art of
tempering effectively any chocolate couverture.
The chocolate must first be melted by heating; excessive
heat should be avoided. The melting should be done slowly
and carefully, great care being taken that the chocolate
does not burn or char at any point. Normally, for vanilla
chocolate, it should not be heated above 120° F., and not
above 110° F. for milk chocolate, and at the first melting, not
less than 5° under these maximums. If the melting tempera-
ture is too low good gloss and good flowing properties are
not ensured; if the melting temperature is too high there is
unnecessary work in cooling the chocolate again, also the
flavo~r and homogeneity of the mass are likely to be upset.
Melting in a bowl over a hot-water bath is recommended
only when no thermostatically controlled chocolate-melting
pan is available. Care must be taken that no steam or water
reaches the chocolate. Stirring is, of course, essential, and
the chocolate should be broken up in small pieces before
commencing to melt it.
After melting is completed the chocolate must be cooled
quickly to 82° F., or below the dipping temperature, and
then reheated to the exact temperature required. If a proper
chocolate-mixing kettle with steam and cold-water connec-
tions is available this is ideal. Otherwise, if the chocolate has
been melted in a bowl, the bowl may be taken to a cold
place, and the chocolate thoroughly cooled, with constant
stirring, not exceeding 22 revs. per minute, until it is just on
setting point, when it is reheated again to the dipping tem-
perature of about 86-90° F., and it is ready for use. Milk
chocolate temperatures are best about 3° lower, or approxi-
mately 84° F. An alternative method of tempering is to
pour the liquid chocolate out on to a marble slab and keep
moving it until it is cool, then scrape it back into the bowl
for rewarming to the dipping temperature.
The reason for the preliminary lowering of temperature is
to bring about partial crystallization of the cacao butter.
The subsequent rise of temperature is not sufficient to
 CAKE MAKING

destroy all crystals. The unmelted crystals form a nuclei

around which crystallization can take plaqt:, without any
separation.
At this point the couverture is tempered. Many confec-
tioners find consistency a more reliable guide than tempera-
ture. For instance, if a chocolate is cooled slowly it will set
at a higher temperature than ifit is cooled quickly. The gloss
may not be so good as that from the fast-cooled chocolate,
but it will be more durable.
Further, different chocolates have different characteris-
tics; at a cooler temperature a thinner chocolate works
better than a thick one. The temperature and air draughts
in a room in which the work is carried out also have an
important influence. The room should be as far as possible
free from humidity and draughts; if possible, chocolate work
should be done in a room with a temperature about 75° F.,
and the cooling of the goods in a temperature of 50-60° F.
It is apparent, therefore, that all extremes of temperature
and rates of heating and cooling should be avoided; also, a
reliable brand of chocolate couverture should be used, and
when difficulty arises, it is advisable to consult the manu-
facturers, who are always quite ready to give expert
assistance and practical advice.
On a large scale the process is basically the same, but it is
naturally more mechanized. The small user would be well
advised to use a thermostatically controlled chocolate pan.
The bakers' chocolate covering that has been mentioned
does not require this elaborate tempering procedure.
Most of the large chocolate manufacturers have a staff of
expert advisers, who are prepared to give advice on the most
suitable type of chocolate coating to use in any particular
business, and also advice on how to manipulate the choco-
late, and the most suitable type of equipment for the pur-
pose.

Hints on Here are a few worth-while hints on chocolate:

Chocolate (I) Remember that chocolate easily takes up foreign
odours, so it should not be stored in a damp or smelly place.
A cool, dry storeroom with good ventilation is ideal. Stack
the containers on battens, so that there is air circulation
under the stacks. Stand them a few inches from the wall to
allow air circulation on all sides.
(2) When using chocolate, remember that moisture is a
great enemy of chocolate; it spoils the flavour, thickens the
chocolate, and spoils the gloss. If it condenses on finished
chocolates it will cause sugar bloom. Make sure, therefore,

168
CHOCOLATE

that the storage room is not damp; over 75° humidity is

dangerous.
(3) Do not attempt to melt the chocolate as though it
were a piece of cast iron; it will not stand high tempera-
tures at all. While overheating will destroy the delicate
flavour, under-melting should be also avoided.
(4) All goods that have to be covered with chocolate
should have the chill taken off them before-hand, as, during
cold weather, a very dull finish is caused by neglect of this
precaution.
(5) When the goods have been covered they must be
cooled or set in a cool room about 55-60° F., as the final
gloss of perfectly covered chocolate goods is assured or
spoilt by correct or faulty cooling. It takes about 20 minutes
to set the chocolate thoroughly. It is better to keep the dry-
ing-room free from draughts, as a severe draught of cold air
on to liquid couverture causes discoloration.
(6) During hot weather, when it is impossible to keep the
temperature low, it is helpful to keep all doors and windows
open and to use electric fans.
(7) Chocolate goods that have been cooled in a refrigera-
tor must not be brought too suddenly into a warm atmo-
sphere, otherwise condensation will take place on the sur-
face. Large users of chocolate should have some form of air
conditioning. Rapid cooling ensures a good gloss and snap,
but too Iowa temperature causes super-cooling and subse-
quent blooming. Therefore, a careful balance must be main-
tained between these two factors, and this has to be left to
the discretion of the craftsman.
Chocolate-coated goods are often spoiled when stored
under bad conditions, and so the importance of strict atten-
tion to the temperature and moisture conditions cannot be
over-stressed. Too high or too low, or even a varying
temperature will inevitably result in 'bloom'. The ideal
storage temperature is 60-65° F. If any kind of heating is
used it should be of a diffused nature.
The technical explanation of this is that 76° F. appears to
be the critical temperature for chocolate, at which point
lower-melting fractions of the cacao butter begin to melt
and rise to the surface as the heavier cocoa and sugar
particles sink in the softened mass, with resultant 'bloom'.
Therefore, it is advisable to store well below this tempera-
ture. Too moist an atmosphere is definitely harmful, owing
to the danger of condensation and subsequent 'greying'.
The humidity should be kept below 50°. In the ordinary
way chocolate goods will keep well if stored in a dry room,
169
 CAKE MAKING

cool in summer, and with some form of supplementary heat-

ing during cold weather. The room should be well venti-
lated, with plenty of air space around the shelves.

Cocoa Powder CO~Rowder is produced from the cacao mass after some of
the cacao butter has been taken out of it. It varies in com-
positlOn accora:i~g to the process used. It may contain fr9ID
10 to 49: per cent fat. The description 'pure cocoa' is inter-
preted in this country as unmixed cacao nib with variable
amounts of fat removed by expression. The best grades
contain about 25 per cent cacao butter, and cheaper grades
about 15 per cent. Husk beyond 3 per cent is not a normal
constituent, and the admixture of foreign starches and sugar
prevents the name 'pure cocoa' being used, but permits the
name 'chocolate powder'. In pure cocoa with 25 per cent
cacao butter, the remaining 75 per cent is classified as fat-
free cocoa.
Cocoa is used as the flavouring and colouring agent in
making chocolate cakes and spong~oods,wlffi:h contam at
least' 3 per cent fat-free cocoa. It is also usedJ;_o colour and
fillvo]J.r various.cho~cDlate biscuits,- icings,-buttercreams, etc.

Bakers' Since the introduction of special bakers' chocolates many

Prepared years ago, great advances have been made in the technical
Chocolate development of them, not only from the technical usage but
or Cake from the economic aspect of their usage, due to the rising
Coverings costs of all cocoa products. Research which has been carried
out has not only developed greatly improved products but
has also increased the palatability of them.
The soft-cutting chocolate coverings are produced by re-
placing cocoa butter with softer vegetable fats. They are
highly refined and smooth, and because of their soft cutting
qualities are ideally suited for the covering of soft cakes such
as Swiss rolls. They have also the added advantages of not
having to be tempered.
The recommended method of handling whether by hand
or in an enrober is to melt to 1300 F. for plain and 1250 F.
for milk compound. The temperature should then be
allowed to drop until the compound is of desired dipping and
covering consistency. This should be 105-1100 F. for plain
and 100-1050 F. for milk.
To produce a product with similar characteristics to
chocolate couverture hydrogenated palm-kernel oil
(H.P.K.O.) has found an extensive use with most promising
results, while lecithin is added in a suitable proportion to
give the most suitable fluidity.
CHOCOLATE

The natural flavour and aroma of the cocoa butter is a

very elusive characteristic and is only obtained in such pre-
parations where the amounts required are often unecono-
mic. Flavour is one thing, but it is intimately connected
with the eating properties, that is to say, the melting point
and melting range of the fat. The ideal fat as a vehicle for
chocolate should melt sharply just below blood heat, so that
it eats well but is brittle to the touch. Where a chocolate is
based upon H.P.K.O., the properties of this fat are quickly
detected by the palate. The product has some slight greasi-
ness in the mouth. This is due to the long incipient melting
range of this fat, which means that high-melting glycerides
are present in a relatively low-melting fat. This is the primary
cause of surface deterioration, or bloom, in so far as it
applies to this type of product. The lower-melting fractions
of the fat permit migration of the ingredients of the chocolate
at normal temperatures, and it is no't uncommon to see a
whitish fat film on the surface of this chocolate. In order to
overcome this, a fat with a higher melting point is em-
ployed which gives a better 'snap', better handling proper-
ties, and longer shelf life, but the reluctance of this fat to
melt in the mouth gives poorer eating qualities, and the
flavour is impaired.
So great is the effect of the melting point of the fat selected,
that if two chocolates were made identical in composition
except that one contained a higher-melting fat and the
other a relatively low one the first would have a waxy
texture, and would taste quite flat and poor in flavour
compared with the second.
Recently, there have been developed new fats which con-
form to the pattern of cocoa butter. These melt at 92° F.
and melt sharply, but they differ in one important respect
from cocoa butter in that they cannot be supercooled to
such low extents, and the tempering procedure must there-
fore be frequently modified. In the main, these new fats
need to be tempered in the normally accepted sense of the
word. That is to say, a grain must be set up in the molten
batch before a stable finish is obtained which is free from fat
bloom.
Fats such as these have been used successfully in choco-
late-making, where chocolate is melted down and poured
into moulds at a high temperature, that is, in an untempered
state and cooled very rapidly or quenched before the various
fat fractions can separate during the solidification process.
The use of special plant obviously limits the application of
these fats, and so the more conventional cocoa-butter type of
17 1
CAKE MAKING

fat which is tempered in a very similar way to cocoa butter

is used. It is necessary to stress, however;:·'that while this
chocolate has many of the characteristics of cocoa-butter
chocolate-hardness, long life, excellent eating properties
and flavour-it cannot be used on soft fondant centres,
etc., as the fat does not stand up well in the presence of
moisture. '.
One difficulty encountered in the manufacture of choco-
late where these new cocoa-butter alternative fats are used
is that they do not tolerate the admixture of other fats with
them. So sensitive are they to 'unlike' fats that the cocoa-
butter content of the cocoa powder has been found to cause
appreciable softening. Consequently, solvent-extracted
cocoas, whose cocoa-butter content is low and of the order
of 6-8 per cent are now used. The effect of mixing cocoa
butter with hydrogenated palm-kernel oil has been known
for some time, and if such a mixture is to be made, one fat
must comprise not less than 95 per cent of the mixture,
otherwise softening and fat separation will occur after some
period of time.
By the use of these special fats, a wide range of chocolate
coverings suitable for all types of products has been pro-
duced. A most recent advance has been the use of surface-
acting agents which has enabled coverings to be produced
which will stand up to higher storage temperatures, such as
are experienced in many parts of the world, and in this way
has extended the consumption and use of such. The
emulsifying properties of these surface-acting agents enable
the chocolate covering to be assimilated on the product with-
out waxiness or greasiness.
Though there is a tendency-to waxiness when substances
whose melting points exceed 97° or 98° F. are eaten, this is
less apparent in coatings than in bars or tablets of chocolate.
Following considerable research on these fats, or 'hard
butters' as they are called across the Atlantic, claims have
now been made that 'summer coatings' with hydrogenated
vegetable fats as a base will withstand temperatures up to
0
120 F. for long periods, and, at the same time, cannot be
differentiated in eating qualities from 100 per cent cocoa-
butter-based couvertures. These claims have been made as a
result of the incorporation into the coatings of up to 0'5 per
cent of the emulsifiers sorbitan monostearate or polyoxyethy-
lene sorbitan monostearate; these emulsifiers make the re-
sultant coatings more stable and resistant to blooming.
'Sorbitan monostearate' is a solid with a melting point of
about 126 0 F., and is lipophilic (oil loving); 'polyoxy-
CHOCOLATE

ethylene sorbitan monostearate' is an oily liquid and is

hydrophilic (water loving).
For chocolate-type coatings it is best to use a cocoa pow-
der with a low cocoa-butter content, so that the hydro-
genated fat does not interfere with any residual cocoa butter
present in the cocoa powder. It is also advisable to use
skimmed milk powder (spray-dried), which tends to absorb
the lower-melting portions of the fat and improve the eating
qualities of the coating. Full-cream milk solids can be used,
but tend to make the final coating less stable; however,
mixtures of skimmed milk powder and full-cream milk
powder, both spray-dried, have been used up to 12-16 per
cent with success.

Couvertures based on cocoa butter, such as are suitable Tempering for

for enrobing purposes, are tempered as follows. The Enrobers
couverture is cut into small pieces, placed in a chocolate-
kettle, and slowly heated with gentle agitation to a tempera-
ture of 100-105° F. It is then transferred or pumped to a
second kettle, brought gradually down to 85° F., and finally
heated slowly to 88-8g0 F., at which temperature it is
ready for enrobing. The enrobed goods must pass along a
40-50-ft. cooling tunnel controlled at 46-48° F. Through-
out the operation the room temperature should not exceed
70° F., and the relative humidity must be controlled.
The procedure for couvertures based on hydrogenated
vegetable fat is as follows, these couvertures being again
suitable for enrobing purposes. The pieces of couverture are
heated in the kettle with slow agitation to a temperature of
115-120° F.; the couverture is then cooled slowly with slow
agitation to a temperature of approximately 100° F., at
which temperature it should be transferred to the enrober
bath. Enrobing should be carried out at between 95° and
100° F: After enrobing, the coated goods can either be
passed along a cooling tunnel controlled at about 48-52° F.
or be taken off on trays and allowed to set at a room tem-
perature of 55-60° F.
From the foregoing it is easily seen that couvertures with a
hydrogenated oil base are, by their simplicity of handling
and wider temperature tolerance, considerably more
economical to use, since they allow the operator to dispense
with complicated temperature control and to complete his
task in a much shorter time.
If couvertures based on cocoa butter are tempered im-
perfectly, the different fat fractions separate on cooling, and
fat bloom appears on the chocolate surface; thus, apart

173
 CAKE MAKING

from the time element, a considerable amount of skill is re-

quired to ensure a perfect product. With cb'uvertures based
on hydrogenated vegetable fat, however, the wide tempera-
ture tolerance, which allows of a variation in temperature of
several degrees, not only simplifies but also expedites pro-
duction. As the second chocolate-kettle and lengthy cooling
tunnels are not'required, a considerable economy in equip-
ment and space is effected, which means that chocolate-
coated goods can be handled by smaller manufacturers.
As the fat vehicle is the most important factor in a choco-
late couverture, a great deal of work has been necessary to
produce a highly refined fat that is easy to work, fairly
stable, of good taste and good eating qualities. It was
found that, with such a fat, by using sugar and lecithin and a
cocoa powder of low cocoa-butter content, together with
thorough mixing and refining, a good chocolate-type coating
could be produced.

Uses of In addition to bakers' chocolate another very good covering

Chocolate is as follows:
Take 4 lb. good chocolate couverture, break it up into
small pieces, place it in a pan, and melt it down over a bain-
marie or in a hot prover until it is all in a molten state. Mix
it well with a spatula, and after tempering, raise the tem-
perature to about 96° F. and add some stock syrup to it.
The temperature of the syrup should also be about 96° F.
Add the syrup, 1 gill at a time, and mix it in well with the
spatula. At first it thickens to a stiff mass, because of the
moisture present in the stock syrup, then it will get thinner
and seem to curdle. Keep on adding syrup and stirring well,
when it will take on a delightful smoothness and beautiful
gloss. This covering is thinned down with sufficient stock
syrup to get it down to the required consistency for the work
to be done. It requires nearly 2 pints of stock syrup to reduce
41b. of good chocolate couverture to the required degree for
dipping fancies or covering gateaux or cakes, or for coating
eclairs. The chocolate should be spread thinly on the goods
with a palette knife. It does not set quickly as ordinary
couverture, but it sets smooth and glossy. It combines
excellently with the cakes, because when set it is soft and
mellow instead of being brittle and hard like chocolate. It is
easy to make and use, and takes barely 10 minutes to set.
It has the full chocolate flavour, combined with an excellent
glossy chocolate colour, and soft eating qualities. It goes
much farther in use than ordinary couverture, and is much
more pleasant to the palate than chocolate fondant. It can

174
CHOCOLATE

also be used to pipe lines over the covering to form decora-

tive work. Care has to be taken to keep the temperature of
the chocolate and the syrup at about 96° F. when mixing
to facilitate the amalgamation of the two in the minimum
time.
Chocolate fondant has probably been the most popular Chocolate Fondant
and favoured icing for the masking of gateaux and fancies.
It should always be coloured and flavoured with real choco-
late and not a mere chocolate colour and flavour. To make a
full-flavoured and coloured-chocolate fondant from fresh
white fondant, take 41b. fondant and place it in the fondant
pot, and add I i lb. of melted unsweetened block chocolate,
that is, 6 oz. per pound of fondant. The fondant and choco-
late should be heated together over a bain-marie. Stock
syrup is added to reduce it to the required consistency. The
whole should be well spatulated to ~ix thoroughly during
heating. Care should be taken that the temperature of the
fondant does not exceed 105° F. This fondant will take about
I! pints of stock syrup to reduce it to the required con-
sistency for masking gateaux and fancies. The chocolate has
a binding effect, hence the reason for using so much stock
syrup. A little vanilla extract should be added as a flavour-
ing. A chocolate fondant prepared in this manner should
have a brilliant gloss, which should be much better than the
usual gloss on fondant prepared with chocolate colours and
flavours. The flavour of this chocolate fondant is not quite so
good as the flavour of the chocolate covering prepared from
sweetened chocolate and stock syrup, because it does not
contain quite such a high proportion of chocolate as the
latter does. It is much sweeter, however.
A lower portion of block chocolate may be used if desired,
say 4 oz. per pound of fondant, and a little less stock syrup.
This is the average proportion used by many confectioners,
but the flavour and colour are not quite so good as when
6 oz. per pound of fondant is used.
Chocolate fondant can be very much improved in An Addition of
flavour and eating qualities if some good unsalted butter is Butter to
added to it. Cocoa butter may also be used for this purpose. Chocolate Fondant
Up to 2 lb. of butter to 4 lb. of fondant may be used with
good results. More than this will show a fat and sugar
bloom on the cakes. To obtain a mellow-eating fondant
with a beautiful gloss, use 4 lb. fresh white fondant, It lb.
melted unsweetened chocolate, I lb. unsalted butter or
cocoa butter, and I full pint stock syrup, with some vanilla
extract to flavour the whole. These materials should all be
heated together in a fondant pot over a bain-marie, and well

175
 CAKE MAKING

spatulated together to mix thoroughly. The temperature

should never exceed 1050 F. :;!
Either of these chocolate icings, when used on cakes,
gateaux, or fancies, will give a superior appearance to these
goods thus attracting the public to buy them, and give a
flavour that will make them want more.
An Addition of When properly prepared and tempered, chocolate cou-
Oil or Lard to verture is used for masking biscuits or small cakes. It has to
Chocolate be carefully manipulated to obtain a good gloss on the
Couvertute finished products, and the temperature of the chocolate and
the goods on which it is used has to be carefully studied to
prevent the familiar fat and sugar bloom from becoming
evident. Even after the most careful handling, it is very often
too thick on the goods arid sets as a hard, brittle covering,
which does not combine well with light fancies, cakes, and
short-eating biscuits. By adding a small percentage of olive
oil or ordinary lard to the melted couverture, the chocolate
becomes more fluid, and consequently will go much farther
on the goods, as a thinner coating will be used, and it will
not be so hard and brittle when set, but will set sufficiently
firm to enable the goods to be handled without its becoming
sticky. It will also combine much better with the light cakes
or short-eating biscuits on which it is used, and so will be
more enjoyable to the consumer.
I oz. of olive oil or melted lard per lb. of chocolate can
be used with good results. The chocolate is tempered in
the usual manner; the oil is added to it, and spatulated
well in until the chocolate is nearly set. The whole is then
0
gently reheated at about 87 F. until it is all in a molten
state, and is then ready for use for covering biscuits or small
fancy cakes, such as chocolate rolls, othellos, or chocolate
eclairs, etc. Care has to be taken not to overheat the choco-
late, but it can be used when its temperature is under goO F.
The cakes can be dipped in it, or it can be spread thinly
over them with a palette knife. The covering should have a
good gloss, and should be set soft and be mellow to eat, in-
stead of being hard and brittle. The cakes, etc., should not
be dipped in puree when using this covering, as the jelly
and chocolate do not combine well.
If, as sometimes happens when care is not exercised in the
preparation of chocolate couverture, some steam or a few
drops of moisture are mixed into the chocolate, and the
chocolate stiffens up like piping chocolate, the trouble may
be easily remedied by an addition of oil or lard, as in the
above. Harder fats may be added to the chocolate in larger
quantities than the thin olive oil with good results.
CHOCOLATE

Chocolate buttercream is often used for covering and Chocolate

decorating gateaux and fancies and for sandwiching pur- Buttercream
poses. In many places this is prepared from ordinary butter-
cream with an addition of chocolate colour and flavour, but
for good results a superior chocolate buttercream should be
used which has an addition of melted chocolate as the
colouring and flavouring agent. The following makes an
excellent buttercream for both covering and decorative
purposes:
3 lb. lump sugar
I! lb. glucose
! pint water
Vanilla essence
4t lb. unslated butter
6 eggs
I t lb. melted chocolate
Chocolate colour
The sugar, glucose, and water are measured into a copper
pan, and the solution is boiled up quickly to 2400 F., taking
the usual precautions to prevent graining of the sugar. The
eggs should be beaten up in the machine bowl, and the
sugar solution slowly poured over them, while whisking
should be continued until the mixture is nearly cold and
light. The whisk should then be removed from the machine
and the butter beater put on. The butter should then be
added gradually to the mixture and the whole well beaten
up to a light, velvety cream. Some drops of vanilla essence
and the melted chocolate should be added to colour and
flavour the cream. If the colour is not deep enough, sufficient
chocolate colouring matter should be added to obtain the
required shade. The cream is then ready for use as desired.
This buttercream will set firm and mellow when cold. If
this happens, it should be heated and mixed to keep it soft
and at a working consistency.
A buttercream of this description will be superior to
ordinary buttercream in which 2 oz. melted chocolate has
been used per lb. of buttercream.
It is not only essential to have some real chocolate in the Chocolate Gateau
coverings used on cakes but, where possible, it should also
be introduced into the actual cakes, in order to enhance
their flavour and eating qualities. Chocolate can be intro-
duced into cake batters either in the form of cocoa powder
or as melted unsweetened chocolate. These will both colour
and flavour the cakes in which they are used, and give
them eating qualities superior to cakes which are coloured

G
 CAKE MAKING

and flavoured with ordinary liquid colourings and flavour-

ings. The following recipe can be used to produce cakes for
chocolate gateaux:
2t pints eggs
2 lb. castor sugar
It lb: flour
4 oz. cornflour
4 oz. cocoa powder
I lb. melted butter
Vanilla essence
Chocolate colour
This batter should be made up on the sponge batter pro-
cess of cake-making. It will produce ten gateaux scaled at
I2! oz. each, and baked in 7-in.-diameter hoops. The.
temperature of the oven should be 380" F. These gateaux
should be matured for a few days in a cool room before
decorating. They should be sandwiched with chocolate
buttercream and decorated in the desired manner with one
of the chocolate coverings given above.
Chocolate Genoese When a confectioner has to make various chocolate
fancies, such as chocolate slices, chocolate boxes, or choco-
late dipped fancies, the cake used for these should be a good
Genoese, coloured and flavoured with either unsweetened
chocolate or cocoa powder. One can use either of the follow-
ing recipes to produce good sheets of chocolate cake:
(I)
1 t lb. butter
! lb. compound fat
2 lb. brown sugar
2 pints eggs
2 lb. soft flour
i lb. cornflour
i oz. baking powder
12 oz. melted chocolate
Vanilla essence
5 oz. water

(2)
I-llb. butter
!lb. compound fat
2t lb. brown sugar
2 pints eggs
3 lb. soft flour
1 oz. baking powder
t lb. cocoa powder
17 8
CHOCOLATE

tpint milk or water

Chocolate colour
Vanilla essence
These batters should be made up on the usual sugar-
batter or creamed method of cake-making. When prepared,
they should be spread out on papered baking-sheets to
barely I in. in thickness. The top should be slightly
moistened with milk, and the batter spread level with a
palette knife. These sheet cakes should be baked in a cool
oven about 3600 F. It takes just over 20 minutes to bake
them properly. When baked, they should be allowed to cool
and mature for a day before cutting up to decorate.
In order to produce chocolate cakes which comply with Quantity of Cocoa
the legal requirement of 3 per cent dry non-fat cocoa solids Powder to Use
in the moist crumb it is necessary to know the composition
of the cocoa powder being used. •
Cocoa powders vary in analysis, but one can always get Anarysis oj
the suppliers to give the composition of the cocoa powder Various Cocoa
they supply. Here is the analysis of various cocoa products Powders
sent to us for tests carried out at the National Bakery
School:

GRADE
Cocoa
butter
(%)
F"'-'=I
cocoa
%)
Sugar
(%)

Breakfast cocoa 26·0 74·0 -

Bakers' cocoa 22·5 77·5 -
NO.3 cocoa 22·0 78·0 -
Drinking cocoa 16·0 84·0 -
Drinking chocolate 6·5 18·5 75·0

From this it will be quite evident that if drinking choco-

late is used it must be used in greater quantities and an
allowance should be made for the sugar present in it, by
reducing the sugar added to the mixture.
The following examples are given of the calculation neces-
sary to determine the percentage offat-free cocoa in the final
products.
The following recipe can be used for best-quality ,chocolate Good-quality
rolls: Chocolate Rolls
20 oz. eggs
12 oz. castor sugar
Chocolate colour
2 oz. cocoa powder
8 oz. soft flour
Vanilla flavour
16 oz. cream filling

179
 CAKE MAKING

The total weight of ingredients used is S8 oz. Total

weight of cake portion only is 42 oz. Aveiige total loss in
baking is 7t oz. Leaving a total weight of finished cake of
sot oz., or a total weight of cake portion of 34t oz.
The percentage of cocoa powder used in these chocolate
rolls works out ,!S (ollows for the roll before baking:
2 oz. in 42 oz. = 4.76 per cent.
For the cake after baking 2 oz. in 34t oz. = 5"79
per cent.
The percentage of fat-free cocoa, using breakfast cocoa,
which is 74 per cent fat-free cocoa, works out by calculation
at 4.26 per cent in the baked rolls.
The percentage of fat-free cocoa, using NO.3 cocoa pow-
der, which is 78 per cent fat-free cocoa, works out by calcula-
tion at 4·S2 per cent in the baked rolls.
Cheap Chocolate The recipe used in the production of cheap-quality Swiss
Swiss Rolls rolls is as follows:
17 oz flour
! oz. baking powder
3 oz. cocoa powder
20 oz. sugar
10 oz. eggs
10 oz. milk
24 oz. cream filling
The total weight of the ingredients used is 841 oz.;
the total weight of the cake portion only is 60! oz.; average
total loss in baking is 91 oz., leaving a total weight of
finished cake of 7St oz., or a total weight of cake portion
only of SIt oz.
The percentage of cocoa powder used in these cheap
chocolate rolls before baking works out as follows:
3 oz. in 60! oz. = 4·93 per cent.
and for the cake portion only after baking:
3 oz. in SIt oz. = 5"82 per cent.
The percentage of fat-free cocoa, using breakfast cocoa
powder, which is 74 per cent fat-free cocoa, therefore works
out by calculation at 4.31 per cent in the baked rolls.
The percentage offat-free cocoa, using NO.3 cocoa pow-
der, which is 78 per cent fat-free cocoa, works out by calcu-
lation at 4·S4 per cent in the baked rolls.
The basis of calculation of the fat-free cocoa content of a
chocolate Swiss roll is only on the cake portion, but where a

180
CHOCOLATE

chocolate cream filling is used, it might be a different matter,

because it is reasonable to expect a chocolate-coloured
cream to contain a proportion of chocolate also, just as it is
expected that there should be a proportion of chocolate
in a chocolate fondant.
If all the different types of chocolate-coloured and choco-
late-flavoured confectionery were kept to this standard there
would be a definite improvement in quality and flavour,
and a much better demand from the public for them.

181
 Icings, Fillings, _,
16
and Glazes .'

IT is proposed in this chapter to deal with the wide range of

icings and fillings which are used to make cakes more
~v~Ild_appetizing .. The range is extending as it be-
comes necessary to modify traditional recipes to meet
present-day requirements of mechanization and distribu-
tion involving such factors as wrapping and packaging.

Icings ~c_ an~ functio~~Lingredients_oUcing~ ~sugar,

water, egg. whltes, gelatme, gums or modified starches, and
fats:In the latter case the high-emulsifying shQf!e'ningsare
~the most suitable. Each of these ingrep.ients imparts a dis-
tinctive quality to the resultant icing. Milk powder is also a
common ingredient in the fudge type, but may be regarded
more-ase~hi!ici~g_ or imparting a distinctiv<; fia~ou~_ril.!her
lllan- play':ing any part i~ the physical nature of thc::_idng
itself. "Suga.r alld water will pr_oc[llc~~_er "icing iF fonda,nt;
the adartloilof fat produces a fudge icing; sugar and egg
{ w""1iiteSPrQduce Royal icing and menn ues: wliile the addi-
tion or ge1atinegum or moaifie starch produces marsh-
( mallow:· There are in addition boiled meringues, that is
~hich are produced by pouring hot syrup on to an
egg-white foam.
Wheeler and Endres! define various types of icings as
follows:
Water icings- These are composed of sugar, water, and flavour. Varia-
including fondant tions may include stabilizers, fruit juices, milk and other
liquids, cocoa and chocolate.
Fudge Icings Basically water icings containing shortening.
Marshmallow-type Highly aerated icings composed of sugar syrup, egg whites,
Icings and/or gelatine.
Another classification 2 is as follows:
(1) Those icings which, like fondant, are melted by
ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

heat and will set to a firm coating when cool. They all
contain a high proportion of small sugar crystals that
partially dissolve on warming and recrystallize on cooling.
These icings are suitable for -iliPping and enrobing.
(2) Icings more suitable for ~~g_ a~d l?ieing,
where aeration by beating or whipping is used to produce
pastes of stiff, non-flowing consistency.
The following are the most common types of icings to-
gether with typical formulae:

This is produced by adding ~y _hqt wa!er t~ icing sugar Water Icing

until it is approximately the same consistency as fondant.
A petter method is to add stock syrup to icing sugar and
to add a small quantity of glucose as per the following
recipe:
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method' Percentage

Icing sugar 6 - Mix together to a 80

Stock syrup I 4 smooth consistency. 16·7
Glucose - 4 Heat to 100° F. 3·3
Colour and flavour q.s.

Stock Syrup
oz.

Sugar
I 3lb. - I Dissolve sugar in water. Bring to
Water
Glucose
I- 2 8
8
boil and remove any scum.

Add and boil. Cool, filter, and

I bottle.

Fondant consists of IEirwte-sucrose_CI:YstaLs_JlJlSPJ~!!~ Fondant

in a s'!_tu!:._ated _sugar syrup with sufficient invert sugar or
g!l)C91le to pre_vent..tb~ grQ'\~th_of cr:.ystals. it must be ·handled
with care if the loss of gloss is to be prevented when it is
used in cake decoration. The value offonq;:lllt as a de<:.orative
medium lies in th~ attractive smooth gl9ssy surface which
'"
can be obtained on the cake surface when correctly applied.
In preparing fondant for use it should be heated in water-
jacketed pans with the appropriate amount of stock syrup
to produce the desired consistency, because in this way
there is less danger of overheating. Thermostatically con-
trolled pans are desirable. The temperature should not
greatly exceed 100° F. if a good gloss is to be retained. If
overheated, the crystals redissolve and, on cooling, re-
crystallize into larger crystals,. which do. not.reflect.sQ-.much
light, and thus the gloss is spoileddf itiLunderJ:leated the
 CAKE MAKING

fondant will not set firm, but willl?e stidw and__ruIlJ!Y. The
bulK"fondantshould therefore be heated ca.refully to about
100° F., stirred continuously, then thinned down to the
required consistency with stock syrup, and used im-
mediately. It can be coloured and flavoured as required
RY the addition_ofliquid __colo_Ul:s and flavours.
At 100-105°'F: approximately -10-'1 5 per cent of the su-
crose crystals dissolve, which on recrystallization cement the
remainder together and thus produce a firm dry surface. 2
*Dry Fondant The manufacturers of this product, which is fondant in a
powdered form, give two methods of reconstitution:
(I) The water or syrup is added to the powdered
fondant and mixed together on slow speed for 15 minutes.
(2) A shorter mixing time on slow speed (2-3 minutes)
and then leaving for approximately I hour or overnight.
In either case warm to 105-110° F. and adjust to con-
sistency before using.
The following shows the relative composition of con-
ventional and dry powdered fondant:
Dry powdered fondant (reconstituted) Conventional fondant
81% Sucrose 81% Sucrose
9% Invert sugar 9% Liquid Glucose
10% Water 10% Water

Soft Icings These are blends offondant with whipped marshmallow or

boiled meringue which make excellent soft-eating icings and
are easy to handle. Another good type is made by blending
two parts fondant with one part Royal icing. This sets quick-
ly, giving a short-eating icing with good appearance.
Parfait Icing This is a smooth icing containing fat and milk.P.9wder.
Due to the presenc~f the fat, it reiiiaiils~_Qfter. than.sugar/
water-lcings:hut has a <!uli matt finish. This may not be
regarded as good as the high gloss of, say, fondant, but it is a
distinctive characteristic which along with different eating
quality has its own attraction to the eye and palate.
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Percentage
Fondant 4 - Blend together on
=
Icing sugar 4 - slow speed until }sugart 78
smooth. Water = 4
Milk powder - 4 2·6
High-emulsifying
shortening 1 8 15·4

* This product is marketed as 'Drifon'-see also Chapter 6, p. 71.

t Assuming fondant at 10 per cent water: sugar = 78 per cent;
fat = 15·4 per cent.
ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

These icings are very similar to parfait, the only difference Fudge Icings
being that they are ~~low_ed. to cool. and ..then beaten. to
produce a covering suitable-for spreading. The finish is dull
but..q!lite distinctive.

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. I Method Percentage

Icing sugar 6 8 Mix together. 57·5
Milk powder - 4 2·0
Margarine 1 8 Bring to the boil. Add 13·3
Water - 15 and allow to cool. 8·5
Sugar 2 0 Beat to fudge con- 17·7
Gfycerine
~
- 2 sistency. 1·0

Sugar = 75·2 per cent; fat = 13·3 per cent.

Royal icing is the traditional icing used for the decoration Royal Icing
of wedding cakes, and despite the danger of it setting too
hard when made incorrectly, it is us~d very extensively. It is
made by beating air into egg whites and icing sugar. The
quantities used are:
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Percentage
Icing sugar 7 85
Egg whites 1 4 15

Reconstituted albumen is better than egg whites, and

although it is fairly common practice to add a little acetic
acid in order t.o help the icing .to :r:etain ~lmpe_until it sets,
this _is not- necessary. The danger when adding acid is that
it produces a very hard, brittle, and aitogether unpleasant
icing which is almost inedible. There is the added danger
whencoloured icing is being used for birthday cakes, etc.,
that some colours may not be fast to acid. Tbs; 9Blyjwnifica-
ti~n f2DIDngA_ci5i is whet! ilie egg white is alk'!:line, which is
sometimes t.h.~sas_f with fresll ot: fro_z_en. whites.
The addition of a uantit of glycerine revents the icing
from ecommg very hard; I gill to the icing made from I
pint of whites. Care must be taken when beating. Under-
beating produces a running icing not suitable for piping,
and one which will not set. Over-beating results in the
production of a coarse texture, difficult to pipe or to spread
smoothly and a tendency to set very hard.
Meringues do not fall into any tidy classification, as Meringue Icings-
various types are used as fillings on their own or in combina-
tion, in addition to those used for covering purposes. They
are made by beating air into egg whites and sugar, and in
this sense are similar to Royal icing. The proportion of
 CAKE MAKING

whites to sugar is, however, much greater, so that it is

possible to whisk in very much l!lore ~r, producing a
lighter product. The lightness of this sugar/white foam is
governed by the amount of sugar as follows:
Sugar Egg white
Heavy meringue 2·5-3 parts 1 part
Light meringue 1-1·5 parts 1 part

o Boiled meringue is the type most used for covering pur-

poses.
This is commonly known as American icing.
American icing is a boiled icing which_when hot can be
pour~ over the cake or gateaux. It sets rapidly, the sugar
'formmg fine crystals as it cools, producing a smooth-
grained icing with an egg-shell finish which is very attractive.
A typical recipe is as follows:
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method IPercentage
Egg whites 1 4 Whisk to a stiff foam. 11·5
Salt 0·25 -
Vanilla essence -
Sugar 8 - 0
Boil to 240 F. Pour on 14·5
Water 2 8 to foam and whisk 14*
Cream of tartar 0·25 until light. -
* On basis of 84 per cent sucrose in solutlOn boiled to 240 0 F.

Other Types of In addition to using meringue as a filling or covering, it is

Meringues used to produce a range of meringue-based goods. For
convenience they are included in this chapter. The various
processing methods are as follows:
(r) Cold. Whisk whites- to stiff foam, gradually add
one-third of sugar, add flavour and colour, then mix in
remaining sugar'.
0
(2) Warm. Same as for (r), but warm sugar to 120 F.
before adding to whites.
(3) Hot. Add suga~ to whites, and whisk over water (not
below 160 F.) untilJ. stiff meringue is obtained.
0

. (4~ Boiled. Wh.iskjllO wh~tes to ~ stiff foam. While this

IS bemg done, boll s,~" r (WIth 1 gIll water to every 1 lb.
sugar used) to 240~~~ hen pour sugar on to whites and
whisk until stiff. < ,t,f
Q,UANTITIES The following qu/Wties should be used for various types
of meringues: f;~'~'
1t
(r) Shells an,- 'ases: 1 pint egg whites; 3 lb. castor
sugar; flavour " d colour.

186
ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

(2) Set Ornaments: I pint egg whites; 4 lb. castor

sugar; flavour and colour.
(3) Coconut: Add 3 lb. coconut threads to I pint of
No. (1).
(4) Almond: Add 2 lb. flakes or filleted almonds to I
pint of No. (I) boiled.
Using a basic meringue mix, a variety of popular meringues Popular Meringues
can be produced with the following additions:
(1) Jap slices: 10 oz. meringue; 5 oz. ground almonds; CJ

I! oz. flour; It oz. melted butter.

(2) Coconut slices: 10 oz. meringue; 4 oz. fine coconut;
I oz. flour; I oz. crushed praline; ! oz. melted butter.
(3) Chocolate coconut nests: 10 oz. meringue; ! lb.
castor sugar; 4 oz. melted chocolate; chocolate colour;
12 oz. coconut threads.
(4) Shells and cases: 10 oz. meringue; 8 oz. castor
sugar; flavour and colour.
Marshmallow was originally made from the root of the Marshmallow
marshmallow plant with the addition ofsugar and egg white,
but this is now no more than history.
Commercial marshmallow, most of which is purchased
from specialist manufacturers, is a form of meringue into
which a jellying agent has been incorporated. These are
gelatine, agar-agar, or modified starches.
The following are typical of this type of product:
(I) USING AGAR-AGAR

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Percentage

.J1!ater 2 2 Soak 12 hours. Bring 12·3

_!igar - I to boil and strain. 1·1

Gran_~d_ sugar 4 - Add and boil to 225 0 F. 65·5

Glucose 2 - Warm and add. Do 15·9

.- not stir. Continue
boiling to 245-
250 0 F. Skim offim-
purities.

Egg white (3 oz. - 5 Whip to a stiff foam. 5·2

-albumen ·to I Pour boiling solu-
pint water) tion on to foam
top speed. As mix
thickens replace
whisk with beater.
Beat for 15 minutes.

Calculation based on 87 per cent sugar in solution at 245 0 F. and

glucose at 80 per cent solids.
 CAKE MAKING

Preparation for Use

Add 4 lb. stock mallow to I pint egg wHite and whip.
(2) USING GELATINE

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Percentage

Sugar
Water
. 12
10
-
8
Boil to 65% 36·0
Solids

Glucose * 11 8 Add 34·6

Gelatine I - Disperse in water and 3·0

Water 2 - add
Total water 26·4

* Enzyme converted glucose with a high dextrose equivalent figure

which produces shorter-eating qualities.
This is a stock marshmallow sold as ajelly. It is prepared
for use by adding 4 oz. water to one pound, heated and
whipped. The temperature of heating must not exceed
0
160 F.
(3) USING THIN-BOILING STARCH

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. I Method Percentage

Starch 3 4 Disperse starch in 5·9

Water 5 4 water. -
Sugar 19 8 Place in steam boiling 35·9
Glucose 15 - pan. Add starch 23·0
Water 20 - slurry. Boil to 67% -
solids. Beat to cool.

Egg albumen - 5 Add and beat to re- 0·7

• --Water I - quired bulk.

- Total water 34·5

Calculation based on glu,:_ose at 84 per cent solids.

Preparation for Use
Add 4 lb. _stock mallow to I pint egg whites and whip.
Sugar Pastes In recent years the use of sugar pastes as coverings for
cakes has become popular. They are pleasant to eat and
easy to handle. Many are produced as proprietary pro-
ducts, but the following produce good results:
(I) SOFT TYPE-USING MARSHMALLOW
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method r
Marshmallow 2 - Melt the fat and work all to
Hard fat (H.P.K.O.) or - 4 a smooth paste.
cocoa butter
Icing sugar 3 -

188
ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

(2) HARD-DRYING TYPE

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method

Sugar I - Boil to 200 0 F.
Water - 5
Glucose I -
Leaf gelatine - 2 Soak in water and add.
Royal icing 1 - Add and dough up to a
Icing sugar 5 - smooth paste.

It will be noted that these pastes are essentially produced

from icing sugar and gelatine or a gum with a hard fat
being added for the soft-eating type. In the case of recipe (I)
the marshmallow is the source of the gum.
This is essentially a sugar paste made using gum traga- Gum Pastes
canth as the gum constituent. Cornfj.our is used as part re-
placement for icing sugar in order to produce a very smooth
product. This paste has its uses for the production of cake
ornaments, but is not really edible, and its use is therefore
very limited.
I! oz. gum tragacanth is soaked in a pint of cold water METHOD OF
for about twenty-four hours. The jelly formed is passed MAKING
through a muslin cloth to remove impurities and hard
pieces of gum. Icing sugar and cornflour in the proportions
of 14 oz. sugar to 4 oz. cornflour are then worked into it
until a firm, pliable paste is made. About 8 lb. sugar and
cornflour are required to the above quantities. Blue is also
added during the doughing stage, and sometimes some
royal icing to make it smoother and produce a better colour.
Other colours can be added as required.
Mixtures of fats and sugar or the other sugar-containing Fillings
substances, such as fondant, marslimaIlow, or boiled
meringue, are tIie· basis of creamed· fillings. .
. Tlie useofsuch common descriptions as cream or butter-
cream is governed by legislation. In the case of buttercream
a proposed code of practice defines it as a filling or a
decoration prepared from butter and sugar with or without
other ingredients. It must contain at least 15 per cent butter
fat and no other fat added as such.
The description must be presented as one word. Two Buttercream
words or a hyphenated. word, viz. 'Butter Cream' or
'Butter-cream' are not approved. s
The use of the word cream for any product other than
Dairy Cream is governed by the Food and Drugs Act 1955,
section 47, which lays down that:
18g
 CAKE MAKING

(I) Subject to the provisions of this section, no person

shall sell, or offer or expose for sale, f61 human con-
sumption-
(a) any substance which resembles cream in ap-
pearance, but is not cream; or
(b) any-ar.ticle offood containing such a substance,
under a description or designation which includes
the word 'cream' (whether or not as part ofa compo-
site word).
(2) The foregoing subsection shall not apply to the
sale, or offer or exposure for sale, of any substance being
reconstituted or imitation cream as defined by this sec-
tion, or of any article containing such a substance, under
a description or designation which identifies the substance
such, or to the sale, or offer or exposure for sale, of any
substance under a description or designation which
indicates that the substance is not for use as, or as a
substitute for, cream.
(3) In this section 'reconstituted cream' means a
substance which, not being cream, resembles cream in
appearance and contains no ingredient not derived from
milk, except-
(a) water, or
(b) ingredients (not added fraudulently to increase
bulk, weight or measure, or conceal inferior quality)
which may lawfully be contained in a substance sold
for human consumption as cream; and 'imitation
cream' means a substance which, not being cream or
reconstituted cream, resembles cream in appearance
and is produced by emulsifying edible oils or fats
with water, with or without other substances not
prohibited by regulations made for the purposes of
this section under section 47 of this Act, or added in
quantities so prohibited.
(4) For the purposes of this section, the description or
designation under which a substance or article is sold, or
offered or exposed for sale, shall be deemed to include the
word 'cream' if it includes any other word (composite
or otherwise) which is calculated to lead a purchaser to
suppose that the substance is or, as the case may be, the
article contains either cream or a substance for use as a
cream.

Dairy Cream The foregoing legislation regarding the use of the word
cream, together with the extensive advertising promoted

190
 ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

by the Milk Marketing Board, has led to a very considerable

increase in the use of fresh cream by the confectioner. There
is no doubt that there is a very good market for fresh cream
. goods. 'Imitation' cream is an excellent product, but this
qualifying prefix is not calculated today to stimulate sales.
The Foods Standards (Cream) Order 1951 states that
'Cream shall consist of that part of cow's milk which is rich
in fat, which is separated by skimming or otherwise'.
It is therefore a concentration of the butter fat in milk.
Fresh cream is classified by butter fat content:
(1) single cream not less than 18 per cent;
(2) double cream not less than 48 per cent;
(3) clotted cream not less then 48 per cent.
Fresh cream used as a filling has to be whipped, and the Whipping Cream
best for that purpose is one of about,40 per cent butter fat
which is known as whipping cream.
Whipping cream can be obtained with butter-fat con-
tents ranging from 38-45 per cent.
The purpose of whipping is to occlude air. As in the case Whipping
of cake batters and sponges, the introduction of air increases
the volume. The change in volume can be measured by
specific volume or over-run. Fresh cream can be satis-
factorily whipped to an over-run of 2-2'5.
The following points should be observed when whipping
cream:
(I) The cream should be about 24 hours old. If the
cream has not been aged by the supplier when received,
then it should be stored for this length of time.
(2) At no time during storage should the temperature
of the cream exceed 40° F.
(3) Whatever method is used for whipping, it should
take place at 40° F.
Hand whipping is quite satisfactory for small quantities,
but for the most part a machine will be used. The normal
vertical mixer and whisk is quite suitable, but there are now
a number of special cream-whipping machines on the
market which are very good for this purpose.
Any addition to fresh dairy cream would appear to be Additives
prohibited by law. Sugar, which has very frequently been
used to add sweetness, especially where the filling is being
used in choux pastry which does not contain sugar, is, how-
ever, permitted by many local authorities.
The Milk Marketing Board's advice is that the local
authority should be consui'ted before sugar is added.
 CAKE MAKING

No other substance is permitted, although egg white,

gelatine, and pectin jelly make for very good !fillings. These
can be added to fresh cream, but the resultant filling must
not be referred to as cream.
Reconstituted Reconstituted cream is produced by taking a high-grade
Cream 100 per cent solu.bl~ milk powder produced by the spray
process and dissolving it in water. This produces reconsti-
tuted milk (such milk is largely sold in America). To this a
high-grade unslated butter of low acidity is added, and the
mixture heated to 145 0 F. and maintained at this tempera-
ture for not more than 30 minutes. During this time the
butter particles are distributed in the milk by means of a
suitable agitator, and the whole mass is then pasteurized.
The mixture is passed through the emulsifier, and the cream
produced is cooled down to about 40-450 F. and placed in
cold storage. It is generally kept 12 hours before being used,
although it is suitable for use as cream immediately. If the
butter-fat content is sufficiently high it will whip readily.
Such cream is many times purer than fresh cream from
a bacteriological view-point. It possesses the same vitamin
content as fresh cream, has a perfect flavour, and will keep
for a longer period, providing a good-quality butter has
been used.
The following mixing will give a cream of approximately
42 per cent butter-fat content, but by increasing or reducing
the quantity of butter used the fat content is proportionately
increased or lowered as required.

lb. oz. Method

I
Butter 5 -
Water 4 - Heated to 145 0 F. for 30 minutes.
Milk powder - 12
-
Stabilizing agents, such as agar-agar or gelatine solutions,
lecithin, or promulsion, are employed to stabilize the emul-
SIOn.
Imitation Cream Confectioners and others who wish produce an imitation
cream can produce one using a formula such as thefollowing:

lb. oz.
Water 6 -
Cornflour - 6
Special hydrogenated shortening 3 12
Egg yolks - 2t

The above will make about I gallon of imitation cream

which whips well and is quite satisfactory.
ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

Make a paste of the cornflour and a portion of the water. METHOD

Boil up the remainder of the water, add the cornflour paste,
and cook until it gelatinizes, but keep stirring to prevent it
burning or forming lumps.
Cool the mixture to 1500 F. and add the melted fat slowly
to it while stirring. When the mixture reaches 1300 F. add
the egg yolks and pass through the emulsifier. Store the
emulsion in a refrigerator for 12 hours before use. This will
then whip to the consistency of cream.
Imitation creams that are manufactured and sold to
bakers generally contain 32-40 per cent fat, which is emulsi~
fied with water. With the addition of suitable stabilizing
agents they may whip to three times their original bulk.
The simplest of these is a butter cream prodw:ed by Creamed Fillings
creamin~et!_ler butter and sug~r in approximately equal
propoi'flOns. Th~ ~atio of butter to s_ug~r determin~ the
nature of the filling~good_h~rd.setting ~l1ing, then the
fat content must be high. An increase in sugar-proauces a
l~fiI!~ng~_ but one which wilI.:n6LSe1.up.so-."fi"rn
More complicated types are what are known as Conti~
nental Buttercreams and Fillings. The following are some
typical recipes for buttercreams or creamed fillings, in-
cluding the Continental types:

(I) Simple
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Percentage

Butter or margarine 3 - Beat together until 44·4

Icing sugar 3 12 light. 55·6
Vanilla essence Blend in.

(2) Using Marshmallow

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Percentage I

Marshmallow 3 - Beat up light. 43
Egg whites - 15 14

I Butter or margarine 3 - Soften, cream up and

blend in.
43

(3) Using Fondant

INGREDIENTS

Fondant
Butter or margarine
1 M,ilioo
Work fondant to a
pliable mass. Add
butter and cream up
light.
Percentage

50
50

193
 CAKE MAKING

(4) Continental Type

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Percentage
Sugar 7 0 41·5*
Water 1 14 Boil to 245 0 F.
Glucose 1 8
Eggs 2 8 Whisk to a sponge. 10·5
Add boiled syrup
and whisk until
cold.

Butter or margarine 11 4 Soften, cream up, add, 48

and blend in.

* Calculated on basis of 87 per cent sugar in syrup at 245 0 F.

(5) Boiled Meringue Type

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Percentage

Sugar 3 - 0
Boil to 245 F. 30·3*
Water - 15

Egg whites 1 14 Whisk to a meringue. 17·3

Sugar 1 8 Add boiled syrup 13·1
and whisk until cold.

Butter or margarine 4 8 Soften, cream up, add, 39·3

and blend in.
\
* Calculated on basis of 87 per cent sugar in syrup at 245 0 F.

(6) Custard Base Type

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Percentage I
Milk 2 8 Boil milk and gelatin- 22·3
Cornflour - 4 ize the cornflour to 2·3
Sugar - 8 make a custard. 4·4

Icing sugar 4 - Cream together. Blend 35·5

Butter or margarine 4 - in custard when cool. 35·5

It will be noted from the foregoing that the fat contents

range from 35'5 to 50 per cent, which is in considerable
excess of the minimum stated in the proposed code of prac-
tice relating to buttercream.

Glazes Glazes are used to enhance the appearance of baked goods,

and in the case..9f tl:!..~s~ containing sugar, they improve the
flavour and eaj:ing_~y_gmsi£1era'6IY. They range from
a simple egg wash used for buns and roliStilroughtIle
-_.-" - -
194
ICINGS, FILLINGS, AND GLAZES

~ious sugar and water types to 'varnish' _u~e<Lto _glaze

chocolate moulded goods.
The hun washes ~ili be referred to in Chapter 17; the
remainder may be summarized as follows:
(I) RO,t boiled apricot.pureerwhich-is-br-ushed--on.such
goods_asJ:)anish.and, puff. pastries-immediately they come
f-rom the gyen.
(2) Water icin_g, which produces a semi-transparent
_gl~ze n~y on D_anish and puff pastries but also on
~goods ~ fr~nzipan__!'!_ta!:ts ~ns. lii "the case of
Danish pastries, the icing is sometimes coloured and
flavoured lemon and is often used after the goods have
first been brushed with hot puree.
(3) Rot fondant, which is a popular Continental
methodused for glazing dipped fancies. The fancies are
first dipped in boiling puree and .then hot fondant which
has been thinned down with stock syrup. The fondant
must be taken to 1400 F., and it must be reduced in
consistency. The goods are then placed in the oven at
4000 F. for a very short time.
(4) Thinjellies used as glazes on fruit and similar lines.
Gelatine;arrowroot, and pectin jellies are all suitable for
this purpose.
(5) $}um arabic solution made with one part gum to
four parts water, allowed to stand overnight, then heated
and used hot for glazing almond goods such as Parisian
and English routs. These are types of goods which are first
flashed offin the oven. Some are also brushed with egg yolk
before flashing, which also gives a highly glazed surface.
(6) Gum sandrach, which is soluble in alcohol and is
used to glaze modelled and moulded marzipan goods
which are not flashed in the oven.
(7) Gum benzoin dissolved in alcohol and used as a
varnish to glaze chocolate moulded goods primarily for
display purposes. Chocolate couverture correctly tem-
pered and run out into properly prepared moulds comes
out with a first-class gloss of its own, so that the use of a
varnish should not be necessary at all for normal pro-
duction work.
Ganache is used both as a filling and as a topping. It is a Ganache
mixture of cream and chocolate. The cream, be it dairy
cream, reconstituted cream, or imitation cream, should be
about 48 per cent butter fat for a good smooth ganache.
The chocolate is usually couverture, but bakers' chocolate
can also be used.

195
 CAKE MAKING

The following is a typical formula:

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Percentage

Chocolate 2 - Melt to a temp. not 61·5
exceeding 11 0° F .
Cream (48%/at)
.1 - 4 Bring to boil add and 38·5
stir well together.

Ganache should be stored in a cool place for about two

days before using.
PREPARATION Place ganache in the machine bowl, warm slightly, and
FOR USE beat up light on second speed.
Plain chocolate couverture produces a rather strong-
flavoured ganache not always acceptable to the British
palate. Milk chocolate produces a milder flavour, and
ganache made with it is usually flavoured with rum, kirsch,
or coffee.
A blend of 50 per cent plain chocolate ganache and 50
per cent milk chocolate ganache produces an excellent
flavour.
Bakers' chocolate produces a ganache which is rather
sweet.
Most of the imitation creams on the market are about
38 per cent fat, which is rather low for the production of a
smooth ganache. This can be overcome by using I lb. of
imitation cream and 4 oz. butter in place of the I pint of
cream.

References 1. F. G. Wheeler and]. G. Endres, 'Icings-a new look at some basic

facts', Bakers Digest, October 1965, pp. 52-4.
2. 'Modern Icings, Toppings and Finings'-Bulletin No.2, British
Chapter, A.S.B.E., 1962.
3. 'Draft Codes 0/ Practice', Bulletin No·.~I, B.B.I.R.A., 1966.

196
Fermented Goods 17

THERE is a wide range offermented goods which come with-

in the scope of a work on flour confectionery, generally
classed as Bun Goods. With this class of goods are buns of
all kinds, fruit breads, brioches, Danish pastries, babas, and
savarins. For all such articles a high-class flour is required
in order that a bold bun may be ob'tained.
AlLfcrmented buns contain a considerabl~p'ercenta~f
enriching agents, such as fat, sugar, and eggs. As these
t~retara"fermentation, the q,!;!~cntity of yeast employed
must be g~~thal)._that :used.in.breaclinaki!j.gfoi:a.similar
q-uarrrity of flour fermented for the ~ame_jength_of ti:rn.e. If
~y"east.is.adjusted aq;or.ding to the .pr~portio,n of enr!_c_hiIlK
agents used,. then correct ripening. of .the dough can_.be
ob-tained in the requisite time.
--For bun doughs the strong or fast-working Wpes of yeast \
are best, since these are capable of bringing about a
thorough maturing of the dough, followed by rapid gas
production during final proof.
The use of eggs was formerly limited to the richer types of \
fermented goods, but research has shown that eggs should be
included in all types of fermented small goods.
These, apart from increasing the food value of buns, also
condition the dough and impart silkiness on the texture of'
the finished product. They enable increased volume to be
obtained by increasing the extensibility of the dough. This is
brought about by the physical action of the albumen on the
gluten and the lecithin present in the egg yolk. These
properties can be capitalized by decreasing the scaling
weights and so producing buns of normal volume.
Eggs may also be added to a dough after it has fer-
mented, as is sometimes customary with Bath buns. These
may be in addition to those already used at the doughing
stage, and may be supplementary to those already pre-
sent.
While castor or gr~nulated sugar is generally used,

197
 CAKE MAKING

~p~es' are often llsed,_aS:.1hesecare~helpful~in~modifyifig the

,glut~ILand-stimulating-the..action ..ofJ:h~y.easp.

Fermentation 6:ither of two systems of fermentation may be used in the.

System Used production of fermented small goods, the fermtnt-and
d~ethod or the straighL,dQllgbJn.ethod. For very
many years the ferment and dough method was the tradi-
tional one, since by this two-stage system of fermentation a
t~gh ripening of the dough was ensured, particularly
, when the slower types of yeast were more generally used. /
Today it has been largely superseded by the straight dough
system for the ordinary bun goods, and is used only for the
richer types, such as babas, savarins, and brioche, although
Danish pastry is produced on the straight dough system.
This changeover is largely a matter of economics, a one-
stage method being more straightforward than a two-stage
process, particularly with present-day yeasts. Provided the
yeast and conditions of fermentation are adjusted, very
satisfactory results can be obtained. There are, however,
those who still maintain that a better bun is obtained by the
ferment and dough as compared with the straight dough,
the difference showing in the keeping qualities. With,
however, the introduction of emulsifying agents and dough
retardation in bun making, these differences are not signifi-
cant, since holding the moulded buns in a retarder before
baking causes a mellowing of the gluten to be obtained which
is even more effective than the use of a ferment and dough.
One great objection to the ferment and dough was that it
introduced a potential cause of trouble through temperature
faults at the dough stage because of possible heat losses in
the ferment itself prior to dougl.! making.
The following is a suitable mixing for buns, but different
types of goods may be made, in.. all of which the standard
ferment is used. The ferment should stand for 20 to 30
minutes, and then the dough should ferment for I! hours:

FERMENT lb. oz. DOUGH lb. oz.

Water 2 8 Flour 4 8£
Milk powder 2 Salt
Sugar
reast
2
3
Fat or oil
Sugar
II
10
Flour 8 Currants 1 0
Peel 2
Eggs 5

Setting a The milk powder and sugar should be dissolved in the water
Ferment by whisking; the yeast is then thoroughly broken down and
.lg8
FERMENTED GOODS

the flour mixed in, so as to produce a clear batter. This is

then thoroughly aerated by whisking in order to stimulate
the action of the yeast. T ferment should be at a tempera-
. tur:.<:: of go F., and should be left for not longer t an f hour.
0

Afterwards the remaining mgre3ienfs are incofporatea.

The following is a suitable mixing for a straight dough. Straight

With this process the dough time may vary from 45 minutes Dough
to 1 l hours, th~_.length of bulk fermentation time being Processes
controlled by the ~Ount of .yeast and. the temperature of
the dough.
------ INGREDIENTS lb. oz.
Water 2 8
Flour 4 12
Milk powder 2 Finished dough
Suga 12 temperature 80 c
Fat 12 F. Bulk fermen-
Peel 2 tation time It
Currants 1 - hrs.
Eggs 5
Yeast 5
Salt t
Any recipe for a ferment and dough system can be con-
verted into one for a straight dough by totalling up all the
ingredients and increasing the yeast by 25 per cent for the
same final bulk fermentation time.
The main differences in bun doughs are the varying Fermentation of
quantities of the enriching ingredients, eggs, fat, and sugar; the Dough
also, fruit may be present in varying amounts, or may be
absent altogether.
All bun doughs should be kept at 78-820 F. and should
not be worked warmer, otherwise an article is produced
which will become dry and stale very quickly, and will be
lacking in bloom. QOQl c:!oughs containing more yeast are
preferable always to warm doughs~· and oetter bl.!ns will be
obtained.
C~stor sugar is not. .a.lways used in a dough; for example Ingredients Added
in Bath buns sugar nibs are used, and are worked in the after Dough- .
dough only after it has fermented for its full time. Fermentation
Clearly the reason for this is, first_ofalJ,Jhat the sug~lL SUGAR
present as cas_tQrJ._ would re~dily dissQIYe/while . . the· buns
were proving, and so a small amount of it would .be.fer-
mented· and a- much greater quantity inverted by the yea~t.
As a result, the sweetening power would be definitely re-
duced. Second, too large a quantity of sugar dissolved in the
dough before it reached the oven would affect the gluten,

199
 CAKE MAKING

and so cau~e the buns to flow in the oven, in~t~a_d_O[having a

bold.appeariuice: - -- .. - - V
EGGS These are another ingredient sometimes added when the
dough has been fermented but only when quantities
greater than t pint of eggs have been used with a quart of
liquor. Extra yeast must be used, however, since_th~er
quantgy Qf egg~,.the..greater- the amount-of yeast-required.
For ordinary English varieties of buns the above quantities
are adequate. Quantities in excess of this alter the character
of the bun.
FAT OR BUTTER For bun doughs, lard is undoubtedly the best, since it can
be easily distributed in the dough and has good shortening
qualities; other neutral fats and oils can also be used. In
buns such as Chelsea and richer varieties of Continental
buns, extra fat is incorporated after the dough has fer-
mented, so as to produce an effect similar to the layer forma-
tion in puff paste. As with puff paste, a good flavour is
required, so that butter should be used, although, for
cheaper varieties, a high-grade margarine in conjunction
with Demerara sugar will prove quite satisfactory.
FRUIT When currants are employed it is the practice to work the
fruit into the dough as it is made, although it is sometimes
added later. In the case of articles in which sultanas are em-
ployed, such as Bath buns, it is customary to work the fruit
along with sugar and eggs into the dough after fermentation
has taken place. This practice most probably has arisen
because of the greater amount of natural sugar present in
the fruit which would affect yeast fermentation. It may be
that this practice was necessary, not because of the effect
of the sugar in the sultanas alone, but because of the collec-
tive effect of the three enrichingjngredients, all of which are
likely to retard fermentation. However, the best results are
still obtained by fermenting the dough and adding the fruit
afterwards.
When lemon and orange peel is used it should be chopped
very fine so that the flavour from it can be dispersed evenly
throughout the dough.
Knocking Back As the dough ferments, it increases in bulk, and, especially
with short-process doughs, fermentation becomes very
vigorous. The smaller the dough, the more is it necessary
that 'knocking back' should be carried out in order to pre-
vent the dough from being chilled.
With the rising. oX !h~ dQllgi:!, its interior aCQuires an inti-
mate cell~like. structure.in.. the..form..of..a_v..er.y_fine..ne.tw.ork,
t::~c!I cell being_filled with carbon dioxide gas.
Knocking the d_?ugh _t~eth:: brings the yeast back into

200
FERMENTED GOODS

contact with its food supply, eliminates w!ist~ .:pr_oducts _of

f~fn1eiiBuion! arfd-~o produces more vIgorous f~r!!!..e!lli!!ion.
Mor~over,. the. working. olllie. dough stretches. the gluten,
which is grad1lally conver_ted into fine threads, and renders
it more elastic and capable of producing better and more
e~Il-~tured goods.
'Ip.i~ ~nocking back should be carried out at the early
~~_e~ _of fermenfation:~' iii fact, a bun dough should be
knocked back every 20 minutes if a bun of good bulk and
silk-like texture is required.
As the dough ferments, the temperature should not be Proving
allowed to rise too high, otherwise the dough will work too
fast and become exhausted. As a result, poor-volumed buns
deficient in bloom would result, which would not only be
unattractive in appearance but also very dry to eat.
4. dough temperature of 78-82° F. is most suitable, and
this, in £.onjunction with frequent' KnocKing back, WIll
produce the best results. .. .- - -- ------
- The final proving is usually carried out in steam, and here
the fatal mistake is often made of forcing. By this is meant
proving the buns in a superabundance of steam at too high
a temperature so that first of all excessive condensation takes
place, followed by a rapid working of the yeast at the sur-
face and the production of a broken skin.
Steam is necessary in the final proving, but the quantity
should be controlled so that the surface of the bun is kept
'green', and not actually moist. The temperature of the
prover should be about 88-g00 F.
For all bun goods, a solid oven is required in order that Baking
qyick cooking can be carried out with the production of
good volume, a pleasmg bloom, and the loss ofmoisture just
sj1fficient to brinK about corn::ct baking without any excess
drying out.
For most buns other than Bath buns, an oven at 4600 F. is
best, but for Bath buns, a cooler oven at 4300 F. is necessary,
because of the sugar nibs used for decorative effect; a cooler
oven is also required for Chelsea buns, which are batched
close together on baking sheets.
A pleasing appearance is desired on all goods, and it is Glazing
therefore usual to apply some variety of bun wash, either
before baking or after they have been withdrawn from the
oven and cooled slightly, to impart such a glaze. This may
be applied by a mechanical spray or ordinary brush.
The following bun washes may be used:
Bun Washes-There are many mixtures used for this
purpose, and preparations are now sold which require only
201
 CAKE MAKING

the addition of warm water to produce a liquid which can

be used as a glaze. One of these, which has been examined,
is nothing more than ordinary powdered glue, and while
producing a glaze, confers an unpleasant hard surface and
bitter flavour on the bun.
The following glazes will give satisfactory results:
( I) An egg an"d water glaze, consisting of two parts egg
to one of water, thoroughly whisked. Fresh eggs will give a
better glaze than frozen eggs.
(2) One egg, a gill of water, and I oz. of sugar, all
thoroughly mixed. This will produce a good gloss, but will
be slightly sticky.
(3) Stock syrup, in which I oz. of gelatine has been
dissolved, will produce a good glaze. Stock syrup alone
produces an extremely sticky glaze-unless the buns are
placed back in the oven to enable the syrup to set after it
has been applied-and should only be used in those districts
in which such a glaze is desired.
Table V gives recipes for a normal range of bun goods
based on a 100 parts of flour using a straight dough process.
The water percentage will vary slightly in practice, accord-
ing to the strength of the flour used, but the dough should
always be 'free' and never 'tight'.

TABLE V
Recipes for Bun Goods
(Based on 100 parts Flour, Straight Dough Process)

., ...o!
..,... ... J!l
.:: o!
.:: ... ..,...o! ... .gp .....,
~ E ~"1:1 r:... ., ~ 8
~
o!
o! :-:::;s: bll ....o! ;oj ..,
<l gg ;;
o!
..,bll ~o!
.~ ~
o!

~ ~
;oj
~ ~8. rn ~ 0 rn ~ r.<l !Xl QJj Z., rn
- - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - -- -
Currant buns A 100 54 3 16 14 20 - 2 4 - - - 1·0 5
Currant buns B 100 52 3 20 14 20 - 3 8 - - - 1·0 5
Tea cakes 100 54 3 12 8 12 - 3 4 - - - 1·0 5
Currant bread A 100 54 3 12 8 16 - 3 - - - - 1·0 5
Currant bread B 100
100
54
54
3
2
14
16 10
8 16
20
-20 3
4
4
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
1·0
0·75
5
6
Fruit bread
Chelsea buns 100 54 3 14 10 - 16 - 6 12 12 - 0·5 5
Bath buns 100 52 3 14 10 - 16 8 6 12 - 12 0·5 5
Swiss buns 100 56 3 14 10 - - - 4 - - - 1·0 5
Doughnuts 100 56 3 14 10 - - - 4 - - - 0·75 5
Hot cross buns 100 53 3 16 14 14 12 5 4 - - - 0·5 6
100 56 3 16 14 - - - 8 - - 0·75 5
Cookies
Bridge rolls 100 56 3 4 16 - - - - =1 - - 0·75 5

Bulk fermentatIOn tIme Ii hours. Dough temperature 80° F.

202
FERMENTED GOODS

For doughnuts a Swiss bun or cookie mixing can be success- Doughnuts

fully used. Great care should always be taken in the frying of
doughnuts, and the finishing off if attractive buns are to
result. Powder aerated doughnuts are popular today, and
special machines are available to produce these con-
tinuously. The following points should be noted:

(I) The temperature of the fat should not exceed

380° F.
(2) The best-quality fat should always be used. Hydro-
genated shortenings should be used, since their smoke
point is very much higher than 380°-F. Thus there is no
objectionable odour while frying.
(3) After frying, the doughnuts should be allowed _to
c_ool down berOI:e~£eing I:olkd3n_slig~r-,- ~s the _do_ughnuts
. cool down_steam. is-given. off,_and.iLthey are. rolled..in
.. sugar imme_diately_.on withdrawal from the fat..this
moisture is abs.or:Q~.9J:)y lh.~.sJlgar and a wet, sodden sug;g:-_
coat is-;btained. This spoils the appearanceaand uses. a
_much _greater a~ount of_s\!gar.

Automatic doughnut plants with a capacity of 100,000

yeast or powder raised doughnuts per hour are available
today. Automatic doughnuts fryers are also widely used.
These are thermostatically controlled so that very regular
products are obtained.

Brioche is a very rich type of fermented teabread made by Brioche

confectioners, and used for sweet or savoury fillings. They
are rich in fat and eggs, but the sugar is very low.
Continental recipes for these goods are sometimes very
complicated, but the following formula can be recom-
mended to give good results:

INGREDIENTS lb. oz.

Flour 3 8
Yeast - 2i
Warm milk - 10
Butter I 8
Eggs 2 8
Sugar - 2
Salt - 21

Take! lb. of the flour and make a sponge with the milk Method
and the yeast. Beat this sponge well, and leave it to ferment
for t hour at 80° F.
20 3
 CAKE MAKING

Sift the remainder of the flour, place it in the machine

bowl, add the salt, sugar, and I t pints egg§! and mix these
well to form a stiff dough. Add the remainder of the eggs,
and beat the dough thoroughly. Then add the butter
gradually, beating it well in until the dough loses its sticki-
ness. Lastly, adg. t?e sponge, and clear it well through the
mixture. The whole should be well beaten until it will not
stick to the dough hook or the fingers, although it should be a
fairly soft mixture.
This dough should be left in a cool place for 2 or 3 hours
before working it off into small finger-shaped rolls, crescents,
plaits, scrolls, etc. The weight of these goods need not be
more than 1 t oz. for a size equivalent to 2-OZ. buns or rolls.
The brioche should be egg-washed before proving, then
again after proving for about 25 minutes in the prover at
about 85° F. They should be baked in a fairly hot oven.
When cold they are filled with savoury fillings or whipped
cream.
Sometimes some of the eggs are replaced with soya flour
and extra milk. Two-thirds of a pint of eggs, or 8 eggs, may
be replaced with 12 oz. soya-bean flour and t pint milk.
The procedure of mixing is the same.

Babas and Babas and savarins are a very rich type of fermented goods
Savarins which, after baking, are soaked in a rum-flavoured syrup
and, after drainage, are decorated with whipped cream
before being served. More butter, but less eggs, are used in
them than is used in the brioche. The difference between a
baba and a savarin is that a baba contains dried fruit and
a savarin is plain dough but is served with fruit when
baked.

INGREDIENTS
- lb. oz.
Flour 3 -
Clarified butter 2 -
Yeast - 2t
Sugar - 3
Eggs 2 3
Milk (105° F.) 1 9
Currants }for babas I -
Orange peel - 8

A sponge is made with milk, yeast, and t lb. flour. It

should be well beaten to aerate it, before setting away to
ferment for t hour.
The remainder of the flour is sifted on to the board or
FERMENTED GOODS

into the machine bowl, the sugar and eggs are added, and
these ingredients are made into a dough which should be
well toughened by a thorough mixing; it is then made
elastic by continued beating. The soft and creamy butter is
added at this stage, and is well beaten into the dough.
Lastly, the fermented sponge is added, and the whole is
thoroughly beaten until the mixture loses its stickiness.
It produces rather a soft batter, but, by continuous work-
ing, it is well matured, and should produce good bulky
cakes. It should be allowed to ferment for t hour, for babas,
when the fruit should be mixed in. It is then ready for piping
out into the buttered moulds.
After the babas have been proved for t hour, or until the
batter has filled the moulds, they are baked to a golden
brown colour in a fairly hot oven at 4200 F.
The cakes so produced should be light and porous. When
cool, they are soaked in a rum-flavoured orange and lemon
syrup, and after draining are filled with whipped cream.
For savarins, chopped fruit is also added.
The syrup used for soaking these goods is made from the
following:

INGREDIENTS lb. oz.

Water 3 15
Sugar 2 -
Rum - 5
Rind and juice of 2 oranges
Rind and juice of 2 lemons

Make a syrup of the sugar, water, fruit juices, and rinds

by bringing the lot to the boil. Add the rum before use, but
use hot.
Savarins may be made in large moulds 6 in. in diameter
or small moulds 3 in. in diameter. When baked, the cakes
are steeped in the hot syrup, lifted out with a slice, and
placed on the dish from which they are to be served,
before they are filled with fruit or whipped cream.
Chopped cherries and Angelica, peaches, pineapple, pears,
or other tinned fruits may be used to produce a variety of
fillings.

Many recipes are used to produce fermented or Danish Ferm.ented or

pa,'ltries, but the principle is the same in each case. A rich Danish
dough is mellowed by fermentation and partly aerated by Pastries
puff paste principles.
CAKE MAKING

The following ingredients can be used to make up these

goods: ~

INGREDIENTS lb. oz.

Flour 2 8
Butter.or cake margarine - 8
Sugar - 6
Salt - t
Eggs - 5
Egg yolks - 2
Milk - 15
Yeast - 4
Pastry butter I -

A cold dough is made up of all the ingredients except the

pastry butter. This dough is left to ferment in a cold place
for 2 hours. It is then pinned out and the pastry butter is
rolled into it, as in the making of puff pastry. Two turns are
given to it, then, after an hour, another two turns are
given.
This paste can be used after resting for a further hour, but
better results are obtainable if it is left overnight in a re-
frigerator. It can be moulded up into various shapes and
filled with numerous fillings, such as custard, jams, curds,
macaroon pastes, nuts; also fruits, such as apples, pears, and
pineapples.
After moulding, the pieces are egg washed and proved
for about i hour, then baked in a fairly hot oven.
When baked, they are washed over with stock syrup or
masked with a fruit-flavoured icing and roasted flaked
almonds.
There are numerous shapeJ and finishes to these goods.
Each confectioner should have his own special variety.
Many bakers of fermented pastries make them from an
ordinary fermented bun dough by rolling I lb. pastry butter
into 4 lb. bun dough, and after giving it four turns, as in the
case of puff pastry, they place it in the refrigerator, then
work it off into the various shapes, as before.
Chemically Aerated 18
Goods

CHEMICALLY aerated goods are those morning goods which

are lightened by the use orclieniiCals instead of yeast or
eggs. Most of these chemicals are baking powders, whIch
consist of an acid suh~tance together with bicarbonate of
soda. Themain differences between the various powders
·on the market is the nature of the acid material which is
.used to liberate carbon dioxide gas from. bicarbonate of
soda, and so effect the necessary aeration. The various
chemical actions which take place have been fully discussed
in the chapter dealing with chemical aeration. ,Qream of
tartar is still regarded as the classic acid component, and
for tnis reason most of the others used are .known unaer-the
general name of cream powders. They are marketed~~~der
proprietary names and are so compounded that by the
addition of an inert filler they can be used in approximately
the same quantities as cream of tartar when making baking
powder.
The main factors governing the use of chemical aerating1
agents from a practical baking point of view are:- i
(I) They should produce adequate quantities of carbon·
dioxide gas. \
(2) They should be harmless. \
(3) They should not react very readily until the goods,
enter the oven.
(4) The residual salts should not adversely affect the I
quality of the resultant goods. ~

Baking powders must, by law, conform to certain minimum Legal

standards as follows: Requirements
(1) A baking powder shall yield not less than 8 per cent
available carbon dioxide.
(2) The residual carbon dioxide shall be not more
than I' 5 per cent.
 CAKE MAKING

This applies to prepared baking powders offered for sale,

and most of those on the market produce coifsiderably more
CO 2 than this prescribed minimum.

The The acid component and the sodium bicarbonate should be

Preparation well sifted together before use. If necessary a small amount
of Baking of rice flour can De added to prevent the baking powder
powder from becoming moist and lumpy, thus losing its strength
through the interaction of the acid and the alkali.
Recipe for 2l parts cream of tartar
Baking Powder I part bicarbonate of soda
or when using a proprietary cream powder:
2 parts cream powder
I part bicarbonate of soda

Alternatively, a saving of time is brought about by preparing

what is virtually a self-raising flour by carefully sifting
together baking powder and flour in the proportion of 3-4
oz. baking powder to 4 lb. flour. The common name for
such a prepared flour is Scone or Patent Flour, which is
also' referred to in Chapter 2. In addition to a saving of
time, the risk of error when weighing off small quantities of
baking powder is eliminated.
The flour use_dJor. making. aerated _gQ_ods should not be
too strong, as bulk is not the main .consideration.·Teiture,
flavour, -moistness, and cqlour are the maiILconsideratio~s.
A winter wheat flour or a good medium flour will impart
these qualiti~~ the goods.
I.~f 4',a&..1!lust. be oLgood ,9.!lalit~. Margarine and com-
\>.0 ., potin'a fat of faIrly low meltmg pomt are commonly used.
,_ Good-quality vegetable oil gives excellent results, parti-
cularly in scones', making them bulkier and softer eating,
provided the oil and milk are· mixed together first. as an
emulsion. This ensures a more even distribution of the oil
in the dough ..
Eggs are not absolutely essential in aerated goods and
are-theexception in scones today, but if price is not the first
consideration the flavour and colour imparted make their
addition worthwhile.
The fruit used in this type of goods should be clean and
bright. Dirty fruit is wasteful and expensive.
Chemically aerated goods may be roughly divided into
two main groups:
(I) Scones-in many varieties either oven-baked or on
the hot plate.
(2) Rock Cakes-raspberry buns, etc.
208
CHEMICALLY AERATED GOODS

Sultana scones are the most common variety of scones Sultana Scones
made in most English bakeries where the goods are baked
in the oven. The mixture and method for the best type are
as follows:

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Flour at 100

Flour 4 - 100
Baking powder - 4 6·25
Salt - t 0·78
Fat or oil - 12 18·75
Sugar (castor) - 12 18·75
Milk (2 pints) 2 8 62·50
Sultanas - 12 18·75

If a scone flour has been made up, 41 lb. of that should be

used instead of the flour and baking powder separately.
There are various methods of making up the dough for
these goods. The flour should be thoroughly sifted on to the
board or in the bowl with the baking powder and salt.
The fat can either be thoroughly rubbed into the flour as
finely as possible or creamed up separately with the sugar.
The latter method ensures a better and more even mixing.
If the former method is used a bay should be made with the
flour, in which the sugar and milk are placed and the fruit
put round the edge. The liquid should then be mixed up
with the sugar, and, finally, all the ingredients should be
kneaded together into a smooth clear dough free from scraps.
If the latter method is used, when the cream is ready the
milk should be worked in, then all the ingredients should be
worked together into a smooth clear dough free from scraps.
Today most of these mixings are made up on the machine,
and for this purpose crumble up the fat with the sifted
flour, baking powder, and salt, using the slow speed. Dis-
solve the sugar in the milk, add on slow speed, and when
nearly clear add the sultanas. The emulsion method of
making up scones ensures a better distribution of the fats
and softer eating scones of better volume. An emulsion is
made of the oil, or melted fat, salt, sugar, and milk by
heating these ingredients slightly, then whisking them to-
gether until cool. The flour and other ingredients are then
added to make a smooth clear dough. The dough should
not be too soft nor, on the other hand, too tight. A medium
soft dough that is easily handled will give the best results.
The dough is then scaled off into 9-oz. pieces which are
handed up to obtain a smooth skin on the surface. Rounds
about 6 in. in diameter and about I in. thick are cut and
placed on cleaned and greased baking sheets. These rounds
H
 CAKE MAKING

are each divided into four pieces of equal size, cutting them
right through with a scraper and separatii-tg slightly. They
are then washed over carefully with egg, care being taken
to keep the egg wash out of cuts and off the baking sheets.
Finally, they are allowed to stand for 20 minutes before
baking, then b~k~d in a warm oven at about 4500 F. This
standing after moulding allows the goods to recover from
any toughening that may have taken place. The gluten of
the flour relaxes somewhat, and consequently bulkier, more
evenly sprung scones are obtained.
Richer or leaner scones can be made by simply altering
the proportions of fat, sugar, milk, and baking powder. If
required, a little egg colouring can be added to the milk to
improve the colour.
Cream Scones This is a richer type of scone, the following being a typical
recipe:

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Flour at 100

Flour 4 - 100
Baking powder - 3! 5·47
Salt - t 0·78
Butter or margarine I - 25
Sugar (castor) - 14 2J.88
Milk 2 4 56·25
I
These ingredients are made up to a smooth dough in a
similar manner to that adopted for sultana scones. Five-
ounce pieces are then scaled off, moulded up round and
smooth, pinned out to 6 in. in diameter, placed on greased
baking sheets, egg washed, and after being left for 20
minutes, baked in an oven at 4500 F. When the scones are
partly baked and can be handled without spoiling the shape
they are turned over on the baking sheet and replaced in
the oven to finish baking. Care must be taken not to bake
too much before turning over. Small cream scones are made
from this mixing by rolling out the dough and cutting out
with a small cutter of the desired size. The small scones are
finished off in the same way as the large.
Victoria Scones This recipe is typical of its type.

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Flour at 100

Flour 4 - 100
Baking powder - 4t 7·03
Salt - t 0·78
Oil - 8 12·50
Sugar (castor) - 8 12·50
Milk 2 10 65·63

210
CHEMICALLY AERATED GOODS

The dough is made up in the usual way and scaled off in

12-OZ. pieces, moulded up round and smooth, pinned out
to 8 in. in diameter, then divided into eight equal parts,
egg washed, and placed on clean baking sheets and baked
at 4500 F. These scones are also turned over when partly
baked.
Referring to the above mixings, it can readily be seen
that the greater the quantity offat and sugar in the mixing,
the less the amount of baking powder and milk required.
Also, the smaller the amount of fat and sugar used, the
greater the quantity of baking powder and milk required.
The fat has a shortening effect on the goods, reducing
resistance to gas pressure, so that when more fat is used a
lesser amount of baking powder is required to aerate the
the goods.
Any of the above mixings can be used for any of the types
of goods mentioned. It always depends on the quality de-
manded in any particular area.
There are several varieties of scones, such as soda scones, Hot-plate Scones
Scotch pancakes, and milk scones, which can be baked on
the hot-plate. These must be made as a soft dough; also
they must be turned on the plate and must flow to some
extent in order that a good shape results. Buttermilk can be
used instead of fresh milk, since it gives a much softer crumb.
When it is used an adjustment in the proportion of the
chemicals used for aeration may be made. With good butter-
milk, bicarbonate of soda alone can be used at the rate of
2 oz. per stone of flour for soda bread.
The mixings shown on p. 2 I 2 can be used.
Other mixings can be evolved from the foregoing instruc-
tions. The pancakes require special care in dropping them
on the plate by means of a Savoy bag, as the mixing gives a
thick batter. The sugar is dissolved in the milk along with
the salt, and the eggs are whisked in. The powder is sifted
into the flour, and this is then mixed into the milk until the
batter is cleared. The melted butter or lard is now stirred
in. The mixing must not be too stiff.
By the addition of another quart of milk a thinner batter
is obtained which, when dropped by means of a ladle, will
flow out and produce a cake similar to a crumpet full of
holes. Many varieties can be produced by adding small
amounts of fruit or spice after the batter has been dropped
out onto the hot plate. All these products are turned during
baking, and the hot plate must be well greased before the
batter is dropped out. In order to get the best results, the
plate should not be too hot.
2 I I
 CAKE MAKING

HOT-PLATE SCONES-SMALL BATCHES

to

INGREDIENTS Soda Milk Scotch

scones scones pancakes
lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. oz.
Flour 4 - 4 - 4 -
Baking powder
Salt
. -
-
4
t
- 3!
- t
-
-
4
t
Oil - 5 - 7t - -
Butter or lard - - - - - 8
Sugar - - - 6 I -
Milk - - 2 8 3 3
Buttermilk 2 8 - - - -
Eggs - - - - - 7

TAKING FLOUR AT 100

INGREDIENTS I Soda Milk Scotch

scones scones
I pancakes
Flour 100 100 100
Baking powder 6·25 5·47 6·25
Salt 0·78 0·78 0·78
Oil 7·80 11·70 -
Butter or lard - - 12·50
Sugar - 9·38 25
Milk - 62-50 79·69
Buttermilk 62·50 - -
Eggs - - 10·94

Rock Cakes, The same rules apply to aerated buns as apply to scones,
Raspberry Buns, as will be seen from the two mixings on p. 2 [3.
etc. The dough for these products is made up in a manner
similar to that for scones. There are variations in the finish
of the goods. When the dough has been made for rock
cakes it is dropped on to baking sheets in small pieces of a
rock-like shape. These are roughened then egg washed,
sprinkled with castor sugar, and baked in a hot oven at
4500 F. .
When the dough has been made for coffee buns it is
weighed off in I t- or 2-0Z. pieces. These pieces are moulded
round, placed side by side on the board, and egg washed.
They are then dipped in sugar nibs, placed on pans, and
baked at 4400 F.
The dough for raspberry buns is also weighed off into
I t- or 2-OZ. pieces. The original and still the best method
for finishing raspberry buns is as follows: they are
moulded round, then flattened out, and a little jam placed
in the centre of each. The buns are again moulded, so that
the jam will be in the centre of the buns. They are then
washed with egg whites, dipped in castor sugar, and placed
212
CHEMICALLY AERATED GOODS

on baking sheets. Two cuts are made in each, so that the

jam shows through when baked. The more common
method today is to mould the buns round, wash with egg,
dip in castor sugar, make a small indentation in each and
pipe in a small quantity of raspberry jam. The buns re-
quire careful baking owing to their richness. They are
usually baked on double sheets at 4200 F. If baked at a
higher temperature they will run flat and take on too much
colour.
ROCK CAKES-SMALL BATCHES

INGREDIENTS Rock cakes Coffee buns Raspberry

buns
lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. oz.
Flour 4 - 4 - 4 -
Baking powder - 4t - , 3t - 3
Salt - t t - t
Fat - 12 1 4 1 8
Castor sugar 1 - - - 1 8
Demerara sugar - - 1 4 - -
Milk 2 3 1 14 1 4
Eggs - - - 7 - 7
Currants - 12 - - - -
Coffee essence - - - 4 - -

FLOUR AT 100

INGREDIENTS Rock cakes Coffee buns Raspberry

buns
Flour 100 100 100
Baking powder 7·03 5·47 4·69
Salt 0·78 0·78 0·78
Fat 18·75 31·25 37·50
Castor sugar 25 - 37·50
Demerara sugar - 31·25 -
Milk 54·69 46·88 31·25
Eggs - 10·94 10·94
Currants 18·75 - -
Coffee essence - 6·25 -

Raspberry buns or coffee buns can also be made from

the rock-cake mixing, but then they require similar baking
to rock cakes. Even less fat and sugar can be used in these
goods if the proportion of baking powder and milk is in-
creased. Sometimes a pinch of 'Vol' is used in cheap buns
in order to produce a quick lift in the oven and a nice break
on the top. It is in fact the common practice, certainly in
the south, to make up a basic mix from which the various
types can be taken. This saves time, and is satisfactory
I 213
 CAKE MAKING

provided that additions made, such as fruit, jams, nib sugar,

and coconut, are in such quantities as to alter substantially
the flavour and general eating quality. The 'sameness' of
'. some of these products due to the rationalization of the
production process has led to a falling off in the sale of a
profitable and ~as_ily produced range of goods.

214
Pastes 19

PASTES may be considered under two main headings:

(1) Short
(2) Puff or Flaky
These may be further subdivided as follows: Short Pastes
•
(a) Sweetened pastes used in the manufacture of jam
tarts, fruit pies, and similar products.
(b) Unsweetened pastes used in the manufacture of
savoury pastries.
(c) Richer pastes, such as shortbreads, where none or
very little liquor is used; Viennese which are in reality
soft shortbreads or sweet pastes; sweet pastes used for
lining and as bases for a large range of fancies; and the
types of biscuits still being produced by the flour con-
fectioner such as wine, Derby, Shrewsbury, and Easter.
II!_all these types of products shortness is produced pri-
marily by the fat, which bnngs about _sllcli:a-ffiechanical
interference-in the gluten structUI:~ in a. dough that-when
the baked paste IS rubbed between the fingers it will. br.eak
down into a homogeneous powder. Shortenings vary con-
siderably in their ability to perform this function, but,
in addition, the ejfici~ncy with which the ~~orte!!:ing is
i,rlcorporated with.the flour w!ll influence thIS prop~r_ty ",ery
considerably. This in turn is influenced by the type of flour
used'i"n the making of the paste, and the quantity and type
of mOIstening material used, as well as the amount of mix-
Ing given. '~gar <1]80 affects shortness. When too much
moisture is used there is a toughening of the paste and
_~hrinkage :when baked. W4e!l too little -is used,_ th~ pastes
are too. short. and .friable.
There are many good shortenings available today, either
100 per cent fats or margarines, and selection should be
governed by the effects on the eating quality of the final
product rather than by price. In the case of unsweetened
21 5
 CAKE MAKING

short pastry for savoury goods, lard is the best to use.

Taken on average, the normal proportion {1[ fat is 8 oz. per
pound of flour in this type of product.
Selection of flour is all important, and soft flours will
always give shorter ancL.l:!ctte~aj;ing_p-astes than strong
flours. This should be an obvious fact, since, tkfllnction~of
fat being to reduc-e the toughness of the gluten and_modify
the gliitenous_strandS~in_the_::aougb, the softer:...amLshorter
tii_e_g~hich is w~ed in the flour .employed, the k§~the
~l!ghness to be oy:er.come. General-purpose special cake
flours are also being used today for this reason. With some
soft flours the ratio of fat to flour can be reduced and 7 oz.
per pound of flour are adequate; even 6 oz. per pound will
produce very satisfactory short pastes with certain flours.
Sometimes when pastes with a lower fat content are used,
it is customary to add some baking powder to the mixing
to assist in producing a short-eating paste, since the addi-
tion of such an aerating agent will result in some liberation
of carbon dioxide gas during the baking process, which will
separate the fat and flour particles and so affect the con-
sistency of the dough structure in such a way as to confer
the 'short' properties on the finished paste. Low-fat-content
pastes also contain less water in order to prevent the forma-
tion of gluten as much as possible. Shortness may also be
conferred on pastes by the addition of fillers containing
starch for the most part, such as cornflour and rice flour.
Potato flour was used during the r939-45 War when fats
were in short supply, and mashed potato, particularly the
dried product, was found to give excellent results.
The amount of sugar used in all but the unsweetened
paste is at the rate of I t-4-oz. per lb. of flour. For the
production of savoury lines, such as meat pies and pastries
of all types, salt is used to give flavour.
Method of There are four methods used for making short pastes:
Making Paste (1) Rubbing in method
(2) Creaming method
(3) Boiled paste method} r
(4) Hot paste method lor unsweetened pastes
In the first method the fat is mixed into all the flour until
a fine crumbly consistency is obtained. The liquor-water/
milk/egg-into which the sugar if any has been dissolved-
is added and the paste mixed until clear. Mixing must not
be overdone, otherwise the paste will be toughened, and it
will be hard and flinty instead of short. With machine mix-
ing, there is a much greater chance of toughening than

216
PASTES

when hand mixing is carried out, yet, by -correct timing,

more consistent results can be obtained.
In the second method the fat with an equal weight of
flour is creamed light as in the flour-batter method of cake
making, and then the remainder of the flour and liquor is
added and mixed until a clear paste is obtained. This method
ensures that there is a complete dispersion of the fat in the
flour, so that the maximum shortening effect is produced,
and it is the one best suited to machine mixing.
The creaming methoq is the only one suitable for Vien-
nese mixings. The mixing is softer than the other pastes,
having to be of piping consistency.
The boiled paste method is mainly used for meat pie
pastes and consists of boiling the water, fat, and salt together
and stirring in the flour so that the starch gelatinizes. Such
pastes can be used either for hand blocking or for machine-
made pies. •
Modification of this method is the use of hot water, which
does not gelatinize the starch but which still produces a
smooth paste easy to handle. This in fact is the more
common method today.
Where short paste is to be used on machines, it is cus-
tomary to use a higher proportion of fat and sugar and less
moisture, often half the quantity used for hand-worked
pastes, and to employ the creaming method. This method
produces a paste which shows very little sign of toughening
even when well handled. It is generally the practice to make
up the paste on the dry side, and it should rest overnight,
otherwise it will be too short and difficult to handle. If a
normal paste is used on the machine it will tend to stick and
be difficult to handle with necessary speed.
Very recently a considerable amount of work has been High-speed
done using high-speed mixing methods with a controlled Mixing Methods
work input for the making of all types of cake, including
pastes.
The machines used to date are modified high-speed bread
mixers, and the chief advantage is that they enable mixings
to be made in one stage. Short paste is made in 25 seconds
on such a mixer, all the ingredients being placed in the
machine before starting up. This 'all in' method is an attrac-
tive proposition for the large producer.
The following Table VI shows the relationship so far as
the essential ingredients are concerned between each type
of short paste.
Chou paste is included for comparison, although it is not
'short'.
21 7
 CAKE MAKING

11
~oj E
gj
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218
PASTES

As the name implies, the goods produced from this kind Puff Pastry
o[p_a~t~ ~hould_be very' light and fl<J~y,Cyet there sllOufif'be
a,~tness about tl}e. .P~st!:y....§Q Qt_a~ it eats crisp and is free
from toughness or...5!.~~ .
Let us look at the technical side of the manufacture of
puff-paste. The_fundamental obj~~hen making_ _s~<]t
paste is to build up a structure of fat and paste that when
subjicted to the hea_1 of the oven will expand and lift eveIl1y
to pro,duce, srmmetrically-shaped products with short
e.ating"p_roperties.
To pr:o_duce such ar.ticles, the flour selected must possess
~ _sufficient quantity of good-quality extensible gluter:.1.. ~o
that When the paste is sheeted it will form contin1d9.us
strands throughout_the whole mass. It must not be exces-
sively~h_ort, otherwise thestrands ,~ill break wh~-folded over
.as_the layers are built up. Very often flours possessing far too
strong a gluten are used for this type' of paste in an attempt
to produce excessive volume, with the result that the finished
products are tough to eat and devoid of any shortness.
The type, oLfloULtO use-is also governed. by the mixing
and p_rgcessing methods used. For example, it has been
found that when making puff pastry on a continuous process,
where there are little or no rest periods from the time of
initial sheeting to the goods entering the oven, a more ex-
tensible flour is required. This desired extensibility in the
dough is also obtained by using a higher proportion of com-
pound fat in the dough than with more conventional
methods. Whereas I -2 oz. fat per lb. of flour are normally
used at the doughing stage, with the continuous process
quantities as high as 3'7 oz. per lb. have been found
necessary with a corresponding reduction in the amount of
fat used for rolling in.
High-speed mixing techniques are now being introduced
using virtually the Scotch method. The mixing time is about
20 seconds, and further work may show a need for some
modification in flour quality when making puff pastry by
these machines.
The selection of the fat is most important .and" as with
the ~flour, the eIll:phasis ha_:; often been on fats which will
giv_e, 'lift' and, as a result, many fats have been made which
do this very well but leave an objectionable waxiness in the
finished article.
Exc,ellent eating puff E.a~try can be produced from butter
and cake margarine, but tli~s)nvoIves_c,onslderable c~rein
processing and the use of a refrigerator or a cold room. In
the earry days of development on fats specially suitable for
 CAKE MAKING

laminating under normal bakery temperatures many were

manufactured which appeared technically p{:rfect but which
produced puff pastry which was almost inedible. Manu-
facturers are now able to produce fats and margarines with
good plastic properties over a wide temperature range
which will produce the desired film of fat and yet give a
final product wIth-good, short-eating characteristics. Given,
then, a fat with good plastic and shortening properties and
a flour possessing a suitably extensible gluten, the foundation
is laid for a good paste provided the subsequent processing
is correctly carried out.
WHY DOES THE The lift or expansion of puff paste is brought about by
PASTE LIFT? several factors.
(I) The mechanical manipulation of the dough, where,
bj' continualslieetmg ancnOlding of the dough, alami-
nated structure is built up consisting of hundreds oflayers
o.ffatinthe doug~. For exampl"e, wnen uSIng the French
method' and 'giving three full turns the number of layers
offat in the dough is 729. The number oflayers of dough
insulated by thin films of fat is one of the most important
factors governing the amount of lift and the regularity
of it. There must be a minimum number of layers to
obtain puff pastry as we understand it, but given this,
then in general the fewer the number of layers, then the
greater, and the more irregular the lift, and conversely.
(2) The creation of very many layers determines the
manner of the lift, but the main reason for puff pastry
rising is the expansion of the gluten in the dough, and
this is generally considered to be due to steam ~ure
within it which is generated sluring ~ng. This can be
demonstrated by taking apieceolgluten, putting some
tension on it by moulding, and placing it in a hot oven.
Th~r~ is a y_er.y rapid_expansiQ!!.,9f the $luten bag._This
is much greater in a hot oven. than in. a G.ooler Qn.e, and
it faor this reason 1J!at_p..1lff p..MtrS is b~ked atfaidy high
tem:perat\ii-e~.~fhe amount of expansion and the regular-
ity ofit is also governed by the amount ofrela.l{ation given
to the gluten ball (i.e. resting) before placing in the oven.
/ There is indeed an optimum rest period for puff pastry
which is variable, depending on the amount of tension
put on the paste during sheeting and making up into
various lines.
Methods of There are several methods of making paste, such as the
Making Pastes French (or Continental), Scotch, and English methods, as
well as modifications of each.
220
PASTES

In addition, there are pastes of varying degrees of rich-

ness. For example, the richest paste is known as full puff
and carries I lb. fat to I lb. flour; the next is the three-
quarter paste carrying i lb. fat to I lb. of flour; and there
is a much leaner type, half paste carrying only t lb. fat to
I lb. flour.

FRENCH OR CONTINENTAL METHOD

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Flour at 100

Flour 10 - 100
Cake margarine or compound fat 1 4 12·5
6 62·5
Water
Pastry margarine or fat 8 12
4
87·5
_j
I
The cake margarine or fat is crumbled into the flo~r as
finely as possible, the water is added, and the dough made
up. This should be a nice, well-developed dough. Scale this
off into five pieces at 3! lb. each and allow to rest for about
30 miilutes. At the end of this time the pastry fat should be
scaled into Ii-lb. pieces and formed into rectangular blocks
about I in. thick.
Each piece of dough is rolled out so that the centre is
about I in. thick and the edges much thinner. All surplus
flour must be removed by brushing, and the piece of fat is
placed on the raised portion and the edges folded in so as
to encase the dough. There should now be three layers of
equal thickness, two of dough and one of fat.
The dough should now be pinned out to a square of about
36 in. This is now folded into a third of its size, first of all
by folding one-third over the middle portion, and the other
side over the double fold, thus producing a piece 3 ft. X I ft.
This is then lightly rolled to make sure the layers are adher-
ing when the two ends are folded over to the centre.
Finally, the paste is folded in two, like a book, thus making
it about I ft. square and about I in. thick. At this stage
there will be 12 layers of fat. The paste should be covered
with a damp cloth to prevent skinning, and rested for 30
minutes. It is then rolled into a yard square again and
folded as before, and again rested for 30 minutes before the
operation is completed a third time. The paste is then said
to have had six single or three double turns. The same
principle is carried out when using power rollers, but
attention must always be paid to removing surplus dusting
flour before each folding process.

221

- .
CAKE MAKING

SCOTCH METHOD

INGREDIENTS
I lb. oz. Flour at 100

Flour 10 - 100
Pastry margarine or fat 10 - 100
Water 6 4 62-5
. .

This method differs from the French method inasmuch as

the fat is chopped into lumps the size of walnuts in the flour,
and with the water, is made into a dough and left to rest.
It is scaled into pieces of workable size, approximately 7-
10 lb., according to the type of sheeting machines available,
and when it has relaxed it is rolled out and folded in layers
in the same way as in the French method.

ENGLISH METHOD-THREE-Q,UARTER PASTE

I
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Flour at 100
I
Flour 10 - 100
Cake margarine or compound fat I 4 12·5
Water 6 4 62·5
Pastry margarine and fat 6 4 62·5

Three-quarter paste was usually made up by the Scotch

method, but much puff pastry with a total fat content of
! lb. per lb. flour is being made today using the English
method. It is a method well suited to mechanical sheeting.
When power rollers are used the dough must be made a
little tighter. A good guide to consistency is the same as that
of the fat being turned in. With continuous processes the
water content can be as low as 5"7 oz. per lb. flour (36 on
Flour at 100).
This method resembles the" French method inasmuch
as a dough is made up by rubbing in the cake margarine
or fat into the flour, and when ready, is left to rest for 30
minutes before the pastry fat is turned in; it differs, however,
in that the pa£try margarine is spread over two-thirds of the
surface area instead of being placed in the centre, and the
third portion, on which no pastry fat has been spread, is
folded over half the remaining piece of dough, and then
the final third is folded back. This paste is then treated in
the same way as the other pastes so that three double turns
are given, when it is ready for cutting after a rest period.
While much skill and care is required in the making of
the paste, equal skill must be displayed in the utilization
of it.

222
PASTES

Once the paste has been reduced to the correct thickness

for cutting into shapes, it should again be left to rest or in
some way to relax; and after the final cutting out and plac-
ing on trays it should be left for some time before baking
off.
It is important to point out that all goods which should
have a vertical lift or a horizontal one should be made from
virgin paste. Owing to the delicate nature of the paste it
must be handled carefully and rolled out to an even thick-
ness for each particular article. To ensure regular shapes and
thicknesses, suitable templates and guides should be made,
for only in this way can consistency of size and quality be
maintained. Mechanical production does, of course, help
in maintaining regularity of size and thickness. It is quite
good practice where refrigerators or cooling chambers are
available to prepare the cut-out pastries and leave them
overnight in the cold chamber ready for baking on the
following day, or when required.
When cutting out from virgin paste, care must be taken Utilization of
to reduce the amount of cuttings as much as possible. When Cuttings
circular pieces are being cut out there must inevitably be a
fair amount of cuttings. For this reason there is now a
growing tendency among the larger manufacturers to pro-
duce rectangular-shaped pastries, where cuttings can be
reduced to the absolute minimum. There are two ways of
using up puff paste cuttings:

(I) The more traditional one by the production of many

lines where accurate lift is not necessary but where flaki-
ness is required.
(2) Whereby the cuttings are mixed in with subsequent
doughs, due account being taken of the composition of
the scrap dough. The full amount of fat is then rolled
m.

We are indebted to Mr. A. T. Whybrow for the following

example of the calculation necessary when using scrap in
this way:
TYPICAL PUFF PASTE MIX

INGREDIENTS lb. Percentage

Flour 560 47
Water 200 17
Salt 8 0·7
Compound fat 130 10·9
Pastry fat 290 24·5

223
 CAKE MAKING

MIX WHEN USING 100 LB. CUTTINGS

INGREDIENTS Fresh
Cuttings
'" Total
ingredients ingredien ts
Flour 513 47 560
183
Water
Salt . - 7·3
17
0·7
200
8
Compound fat 94·6 {10.9 130
24·5
Pastry Fat 290 - 290

Chaux Pastry Although this product is not normally considered under

the same heading as the previous pastes, it is included be-
cause it is commonly referred to as a paste.
A normal formula for paste for cream buns is:

INGREDIENTS Small batch Flour at 100

lb. oz.
Margarine - 8 50
Water 1 4 125
Flour 1 - 100
Eggs 1 4 125

The water and margarine are heated together. When

the water boils, the flour is stirred in and partially gelati-
nizes to produce a smooth paste. It is most important
that the flour should be well cooked, otherwise the subse-
quent addition of the egg will not produce a paste which
will give good volume on baking.
As soon as the paste has slightly cooled, the eggs should
be well beaten in, a little at a time until the paste is well
cleared and is of a suitable consistency for putting through
a Savoy bag, using.a star- tube for cream buns. Sufficient
eggs must be used to get the paste to the correct consistency.
Baking should be carried out in a warm oven under tins or
in special cream bun pans if the maximum volume is
desired, as with cream buns, and sometimes a pinch of 'Vol'
is used. The volume in such paste goods is entirely produced
by the conversion of water into steam. The effect of heat on
the gelatinized starch on the surface is to produce a rigid
film which is much less permeable than the surface of normal
batters, so that there is much less tendency for steam to
escape. As water from the mass evaporates pressure builds
up within the bun, the surface cracks and the cracks fiiI
with softer batter from within, which in turn forms a film.
In this way buns with a hollow centre are produced.

224
PASTES

Eventually the egg protein coagulates and the starch gels

to the rigid form to give a firm, hollow shell.
When the buns are baked under tins the space around
them quickly fills with the steam that does escape. This has
the double effect of reducing still more the tendency for
steam to escape from the bun and of keeping the surface
softer and more pliable. This enables larger, lighter buns to
be produced.
Baking must be carefully judged, otherwise the paste will
collapse. It requires at least 20 minutes to bake the buns at
4600 F. Eclairs are generally taken from the same mixture,
but are baked without covers.
For eclairs, a modification of the recipe may be used,
since the paste should be softer. The ingredients used are:

INGREDIENTS Small batch Flour at 100

lb. oz.
Margarine - 8 66·7
Water I 4 166·67
Flour - 12 100
Eggs 1 4 166·67

The method of working is the same.

Such pastes can be used for a wide variety of pastries,
such as cream rings, petits choux, Gateaux St. Honore.
The new high-speed mixing process would appear to be High-speed
very good for the production of choux paste. The paste is Mixing
cooked in the normal way, placed into the high-speed mixer,
and the whole of the egg added. The egg is thus mixed in
in the one operation, and the resultant paste is reported to
be better than that made by the traditional mixing method.

225
 Cake-Making Processes
:1
20

Batter-type IT is proposed in this chapter to deal with the 'pound' type

Cakes of cake and its many modifications, together with the various
methods of manufacture.
. A good cake should show a multitude of evenly distributed ~
I I:"
'minute cells without any large holes. It should have good .
colour and sheen, should eat moist, have a good flavour, and .
the general appearance should be attractive, with good a
q '
\ eye appea.l. I
'Cake batter.is_an.emulsion _of the.oil-in-water up~ith
Ciir qybbles entrapped in the fat ph~se,. and the remainder
of the. ingredients. dissolved or dispet:s_ed in the water p]1ase.
I t is generally accepted that the aeration of a cake depends
on the expansion of the gases-air and carbon dioxide if
baking powder is used-together with the water-vapour
pressure within the air bubbles.1 As the volume of a cake
batter is increased by about 3! times during baking, this
could not be due solely to the gases, and it has been found
that the air content accounts for little more than 10 per cent
of the total expansion. The remaining go per cent is ob-
tained by the conversion of water into -steam within the
;bubble. Price! states that the ;olume of b;-ked cakes is
proportional to the air content, and Dunn~nd White 2
have shown that a batter which has been d,e-aerated by
vacuum treatment fails to rise at all.
\ As the temperature rises during baking the ba_tter thins
and some coalescence. of the bubbles occurs wit~some loss
of gas. The rate of coalescence depends on the~bble size
and, more important, the variation'in bubble si#e:
\Fine bubbles of even size impart stability to t'mix and
produce fine-textured cake. Variations in bubble~ize and
the pr~sence of large bubbles results in an unstaBle." mi~~
producmg cakes of coarse and more uneven texturef~i7-'-'
IThe process of coalescence is finally arrested by a thicken-
ing of the batter due to the swelling of the starch and the
coagulation of the egg and flour proteins/ Some authorities
 CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

regard the coagulation of the flour proteins as being oflittle

importance, as quite a good cake can be made with all
starch and no flour. This does not explain why, for example,
it is necessary to use a high-protein flour in high-sugar,
high-liquid fruit cakes. I
The presence of the air bubbles, therefore, is essential,
and they can be regarded as the nucleus for the expansion
of the cake, controlling it and governing it.
The purpose of batter mixing is: Objects of Mixing
\ (I) to disperse all the ingredients as efficiently as possible;
(2) to incorporate air into the mix. \
The incorporation of air, according to Fuller 3 and Fran- INCORPORATION
ciS,4 takes place in'two stages: OF AIR
(I) a period of rapid incorporation in the form oflarge
bubbles;
(2) a stabilizing period when the bubbles are reduced in
size.
With the foregoing points in mind, let us now look at the Cake-Dlaking
.~.~~arious me~hods. empl?yed t? make ~ cake. AI~ of the.m Methods
'I lllvolve a dlsperslOn of lllgredients and lllcorporatlOn of air.
The various methods may be summarized as follows:
(I) Sugar batter
(2) Flour batter
(3) Sugar/flour batter
(4) Dry crumbly batter
(5) Blending
(a) Crumbling at Stage 1
(b) Pasting at Stage 1
(6) Continuous
(7) All-in, high speed
, The mixed fats and castor sugar are creamed together Sugar Batter
. until light. The time for this is about 10 minutes, depending
on the creaming qualities of the fats and the speed and type
, of machine. A vertical cake mixer on second speed, running
at go r.p.m. is about normal.* In view of the variability of
speeds in second gear and of the mixing action with different
machines, a better method is to cream to a fixed specific
volume of batter. The egg is then added in four to five
additions over a period of 5-7 minutes with a good cream-
ing between each addition. This is to ensure that curdling
of the batter does not occur at this stage.
Curdling is the breaking down of the emulsion which is
being formed, the fat separating out from the aqueous phase.
* The second speeds in fact range from_70-110 r.p.m.
227
 CAKE MAKING

It is in fact possible to add the egg in a steady stream, provid-

ing the correct temperature is used to suppl)l-'enough energy
to maintain' the emulsion.
When all the eggs have been creamed in, the batter should
have a nice soft, velvety feel. At this stage any required
flavours are added. The flour should have been sifted with
any powders that are required, and it is gently mixed into
the batter; the required milk or water is added at the same
time.tThe fruit should be added when clearing the batter.
If fruit is mixed with the flour some adheres to damp fruit
and will tend to produce holes in the cakes. In all cake-
making processes temperature of ingredients and times of
creaming and mixing must be controlleQ.if consistent results
are to be ~btained.' _ / ". . . 0 •

The o~ULtemperalJlre'for all Jhe illgQ:dlentSJ£-+O~.

Flour Batter Theflour batter method of cake making requires two
machines. The mixture of fats is creamed up with its own
weight of flour, or a little less, until a light creamy mass
is obtained; a proportion of 14 oz. of flour to each lb.
fat is about the best. The egg is then whisked up with its
own weight of sugar, but the operation need not be so
thorough as for sponge cakes, since approximately 6 minutes
of whisking is sufficient. The mixture is then carefully
blended into the creamy mass, the addition being made in
three portions, the first being creamed in, the second mixed
well in, and the third stirred in. The remainder of the flour
is added while clearing the batter. Since in cheaper cakes
more milk and extra sugar must be added, these should be
mixed together and added with the flour after the egg has
been stirred in. Finally, the fruit is added while clearing the
batter, care being taken never to toughen it. Exhibition
cakes, especially the richer types of Madeira and fruit cakes,
are often made by this method:-
The same factors with regard to times of mixing and of
temperature apply as for the sugar batter method.
Flour/Sugar This method is very similar to the flour batter, with the
Batter exception that a solution of the egg and sugar is made
instead of a sponge. This solution is added to the creamed
fat and flour in a number of additions, as for the sugar batter
method, or in a steady stream. The remainder of the flour
and any milk are added at the final stage.
A variation of this method is one whereby the fats and
sugars are creamed lightly together in the bowl, then a
quantity of flour equal in weight to the faf employed is
creamed in. When this mixture is light, the egg and flavours
are creamed in to produce a light velvety batter; lastly, the

228
CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

remainder of the flour, which has been sifted with the baking
powder, is mixed in. Any milk in the mixing should be
added with this last portion of flour, and any fruit should be
added while clearing the batter.
This is a method which was developed when dried egg Blending
was being used extensively. It is one which might well be
very popular when A.F.D. egg comes on to the market and (a) CRUMBLING
AT STAGE I
certainly with pre-mixes, whether pregared in the bakery
or purchased already made up.
The rules for the blending method are these:
(I) Place in the machine bowl the sieved sugar, dried
egg, milk powder, and salt. Add the fat and its weight in
flour. Mix on srow speed until the fat is rubbed in to
a crumbly consistency. This takes about I minute.
(2) Add a quantity of water approximately equal in
weight to the fat. Cream on middl~ speed for 5-7 minutes.
(3) Add the remaining ingredients in the normal way.
In converting any recipe to this method, the point to
remember is that the flour in the first stage and the water in
the second must be approximately equal in weight to the fat.
A modification of this crumbling method is also used for
the manufacture of high-ratio cakes. For this type of for-
mula the fat and all the dry ingredients are brought to a
crumbly consistency at stage I. Water or milk added at
stage 2 with about a 4-minute mixing on slow speed. The
egg and the remaining milk is added in a steady stream at
stage 3 with a final beating of the batter on slow speed (1-
3 minutes).
This method, together with the modified crumbling pro- (b) PASTE AT
cess is used for high-ratio cake formulae. Again there are STAGE I
three stages:
(I) All the flour, baking powder, and any special
addition, such as milk powder and rice flour, are mixed
to a smooth paste with the fat.
(2) Sugar, salt, and milk or water to approximately
40 per cent of the flour weight are mixed together and
added over 1-2 minutes on slow speed. The machine is
then scraped down and the batter mixed for a further
period on slow or medium speed, depending on the for-
mula being used.
(3) The egg and the remainder of the milk or water are
streamed in with a final beating of the batter onslow speed.
To illustrate the various mixing methods for cakes of
orthodox or traditional formulae the following are given.
All are based on the same composition, which is:

229
CAKE MAKING

Pel',\jentage
INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 tot;;'1 mix

Flour 100 30·6

Fat 57 17·5
Sugar 72 22
I Total liquid
. Baking powder-
97
1·34
29·7
0·4

SUGAR BATIER

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method

Butter or margarine 3 - Cream up light. Approx. time

Compoundfat - 9 10 minutes.
Sugar 4 8

Eggs 4 8 Add in 4-5 additions.

Flour 6 4 Sieve together, add and half

Baking powder 1·34 clear.

Milk I 9 Add and clear.

FLOUR BATIER

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method

Butter or margarine 3 - Cream up light. Approx. time

Compound fat - 9 10 minutes.
Flour 3 2
Eggs 4 8 Whisk to ! sponge. Add in
Sugar 4 8 three additions.

Flour 3 2 Sieve together, add and half

Baking powder
Milk 1 9
1·34
- clear.

Add and clear.

FLOUR/SUGAR BATTER

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method

Butter or margarine 3 - Cream up light. Approx. time

Compound fat - 9 10 minutes.
Flour 3 2

Eggs 4 8 Dissolve sugar in egg. Add in

Sugar 4 8 4-5 additions or in a steady
stream.

Flour 3 2 Sieve together, add, and half

Baking powder 1-34 deal'.

Milk 1 9 Add and clear.

\
CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

BLENDING (CRUMBLING)

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method

Butter or margarine 3 - Mix to a crumbly consistency.
Compound fat - 9
Flour 3 9
Sugar 4 8
Dried whole egg I 2
Milk powder - 2·5
Water 3 9 Add and cream up light 7
minutes.
Water I 3·5 Add and half clear.
Flour 2 II Sieve together, add, and clear.
Baking powder - 1·34

The following formulae illustrate the mixing methods for

high-sugar, high-liquid cakes.

HIGH-SUGAR CAKE-CRUMBLING METHOD

FLOUR Percentage Ingredients lb. oz. Method

AT 100 total mix

100 24 Special cake flour 6 4 Sieve the dry ingredients together,

125 30 Castor sugar 7 13 place in the machine bowl with
10 204- Milk powder 10 the fat and on low-speed mix to
1·25 0·3 Salt 1·25 a fine crumbly consistency. Do
3·75 0·9 Baking powder 2 : I 3·75 not form a paste at this stage.
50 12 High-emulsifying fat 3 2
50 12 Water 3 2 Add water on low speed, stream-
ing in gradually, and taking
care to have the batter free
from lumps. Scrape down and
mix for 4 minutes on low speed.
Scrape down bowl and beater.

75 18 Whole or frozen egg 4 II Add egg on low speed, streaming

in gradually over 1-2 minutes.
Scrape down and beat for a
further 3 minutes on low speed.
 CAKE MAKING

FLOUR Percentage Ingredients

HIGH-SUGAR CAKE-PASTE METHOD

lb.
.
oz. Method
AT 100 total mix

100 20·7 Special cake flour 6 4 Blend 1-3 minutes on slow speed,
85 17·6 High-emulsifying fat 5 5 or until a smooth paste is
3·75 0·78 Baking powder (2 : I) 3·75 formed. Scrape down the bowl
7·5 1·56 Milk powder 7·5 and beater at least once at this
stage.

120 24·8 Sugar 7 8 Mix together and add slowly to

2·5 0·52 Salt 2·5 the above paste over I minute
40 8·3 Milk 2 8 while mixing on slow. speed.
Essence-as desired Scrape down and mIX 4-8
Egg colour-as minutes on medium speed. The
desired variation in time is to allow for
the prevailing temperature con-
ditions.

lOa 20·7 Frozen whole egg 6 4 Add slowly to the above batter
25 5·2 Milk I 9 over 2 minutes on slow speed.
Scrape down and continue to
mix for a further 3 minutes on
slow speed.

Continuous Mixing There are two types of continuous cake mixers on the
Method market, the Oakes and the A.M.F. plant, details of which
are given in Chapter 26. Essentially the process is one
whereby all the ingredients, after a preliminary mixing,
are fed to a mixing head. The mixer head is so constructed
that the ingredients are very efficiently dispersed in a very
short time, while simultaneously with this dispersion, air is
injected in and incorporated. The amount of mixing in the
head at anyone time is about 8 oz. The pre-mixed ingredi-
ents or 'slurry', as it is commonly called, and the air under
pressure must be fed to the mixer head in a continuous and
even stream. This involves the-use of special apparatus to
control the flow of Ingredients, also a flow-rate meter and
back-pressure valve to control the amount of air being in-
jected. The rotor speed-i.e. the speed of the mixing head,
controls the amount of mixing given. This should be the
lowest possible consistent with full air incorporation and a
homogeneous mix. The amount of air injected is adjustable
according to the density required in the cake batter. In
practice, this is determined by taking the weight of a fixed
volume of batter. The normal procedure is for an ice-cream
cup or some such similar container to be filled carefully and
weighed. The air is adjusted to give a predetermined cup
weight.
Messrs. A.M.F. Ltd. have incorporated into their appara-
CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

tus what is termed a 'U' Tube Density Meter. This is a

piece of apparatus which measures the specific gravity of
the batter, records this value on a permanent chart, and
automatically adjusts the amount of air flow to the mixing
unit if necessary.
Very recently, experiments have been carried out using All-in
a modified high-speed dough mixer to make cake of all High-speed
types in an all-in, one-stage process.
The process recently demonstrated was the result of co-
operation between Geo. Tweedy and Co. Ltd. and Messrs.
Rank, Hovis, McDougall Ltd., and is called 'The Tweedy
CRESSEX ONE-STAGE CAKE PROCESS'. With the Tweedy/
Cress ex process all ingredients except the fruit are added to
the machine and the required degree of mixing is given.
Where required, the fruit is then added, and a 3-second
burst on the machine will evenly distribute it without tearing
it in any way.
Each mixing is given a fixed amount of work as measured
in terms of watt-hours per pound of batter. We are indebted
to Messrs. Tweedy and Rank, Hovis, McDougal for the
following:

TYPE OF BATTER Watt-hours/lb. Time in

batter minutes
Cherry slab 1·50 1·00
Sultana slab 1·0 1·00
Angel slab 3·0 3·50
Home-made-type cake - 20 (sees.)

The appropriate number of watt-hours is set on the

control panel. The mixer automatically cuts out after the
completion of the pre-set work induction.
The following points are listed by Messrs. Tweedy and
Rank, Hovis, McDougall:
The Tweedy/Cressex one-stage process can be an aid to ADVANTAGES OF
quicker and more uniform confectionery production. At the THE TWEEDY/
present time the employment of experienced staffis difficult, CRESSEX PROCESS
and any method which simplifies production and makes
more efficient use of machinery must be considered by all
units whether large or small.
The advantages may be summarized as follows:
(I) Complete one-stage mixing.
(2) Elimination of the human element.
(3) Time-saving-mixing times show a saving of up to
go per cent of conventional mixing time.
(4) Ease of operation.

233
 CAKE MAKING

(5) Improved batter stabilization-more uniform

results.
(6) Successful fruit incorporation.
(7) Greater machine utilization.
(8) Ease of cleaning the machine facilitating easy
change to widely different recipes.
(9) PremixeS. During the next decade the number of
lines produced by larger bakery units will inevitably be
reduced, enabling longer runs to be achieved. This will
in turn bring the use of premixes, whether prepared on
site or bought in, into the larger bakery. This process
and machine are ideal for the purpose; indeed, it was
this interest in premixes, and the development of A.F.D.
egg for this purpose, which sparked R.H.M.'s interest in
the process.

One of the factors which has held up the development of

premixes on large-scale production has been the lack of a
one-stage process to go with it, but this has now been
achieved.

Other Factors 1Apart from correct mixing methods there are, of course,
Governing other factors to which attention must be paid if good cakes
Cake Quality are to be produced. These are:

(I) Correct preparation of hoops or other containers

so that adequate protection is given during baking.
(2) Careful preparation of all the ingredients prior to
mixing, especially with regard to temperature and to
fruit if being used.
(3) Careful handling of the batter during scaling and
depositing. The batter should be weighed into the hoops,
or frames, with as little handling as possible. If it is
placed in hoops, or frames in more than one portion, it
may cause large holes in the cakes where air has been
enclosed between portions.
Scrapings from the bowl should, if possible, be kept
for the next batter, but if it is necessary to use them they
must be mixed into the batter. Otherwise, if placed on
top they show up in the crumb of the cake as dark streaks.
When all the cakes are weighed off into hoops or
frames the batter may be levelled off with the back of the
hand, using a little milk or water to moisten and prevent
it from sticking to the hand. This moisture helps to form
steam in the oven and aids in producing a soft, thin crust.
(4) Correct baking. This is a most important factor, as

234
 CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

it is at this stage that all other care can be nullified. The

main point is that a cake should be baked as quickly as
possible consistent with its size and quality. This subject is
dealt with separately in Chapter 24· 1
IThe basic ingredients in batter-type cakes each perform a
particular function. These may be summarized as follows:
Recipe
Construction
(I) Those which provide strength and structure to the and Balance
cake, viz. flour and egg.
(2) Those which open the texture, viz. sugars, fats,
baking powder.
(3) Those which close the texture and which reduce
lightness, viz. milk and water.
For a cake recipe to be correctly constructed it must have
a good balance between those ingredients which open the
texture and those which close it. This in fact is what is
meant by recipe balance.
If a cake contains too much sugar, then the structure is
weakened to the point where it collapses. This takes place
in the centre of the cake, producing the well-known 'M'
fault.
Similarly, a cake with too much baking powder will sink
in the centre. Conversely, a cake containing too much liquid
will have a tough very close rubbery structure, collapsing
after baking, and a tendency to shrink. This results in the
cakes pulling away from the cake bands or paper cases,
forming concave sides to produce what is known as the 'X'
fault.
The 'M' and 'X' faults will cancel one another out to a
large extent. That is to say a cake of high sugar and/or
baking-powder content can be prevented from sinking by
adding more liquid. Similarly, a high liquid cake can be
balanced by increasing the sugar or the baking powder.
Egg is very important in providing strength of structure, Egg/Fat Ratio
but excess of it tends to produce a tough rubbery cake.
The function of the fat, in addition to air, is to shorten
the structure and make the cake more tender. The egg and
the fat then produce opposite effects, and it is generally
accepted that for the production of satisfactory cake the
ratio of egg to fat should be of the order of 1·25: I (i.e. I
pint of egg to I lb. fat).
When considering the construction of a recipe the most
commonly accepted method is to relate the quantities of the
various ingredients to the flour.
Taking flour at 100, for plain cakes of average quality, Orthodox Cake

235
 CAKE MAKING

the sugar content is about 60 and the liquid content about

90, although in some of the better-quality'ttakes sugar and
liquid is in the order of 80 and 95 respectively.
These figu~es are not to be confused with percentages of
the total mix, which will be discussed later.
John Price,! jn a paper on this subject some years ago,
gives the following range of formula for orthodox cakes:

Flour 100
Fat 20-60
Sugar 50-60
Total liquids 80-90
Baking powder q.s.

In fact, the total liquids in most plain cake today is nearer

95·
For cakes within this range, good cakes can be made
using soft flours and good-quality fats. Special high-emulsi-
fying fats or special cake flours are not necessary
Price also gives the following ratios of fruit to cake batter
for different types of cake:
Fruit cake 20:80
Christmas cake 45:55
Birthday cake 50:50
Wedding cake 55:45

With the introduction of special cake flours and high

emulsifying fats, it has been possible to step up considerably
the amount of sugar and liquid in a cake, and much of the
cake produced today is of this type. Developed from Ameri-
can high-ratio formulae originally, such cake is very moist,
light, and tender, yet of fine even texture with good cutting
quality.
(I) HIGH Price divides this type of cake into three groups:
SUGAR CAKES Those which contain as much sugar and liquid as flour
with a formula range of:
Flour 100
Fat 30-60
Sugar 100
Liquid 10()":'11O
Baking powder q.s.

(2) HIGH LIQ.UID Those which contain high liquid but low sugar. These
CAKES have a formula range of:
Flour 100
Fat 30-60
Sugar 60-100
Liquid 100-130
Baking powder q.s.
CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

Those which have a formula range of: (3) HIGH SUGAR/

Flour HIGH LIQUID

100
Fat 30-60 CAKES
Sugar 120-140
Liquid 125-150
Baking powder q.s.

For this type of formula a high-emulsifying fat must be

used in addition to special cake flour.
For all types of cake the following points should be borne
in mind:
(I) The fat should not exceed the egg
(2) The fat should not exceed the sugar
(3) The sugar should not exceed the liquid.
In addition, when constructing or rebalancing orthodox
formulae the following rules are a very good guide:
•
(I) Add liquid (milk or water) at the rate of approx.
O'g parts to every 1'0 part of flour in excess of the egg.
The exact amount depends on the water absorption
power of the flour.
(2) Add baking powder at the rate of 0'25-0'5 parts to
every 1'0 part of flour in excess of the egg, depending on
the size and shape of the cake.
(3) The sugar should be approximately 20 per cent
of the total mix. If it is thought desirable to increase the
sugar content, then either the baking powder must be
reduced or the liquid increased.

To construct a recipe then, proceed by the following stages: Example

(I) Take flour at 100.
(2) Decide on the fat content required, say 60.
(3) Calculate the amount of egg on the basis of 1'25
parts egg to'l part of fats.
60 X 1'25 = 75
(4) Calculate the additional liquid on the basis of o'g
parts to I part of flour in excess of egg.
Excess flour = 100 - 75 = 25

:. Additional liquid = 25 X o'g = 22'5

(5) Calculate the sugar to give 20 per cent of the total
mix.
Sugar equals t of mix
:. Flour +fat + liquids = t of mix
237
 CAKE MAKING

. A f
.. mount 0 sugar =
Flour + Fat4 +'li Liquids
= 100 + 60 + 75 + 22'5
4
= 257'5 = 64'4
4
(6) Finally, calculate the baking powder. For a plain
round cake of about I t lb. in weight use the factor of
0'05
Excess flour = 25
:. Baking Powder = 25 X 0'05 = 1'25
The final formula (excluding colour and flavour) for a
plain cake would therefore be:
Flour 100
Fat 60
Sugar 64-4
Egg 75
Milk 22·5
Baking powder 1·25

A trial bake is then necessary, and some adjustment may

be desirable, depending on the quality of the flour and fat
particularly, and on any special characteristics required in
the final cake.
Other Ingredients So far as other ingredients are concerned:
(I) Dry substances such as cornflour, rice flour, ground
almonds can be substituted weight for weight.
(2) Cocoa powder requires in addition extra liquor
about equal in weight to the powder. By law chocolate
cake must contain 3 per cent fat-free cocoa. The average
powder contains 75 per cent fat-free cocoa so that it is
necessary in this case to ado 4 per cent cocoa powder to
the mix.
(3) When including syrups, honey, or similar sub-
stances which contain a high percentage of sucrose in
solution, then allowance must be made for the amount of
moisture present. This is approximately 25 per cent.
(4) Glucose and invert sugar may only be used in small
quantities, because of the Maillard reaction of reducing
sugars on proteins, which increases the colour of the cake.
This is an advantage in very lean mixes, which would
otherwise appear unattractive. Again, these substances
contain about 25 per cent moisture, which must be
allowed for if the recipe is to remain balanced.
r(5) Fruits can be added in almost any amount up to
23 8
CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

the point where the batter can no longer hold them

together, according to the type of cake required. The
batter, however, may need strengthening to carry the
fruit. This can be done in one of two ways:
(i) by increasing the amount of flour and/or egg
in the mix, or by using a stronger flour, as is done
when high-protein cake flour is used for high-ratio
fruit cake;
(ii) by increasing the acidity of the batter.
\ The Hedley Research Bakery investigated this problem,
particularly in connection with high-ratio cakes, and found
that by the addition of an acid substance, such as tartaric
acid or cream of tartar, rich slack batters are enabled to
carry a full fruit content in a stable manner, producing
cakes in which the fruit is evenly distributed. \
\In order to produce stability in a rich moist cake batter
a pH of 5·4 or less is essential if it is to carry fruit satis-
factorily. Such a pH is not normally obtained, but an adjust-
ment can easily be made by the use of tartaric acid. Other
acids, or acid salts, can be also used, but the quantity will
vary with the nature of the salt./
While it is common practice today to take flour at 100 Percentages of
and give the other ingredients in relation to it, in order to Total Mix
get a more complete picture, one needs to calculate the
percentages per total mix.
Take, for example, the four main types of formula.

A B C D
INGREDIENT Basis Orthodox High sugar High liquid High sugar
High liquid

Flour Flour at 100 100 100 100 100

% total mix 32·25 27·8 28·6 22·7

Fat Flour at 100 60 60 60 60

% total mix 19·35 16·7 17·2 13·7

Sugar Flour at 100 60 100 60 130

% total mix 19·35 27·8 17·2 29·6

Liquid Flour at 100 90 100 130 150

% total mix 29 27·8 37·2 33·8

In terms of total mix one striking thing is that the high-

sugar, high-liquid types of cake might also be referred to as
'low flour', 'low fat'. In general, the flour content of
orthodox plain cake is around 30 per cent, as against 22
per cent for high sugar, high liquid. Formula D is high in

239
 CAKE MAKING

sugar, but the increased total liquids (4.8 per cent) is really
not as high as the figure of ISO based OIli-'flour at 100 sug-
gests. Using flour at 100 does, however, show the ingredients
in relation to the main structural ingredient in a cake.

Functions of The high-suga.r, ~igh-liquid types of cake, then, are in con-

High- sequence lower in flour and fat than the orthodox mix.
em.ulsifying It is because of this that the fat and the flour must have
Fats and special properties to carry the sugar and liquid.
Special Cake These fats are good-quality shortenings containing an
Flour added emulsifying agent which is co-plasticized with the
High-emulsifying fat. The presence of the emulsifying agent is necessary in
Fats order to enable the increased moisture to be carried and to
keep the batter stable until baked.
Special Cake These are flours of low-extraction, low-protein content
Flours which have been milled to finer particle size and heavily
chlorinated. The finer particle size increases the surface
area so that more moisture can be held by the flour. Heavy
chlorination increases the acidity of the flour and weakens
the proteins.
Farrand,5 however, regards the function of chlorination
as much more an effect on the starch then the protein in
flour. He regards the wheat protein as of little importance.
Francis 4 lists three main factors which affect the setting of
the cake in the oven:
(I) The sugar/water ratio in the mix (i.e. the per-
centage concentration of sugars in the aqueous phase.)
(2) The physico-chemical condition of the starch.
(3) The physico-chemical condition of the egg.
He regards the wheat protein as of little importance.
High sugar concentrations raise the temperature of coagu-
lation of the egg and delay the gelation of the starch. The
setting of the cake is delayed, and it inflates to excessive
volume and collapses. Conversely, if the liquor content is
excessive and the sugar concentration low, then the cake
sets too quickly, resulting in low volume and close rubbery
texture. Chlorination of the starch together with- the finer
particle size increases the rate of gelation, off-setting, as it
were, the delaying effect of the higher sugar concentrations,
thus stabilizing the batter at the critical stage in baking.
Even so, if fruit is to be added to a high sugar, high liquid
cake, then it is common practice to increase the stability of
the batter during baking by using a high-protein cake flour,
which would sometimes appear to be little more than a
bread flour of low extraction milled to finer particle size.
CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

TABLE VII
Fault Cause
(I) Sad streak under top of cake (I) Underbaking
(2) Cake being knocked or
moved during baking
(3) Too hot an oven
(2) Sad streak at bottom of cake (I) Too much liquid
(2) Insufficient baking powder
(3) Insufficient sugar
(4) Too soft a flour
(5) Weak or insufficient egg
(3) Collapse in centre of cake- ( I) Excess sugar
white spots on the crust

(4) Collapse in centre of cake- (I) Excess baking powder

dark crust

(5) Small volume-collapse at (I) Excess liquid

the sides, shrinking from (2) Insufficient egg
the sides (3) Flour too soft
(6) Small volume-'cauliflower' (I) Too hot an oven
v top (2) Insufficient steam in oven
(3) Too strong flour
(4) Too much egg
(5) Insufficient sugar

(7) Long holes in texture (I) Insufficient aeration

(a) Insufficient creaming
(b) Poor creaming fat
" (2) Bad scaling
(3) Too much mixing

.,;( 8) Discoloured crumb (I) Badly balanced baking

powder-excess alkali

(9) Too tender crumb (I) Too much fat in relation to

egg
(ID) Crumbly crumb-coarse (I) Weak flour
open texture (2) Insufficient egg in relation
to fat
(3) Too much sugar
(4) Too much baking powder
(5) Cool oven-slow baking

(II) Fruit sinking (I) Weak or insufficient flour

(2) Insufficient egg
V (3) Too light a mixing
(a) Over creaming
(b) Insufficient mixing
(4) Cool oven-slow baking
(5) Fruit too heavy
(a) Very wet
(b) Syrup not removed in
case of cherries
(6) Batter insufficiently acid
(7) Too much sugar
(8) Too much baking powder

I
 CAKE MAKING

Cake Faults Faults in cakes are due to one of, or a combination of the
following causes: 11 t

(I) Poor or unsuitable raw materials

(2) Incorrect balance
(3) Faulty processing-e.g. batter too cold, insufficient
creaming, excessive handling at the final mixing stage,
incorrect scaling or faulty depositing
(4) Incorrect baking
(5) Faulty handling after baking I
The more common faults and their causes are summarized
in Table VII:

Wedding In the designing of a tiered cake, either square or round, it

Cakes is advisable to decide the dimensions of the cakes before-
hand, because a balanced three-tier cake will not neces-
sarily give a two-tier cake simply by the removal of the
top or bottom tier. In such instances it is advisable to adjust
the size of the cake and board of the top tier to that of the
bottom.
There are a large number of possible variations which
will give satisfactory results, but for both round and square

WEDDING CAKE
A Guidefor
3 Tier round 2 Tier round
No. ITEM Total wt. 21 lb. 12 oz. Total wt. 16 lb. 4 oz.

Bottom tier Middle tier Top tier Bottom tier Top tier
I SiI;e of !wop or frame 11 in. 7 in. 5 in. IOl in. 7 in.
2 Batter weight 71b. 8 oz. 2 lb. 12 oz. lib. 6 oz. 61b. 0 oz. 2 lb. 12 oz.
3 Baking temperature 3300 F. 330 0 F. 3300 F. 330 0 F. 330 0 F.
4 Baking times (approx.) 4t hr•. 21 hr,. It hr,. 3t hr,. 2£ hrs.
5 Baked weights 7 lb. 0 oz. 2 lb. 8 oz. 1·lb. 4 oz. 5 lb. 8 oz. 2 lb. 8 oz.
6 Baked size 10! X 21 in. 7 X 2t in. 5 X 21 in. lOt X 21 in. 7 X 21 in.
7 Weight of almond paste for tops 31b. 0 oz. lib. I oz. 8 oz. 2 lb. 6 oz. lib. I oz.
8 Weight of almond paste for sides lib. 8 oz. 9 oz. 4 oz. Ilb.2 oz. 9 oz.
9 Size of boards 15in. diam. 10 in. diam. 7! in. diam. 15 in. diam. lOin. diam.
10 Size when almond pasted
Weight of boiled fondant
lIt X 31 in.
4 oz.
n X 3in. 5t X 3 in. 10! X 3t in.
4 oz.
7t X 3 in.
2 oz.
11 2 oz. I oz.
12 Weight of royal icing coating
and decoration (approx.
amount) 2 lb. 4 oz. lib. 0 oz. 7 oz. lIb. 12 oz. lib. 0 oz.
Total weights
13 Baked cake 'lb. 0 oz. 2 lb. 8 oz. lib. 4 oz. 51b. 8 oz. 2 lb. 8 oz.
14 Almond paste 4 lb. 8 oz. lib. 10 oz. 12 oz. 31b. 8 oz. lib. 10 oz.
15 Boiled fondant 4 oz. 2 oz. I oz. 4 oz. 2 oz.
16 Royal icing (coating and tfecora ..
lion, approx. amount) 2 lb. 4 oz. lib. o oz. 7 oz. lib. 12 oz. lib. o oz.
14 lb. 0 oz. 5 lb. 4 oz. 2 lb. 8 oz. 11 lb. o oz. 51b. 4 oz.

References 1. J. Price, 1952, The Balance of Cake Recipes, Lecture given at the
Borough Polytechnic.
2. J. A. Dunn andJ. R. White, 1939, Cereal Chemistry, 16,93-100.
3. C. H. F. Fuller, 'Aeration of Bakery Products', Chemistry &
Industry, 1952, 185-188.
CAKE-MAKING PROCESSES

cakes the tables on pages 250 and 251 were given many
years ago by the Craigmiller Service, and will serve as a
guide for general production.
It is also of interest to record the results of a practical
exercise carried out by students at the Borough Polytechnic
to determine the weights of the decorative materials re-
quired for cakes of various sizes.
WEDDING CAKES (PROPORTIONS AND WEIGHTS)

9 in. 6 in. 5 in. 9 in.

! round
lb. oz.
round
lb. oz.
round
lb. oz.
square
lb. oz.
Cake weight 5 0 2 0 I 2 5 8
Almond paste 2 8 1 0 9 2 12
Jam 2 1 1 2
Cake board 9 4 3 12
Hotfondant , 6 2 Ii 6
Royal icing:
Ist coating 6 2 2 6
2nd coating 6 2 Ii 6
Decoration and artificial
decoration 11 5 3 12

Total weight 10 0 4 0 2 7 11 0

CHART
General Production
3 Tier square 2 Tier square No.
Total wt. 25 lb. 15 oz. Total wt. 17 lb. II oz.
--
Bottom tier Middle tier Top tier Bottom tier Top tier
IOxlOx3in. 7!x7tx3in. 5~ X 5l X 3 in. 9 X 9 X 3 in. 6 X 6 X 2! in. I
81b. 4 oz. 3 lb. 12 oz. 2 lb. 0 oz. 6 lb. 0 oz. 2 lb. 12 oz. 2
330 0 F. 3300 F. 330 0 F. 330 0 F. 3300 F. 3
4! hrs. 3 hrs. I hr. 25 mins. 3t hrs. 2! hrs. 4
7 lb. 13 oz. 31b. 6 oz. lib. II oz. 5 lb. 8 oz. 2 lb. 8 oz. 5
91 X 91 X 21 in. n X 7! X 2i in. 5t X 5! X 21 in. 8! X 8! X 3 in. 6 X 6 X 2! in.
lib. 3 oz.
6
7
3 lb. 5 oz. lib. 8 oz. 12 oz. 2 lb. 10 oz.
I lb. II oz. 12 oz. 6 oz. lib. 8 oz. 14 oz. 8
15 X 15 in. 11 X 11 in. 8 X 8in. 12 X 12 in. 8 X 8 in. 9
lOt X 101 X 3f in. 81 X 81 X 2tin. 51 X 51 X 2i in. 9l X 9t X 31 in. 6l X 61 X 3 in. 10
5 oz. 2 oz. 2 oz. Hoz. 2! oz. 11
2 lb. 4 oz. lib. 4 oz. 10 oz. 2 lb. 0 oz. lib. 2 oz. 12

7 lb. 13 oz. 3 lb. 6 oz. lib. 11 oz. 51b. 8 oz. 21b. 8 oz. 13
5 lb. o oz. 2 lb. 4 oz. I lb. 2 oz. 41b. 2 oz. 21b. I oz. 14
5 oz. 2 oz. 2 oz. 4! oz. 2! oz. 15
2 lb. 4 oz. lib. 4 oz. 10 oz. 2 lb. o oz. lib. 2 oz. 16
15 lb. 6 oz. 71b Ooz. 3 lb. 9 oz. llib. 14 oz. 5 lb. 13 oz.

4. B. Francis, 1966, Lecture to the Department of Baking Technology,

Borough Polytechnic.
5. E. A. Farrand, 1959, Cake & Biscuit Alliance Technologists Conference
Proceedings, pp. 12-14.

243
 21

THE main ingredients in sponge goods are egg, sugar, and

flour plus air which is introduced during the mixing pro-
cess. In recent years, especially in the case of sponges pro-
duced on a large scale, where shelf life is an important
factor, a number of other ingredients have been added,
particularly fats, plus an emulsifying agent. In the leaner
types of sponges, that is those containing less egg, then bak-
ing powder is used in the conventional mixing processes in
order to provide additional aeration. A basic sponge formula
is as follows:
Eggs 125
Sugar 100
Flour 100
This is for the sponge sandwich type of goods. Sponge drops
and fingers contain slightly less egg (112·5 to flour at 100),
while for Swiss rolls a typical formula is:
Eggs 200
Sugar 140
Flour 100
Due to the extensive use of special cake flour in sponge
goods, it is now possible to produce high-liquid sponges up
to: -
Liquid (egg and water) 200
Sugar 140-160
Flour 100
Aeration Air is mechanically beaten into the egg/sugar mix until a
stable foam is produced. The flour is then mixed in care-
fully and the whole baked until the egg and flour proteins
coagulate, the starch partially gelates, and the cake sets.
Aeration is brought about by the expansion of the air-and
carbon dioxide gas when baking powder is used-together
with the water-vapour pressure within the air bubbles.
Today many sponges are produced by all-in methods using
conventional, continuous, or high-speed mixers, but so far as
aeration is concerned the same principle applies. This is the

244
SPONGE GOODS

incorporation of air to form fine bubbles and a stable foam.

Fullerl defines beating as the process of mechanically in-
corporating air into a mix by continued disruption of the
surface by a fast-moving body.
It is the movement of the rods in the conventional whisk
which introduces air into the mix, and whether a bubble is
formed will depend on the relative values of the speed of
movement of the rods, the surface tension of the liquid, and
its viscosity. Fuller further states that it is not sufficient
merely to be able to beat sufficient air into the mixture; the
foam must possess stability, by which is meant its ability to
retain the bubbles without loss or coalescence during the
baking process. The bubble size det'ermines the stability of
the foam, the number of bubbles determines the grain
structure of the cake, and the percentage of air in the mix
governs the volume increase obtain~d during baking. Sub-
stances conferring stability on the foam according to Fuller
are whole egg, egg albumen, modified casein, modified soya-
bean protein, modified fish protein, methyl ethyl cellu-
lose.
More recently a number of surface-active substances are
being used in sponge mixes for two main reasons:
(1) To increase the speed with which air can be
occluded and a stable foam produced, especially with the
all-in types of mixes. Whisking time can be reduced from
about 20 minutes to as little as 3 minutes on a conventional
vertical mixer.
(2) To increase the stability of the foam so that it does
not collapse readily on handling or during any time inter-
val between depositing and baking. This is particularly
important with many production processes involving
mechanical handling, although it is reduced to a mini-
mum if a continuous mixer is used feeding direct to a
depositing line.
These emulsifying/stabilizing agents are sold under pro-
prietary names in a paste or powder form, and are usually
diluted with water so that they can be easily incorporated
into the mixing. Two of the most common on the permitted
list are the partial polyglycerol esters and the mono-
glycerides (partial glycerol esters).
Taylor 2 carried out a number of experiments to determine Effect of Various
the effects of various factors in egg/sugar foams. These Factors on
may be summarized as follows: Egg/Sugar Foams
Speeds of 180-200 Lp.m. on vertical cake mixers would (I) MACHINE
appear to be necessary to obtain full volume. SPEED

245
 CAKE MAKING

(2) TEMPERA- The best whipping temperature for shell and frozen egg
TURE is 70° F. Higher temperatures cause the~ioam to come up
very quickly, but with poor stability. Below 70° F. the foam
comes up much slower, and never reaches as high a final
volume. Reconstituted spray-dried egg on its own does not
whip, no matter. what the temperature.
(3) SALT Additions of salt up to I·S per cent based on egg is a
desirable level, but has little effect on the final volume of
the foam. There is some slight volume increase with shell
eggs.
(4) GLYCERINE Glycerine can be added up to IS per cent without im-
pairing the specific volume of the foam and can safely be
added to sponge mixes without any other adjustment to
formula.
(S) FAT The presence of 2-3 per cent fats results in loss of air,
confirming the care which must be taken, when using the
traditional method of making sponges, to see that the
machine and whisk are scrupulously clean and free from
grease.
Fats at high temperature can be added to egg/sugar
foams without great loss of air. The best results are obtained
when the melted fat is added hot (200° F.) and very
quickly (45 seconds), using slow speed just before full
volume is reached.
(6) EMULSIFYING Emulsifying agents enable reconstituted spray-dried egg
AGENTS to be used successfully. They increase volume even with
frozen egg plus water. The foams are stiffer, the bubble size
smaller, and the resultant sponge is improved all round.
(7) EXTRA YOLK Extra yolk increases the volume of the foam proportion-
ately to the amount added. The best quantity to add is 20
per cent based on weight of-egg.
_(8) SUGAR Icing sugar produces slightly better volume and more
quickly than other types of sugar.
Recent work indicates that the best' results with pasteur-
ized eggs are obtained by whisking on top speed initially
(i.e. approx. ISO r.p.m.) and then completing on second
speed (approx. 100 r.p.m.). A more stable foam is produced
in this way.
Harper 3 carried out some interesting work on G.M.S. in
sponges which the student would do well to study.

Sponge-mak- The various methods of making sponges are:

ing Methods
(I) Orthodox or traditional
(2) Delayed soda
(3) All-in
SPONGE GOODS

(4) Pressure whisk

(5) Continuous
(6) High-speed

This is the method whereby the egg and sugar are whisked I. Orthodox
together to a stable foam and then the flour folded in care-
fully to avoid loss of air as much as possible. The flour must
be well sieved in order to remove any lumps and to assist in
its easy dispersion throughout the mix.
The foUowing are typical recipes for sponge sandwiches
of varying quality using the orthodox method:

75% egg
Full egg
25% water
50% egg
50% water I
INGREDIENTS
Flour
at 100 Small mix Flour
at 100 Small mix
Flour
at 100 ISmall mix
lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. oz.
Egg 125 3 14·5 94 2 15 62·5 1 15·25
Sugar 100 3 2 100 3 2 100 3 2
Flour 100 3 2 100 3 2 100 3 2
Baking powder - - - 0·8 - 0·4 1·6 - 0·8
Water - - - 31 - 15·5 6'2·5 1 15·25
I

Better-quality sponges than full egg can be produced Addition of Egg

by the addition of egg yolk. Up to 20 per cent yolk based Yolk
on the egg can be added, and the following is a typical
recipe:

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

lb. oz.
Whole egg 128 4 - Whisk to a full sponge.
Eggyolk 22 - 11
Sugar 100 - it

SPecial cake flour 100 3 2 Sieve and add.

Note that this recipe uses Special Cake Flour and therefore
more liquid is carried.
This is a modification of the orthodox process whereby Separated Sponges
the egg white and yolks are whisked up separately, each
with a proportion of the sugar, blended together, and then
the sieved flour is folded in. This is a method very common
in high-class mixings where fresh eggs are used. It is a
method particularly suitable for very light sponge mixings,
such as is required for Othellos.

247
 CAKE MAKING

A typical mix is as follows:

INGREDIENTS Flour at Small mix Method

100
lb. oz.
Egg yolks (16)
Castor wgar . 55·5
·27·75
-
-
10
5
Whisk to a thick sponge.
Continue on slow
Salt 0·35 - 0·0625 speed until whites are
whisked.

Egg whites (24) 133·3 1 8 Whisk to a meringue.

Castor sugar 33·3 - 6 Blend in t to sponge
Cream qf tartar 0·35 - 0·0625 and clear.

Flour (patent) 100 - II Sieve together. Add and

Cornjlour - 7 clear.

Method With When making chocolate sponge by the orthodox method,

Chocolate Sponges the egg and sugar are whisked to a full sponge, chocolate
colour is stirred in on slow speed, a small quantity of warm
water (100 F.) equal in weight to the cocoa powder is then
0

added, and finally the sieved flour and cocoa powder. The
amount of cocoa powder to be added if the sponge is to be
sold as a chocolate sponge is governed by law to give a
final baked product containing a minimum of 3 per cent
fat-free cocoa. The average cocoa powder contains 75 per
cent fat-free cocoa, so that it is necessary to ensure that
4 per cent is used based on the baked weight of the sponge.
This amount must be deducted from the flour weight.
A typical recipe for chocolate Swiss roll is:

IINGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

lb. oz.
Eggs 200 .6 4 Whisk to full sponge.
Sugar 140 4- 6

Chocolate colour 5 -- 2! Add on slow speed.

Water, 100
0
F. 20 - 10 Add.

IL
Flour (soft) 4 Sieve together, add,
Sconejlour 40}
40 100 4 and clear.
Cocoa powder 20 10

2. Delayed Soda In this method all the ingredients, including the flour, are
whisked together with the exception of the bicarbonate of
soda, which is dispersed in a small quantity of the total
liquid and stirred into the sponge after it has attained full
volume. The bicarbonate of soda is the alkaline component
of the baking powder which is virtually being used. The
acid component-i.e. cream of tartar or cream powder-is
added at stage one. This acidified mix whisks up much
SPONGE GOODS

better, and the method v.:as first introduced to produce a

stable foam when using drIed egg, which on its own will not
hold air.
In this case it is the flour proteins which are mainly
responsible for entrapping the air. The use of G.M.S. or
other emulsifying agents to speed up the whisking process is
now very common, and the method is not confined to the
use of dried egg.
Many sponges using frozen egg are now made by the de-
layed soda method. Care must be taken, however, to see that
the bicarbonate of soda is thoroughly mixed in at stage two.
This is not very easy, especially as the soda does not readily
dissolve in the small amount of water which is held back.
Failure to obtain complete dispersion leads to sponges with
a very unpleasant soda taste and some discoloration of the
crumb.
Typical recipes using the delayed soda method are:

(I) USING FROZEN EGG AND GLYCERINE

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

lb. oz.
Frozen egg 96 3 - Warm together to
Water 32 1 - 100° F.
Glycerine 3 - 1·5
Special cake flour 100 3 2 Add and whisk to full
Sugar 106 3 5 sponge, 10 minutes
Cream powder 3·5 - 1·75 top speed, 10 minutes
Milk powder 4·5 - 2·25 second speed.
Water 16 - 8 Add and mix for 1
Bicarbonate of soda 2 - 1 minute on slow speed

(2) USING DRIED EGG AND G.M.S. EMULSION 3 : I

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

lb. oz.
Dried egg 25 - 12·5 Sieve together.
Sugar 112 :3 8
Salt 1 - 0·5
Special cake flour 100 3 2
Cream powder 6 - 3
Water 75 2 5·5 Mix together, add
Milk 30 - 15 to dry ingredients.
Glycerine 3 - 1·5 Whisk at top speed.
G.M.S. (3·1) 6 - 3 30 minutes.
Milk 16 - 8 Add to mix in 1 minute.
Bicarbonate of soda :3 - 1·5 Slow speed.

249
 CAKE MAKING

(3) USING PARTIAL POLYGLYCEROL ESTER-TYPE

EMULSIFYING AGENT 11
I

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

lb. oz.
Egg
Emulsifying agent 20
.
.104
-
3 4-
10
Blend with whisk on
slow speed.
(3: I)
Water 16 - 8

Special cake flour 100 3 2 Sieve together, add,

Sugar 112 3 8 and whisk 2-4 min-
Milk powder 3 - 1·5 utes on top speed.
Salt 2 - 1
Cream powder 3 - 1·5

Water 16 - 8·0 Disperse soda in water.

Bicarbonate of soda 1·5 - 0·75 Add 1 minute second
speed.

3. All-in As the name implies, this is a method whereby all the

ingredients are mixed together in one stage. In conventional
vertical mixers this is not such a common method as the
delayed soda but it does produce a reasonable sponge. For
good textured sponges it requires the use of an emulsifying
agent.
The following produces a good sponge sandwich.

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

lb. oz.
Egg 84 2 10 Mix for 30 seconds on
Water 42 -1 5 second speed.
Sugar 96 3 10
Emulsifying agent 6 - 3

Flour 100 3 2 Sieve together, add,

Baking powder 3 - 1·5 and whisk. Top speed
Milk powder 4 - 2 4 minutes.

4. Pressure Strictly speaking, this is not a distinct method for making

Whisk sponge goods, but rather the use of a specially enclosed
mixer to allow for the introduction of air during the whisk-
ing process. It is merely a different method of adding air,
and with this type of mixer sponges are made either by the
orthodox or the all-in method.
The following recipes illustrate the two methods of using
the pressure whisk.
 SPONGE GOODS

USING PRESSURE WHISK-QRTHODOX METHOD

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

lb. oz.
Frozen egg 72 4 8 Whisk for 3 minutes at
Sugar 96 6 - IS p.s.i.
Invert sugar 4 - 4
Soya flour 4 - 4
Special cake flour 96 6 - Sieve together and add.
Baking powder 3·5 - 3-6
Water 48 3 - Mix together, add, and
Milk powder 4 - 4 whisk I minute at
Glycerine 2 - 2 15 p.s.i.

USING PRESSURE WHISK-ALL-IN METHOD

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

lb. oz.
Frozen egg 88·5 1 11 Whisk all ingredients
Water 36 - 11 together for 3
Castor sugar 98·5 1 14 minutes at 15 p.s.i.
Cornflour
} 100
- 4·5
FlouT 1 10
Baking powder 2·45 - 0·75
Salt 0·82 - 0·25
Milk powder 4·9 - 1·5
Glycerine 4·9 - 1·5

This same mixing requires a 20-minute whisking time in a con-

ventional mixer with an increase of baking powder to 1·75 oz. (5·75 with
flour at 100).

This is again virtually an all-in method using a different 5. Continuous

type ofmachine. All the ingredients are metered continuously
into the mixer head together with air, which is fed in at a
pre-determined rate to produce the desired density of
batter. Details of this type of machine are given in Chapters
'" 20 and 26. The back pressure is an important factor govern-
ing the bubble size and stability of the final batter. The air
bubbles expand on emerging into atmospheric pressure, and
the degree of expansion is related to the pressure difference.
Too rapid an expansion may lead to coarse texture or a very
unstable mixing. It is claimed for this type of mixing pro-
cess that optimum incorporation of air makes a reduction in
egg content possible-up to 10 per cent-and in baking
powder-up to 75 per cent. Full emulsification by the mixer
head reduces the need for emulsifying agents. A reduction
of 50-75 per cent is possible.
 CAKE MAKING

A typical formula using a continuous mixer is as follows:

7.-t

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Batch Method

quantities
lb. oz.
Frozen egg 91 87 8 Pre-mix.
Water 28·5 26 -
Granulated sugar 106 IOJ 8
Colour/jlauour/ 3·6 3 -
syrup compound
Baking powder 3-6 3 - Add to pre-mix to form
Special cake jlour } 100 92 - slurry.
Soyajlour 3 12

The slurry is pumped to the mixer head with settings for

the Oakes 14 M Mixer as follows:
Rotor 110 r.p.m.
Pump 110 r.p.m.
Back pressure 70 p.s.i.
Main pressure 100 p.s.i.
Air flow 62

6. High-speed Again an all-in process using a different type of mixing

action. The Tweedy/Cressex one-stage process, as referred
to in Chapter 20 is also used for the manufacture of sponge
goods of all types. No modification in the normal all-in
type of mixing is required. The mixer is a modified Tweedy
high-speed type, and the mixing is carried out at atmos-
pheric pressure-no air injection. For sponge sandwiches
the watt-hours per lb. of batter is 1'50, with a total mixing
time of 1'50 minutes. This is a marked saving in time, as
compared with the conventional vertical mixer, and it is
claimed that the product is eq1,!ally as good.
Enriched Sponges An enriched sponge is one which contains fat in addition
to the basic ingredients, viz. egg, sugar and flour. As
.mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, many of the
sponge goods produced today, certainly by the large manu-
facturers, contain fats, plus emulsifying agents in varying
proportions.
The practice is becoming so common that it may well be
at some future date that the enriched sponge will be re-
garded as the normal product. There is indeed a danger with
modern production methods that the characteristics of the
traditional sponge will be unknown except in the individual
family baker's shop.
There is no recognized lower limit to the amount of fat
which must be present for a sponge to be termed 'enriched',
SPONGE GOODS

neither is there an upper limit befor-e the sponge becomes a

cake in the normally accepted sense. Taking a survey of
current recipes, it would appear tha.t the range is from 5 to
25 per cent, based on the egg (or egg and water). For
gateaux bases of the butter sponge type the amount of fat
can be up to 60 per cent based on the egg (i.e. 12 oz. per
pint of egg).
Boiled Genoese can be regarded as an enriched sponge
with a very high fat content (80 per cent based on the egg),
made possible by the mixing of a b ()iled fat and flour to a
clear paste before adding to the spo nge.
The following are typical recipes for enriched sponges.

1. BUTTER SPONGE

Orthodox method. Fat = ,3'0·6 (on egg)

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Smallm:ix: Method

lb.
Egg 111 3 7·5 Whisk to near full
Sugar 100 3 2 sponge.

Butter 34 1 1 Add hot (200 0 F.).

Slow speed-45
seconds

Flour (soft) 2 7 Sieve together, add,

Cornflour 100 - 5·5 and clear.
Scone }l<JU% - ~·5

2. ENRICHED SPOISGE

All-in method. Fat = I4'3' (egg/water)

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

lb. oz.
Eggs 100 3 2 Mix together.
Water 40 1 4
G.M.S. (40%) 30 - 15
emulsion 3 : 1
Special cake flour 100 3 2 Sieve together, add,
Baking powder 5 - 2·5 and whisk. Top speed
Milk powder 10 - 5 5 minutes.
Salt 0·6 - 0·3
Sugar 100 3 2
Butter or margarine 20 - 10 Heat to 200 0 F. Add on
low speed over 1
minute.

253
CAKE MAKING

3. ENRICHED SPONGE
Using oil-delayed soda method. Fat = 18'4 (egg/water)

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

lb. oz.
Egg 96 3 - Warm to 100° F. Mix
Water 29 - 14·5 together.
Glycerine 4 - 2
Special cake flour 100 3 2 Sieve together and add.
Cream powder 3 - 1·5 Whisk for 10 minutes
Milk powder 12 - 6 top speed.
Salt 1 - 0·5
Sugar 100 3 2
0: 1 23 - 11·5 Add hot on slow speed.

Milk 19 - 9·6 Dissolve and add im-

Bicarbonate of soda 1·5 - 0·75 mediately-clear
well.

4. GATEAU BASE

Using oil and G.M.S.-delayed soda method. Fat = 47

(Egg/water)

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

lb. oz.
Egg 100 g- 2 Warm to 100° F. Mix
Water 28 - 14 together.

Special cake flour 100 3 2 Sieve together, add and

Sugar 100 3 2 whisk. 10 minutes
Milk powder 12 - 6 top speed. 10 min-
Cream of tartar 4·5 - 2-25 utes second speed.

Bicarbonate of soda 2·25 - J.l25 Mix together and add

G.M.S. emulsion 32 1 - over 1 minute.
(1: 3)

Oil 60 1 14 Add and clear on slow

speed.

254
SPONGE GOODS

5. BOILED GENOESE
Fat = 80 (on egg)

INGREDIENTS Flour at 100 Small mix Method

lb. oz.
Egg 125 3 14·5 Whisk to full sponge.
Sugar 112 3 8
Gfycerine 6 - 3

Compound fat 50 1 9 Bring fats to boil, add

Cake margarine 50 1 9 flour and make a
Special cake .flour 100 3 2 clear paste. Add to
sponge and clear.
I
1. C. H. F. Fuller, 'Aeration of Bakery Products', Chemistry and In- References
dustry, 1952, 185-188.
2. W. F. -Taylor, 'Egg Foam in Sponges', British Chapter, A.S.B.E.
Proceedings, April 1957, 19-32.
3. B. E. Harper, 'G.M.S. in Sponges', Food Manufacture, 28, 429-432.

255
Almond Goods 22

ALMOND goods are generally understood to be those which

contain almonds and sugar as the main basic ingredients.
It is proposed in this chapter to extend this somewhat to
include those goods containing almonds in considerable
quantities, such as franzipanes, japonaise, and wafer
mixings.
Almond goods proper may be classified under the follow-
ing headings:
(I) Those where the ratio of ground almonds to sugar
is I : 2, to which is added egg whites in varying quantities.
These may be further subdivided into-
(a) Those which are piped directly on to baking
sheets-usually on wafer paper, such as Macaroon
biscuits, Fancy Mac biscuits, Ratafias, Cracker Macs,
all of which have a general formula of:
Ground almonds 100
Sugar 200
Egg whites 60
(b) Those baked on or in a sweet paste base such
as Congress Tarts, Almond Slices, Almond Crescents,
which are slightly softer,_having a basic formula of:
Ground almonds 100
Sugar 200
Egg whites 80
French Macaroons can be included in this group,
the distinctive difference being that egg is used in-
stead of egg white as the moistening and aerating
agent.
(c) Those baked on puff paste or in puff pastry
cases, e.g., Scotch macaroons, Surrey puffs-lines
produced by a well-known almond firm. These have
the same basic formula as (b).
(2) The second main classification is where the ratio
of ground almonds to sugar is 1 : I. The greater the
ALMOND GOODS

amount of sugar, the greater the flow, and in this class of

goods a lower sugar content is used, because retention of
shape is an important factor. Increasing the ratio of
almond to sugar also markedly alters the flavour and eat-
ing qualities generally. Examples of goods in this main
category are English Routs, Parisian Routs, and Almond
African biscuits. The general formula is:
Ground almonds 100
Sugar 100
Egg whites 30
It should be understood that the foregoing is a general
classification. There will, of course, be some variation in the
ratio of almonds to sugar in particular recipes.
There are two methods of mixing the ingredients to- Mixing Methods
gether for the production of almond goods, both of which
give good results. .
(I) The ground almonds, sugar, and egg whites are mixed
together and then beaten moderately. It is necessary for a
certain amount of air to be beaten into the mix, but care
has to be exercised in this direction, as too much aeration
results in what is known as 'blowing' during baking. This is
the tendency to form a large hole at the base in the case of
products such as Congress tarts, or a concave bottom in the
case of macaroon biscuits. There is also a tendency to shell
badly, and the characteristic 'chewiness' associated with a
close texture is lost. A small percentage of rice flour is often
included in the mix in order to help in the production of this
close texture.
(2) An alternative method is to whisk the egg whites with
an equal weight of sugar and blend this in to the remainder
of the sugar and ground almonds. This is a popular method,
especially when marzipan is used instead of ground almonds.
While quite good almond products can be made with Use if Marzipan
ground almonds, the use of marzipan or a macaroon paste and Macaroon
produces better results. Paste
The first point to remember when using marzipan is that Marzipan
the ratio of almonds to sugar must be retained as in the
original formula. Top-quality raw marzipan contains two-
thirds almonds and one~third sugar. There is also about 14
per cent moisture, but for practical purposes the significant
point is the almonds/sugar ratio.
Cake marzipan contains one-third almonds, two-thirds
sugar, plus a percentage of glucose. There are other marzi-
pans on the market with varying almond/sugar ratios, but
these proportions are usually stated clearly on the container.
For example, 40 per cent almonds, 60 per cent sugar.

257
 CAKE MAKING

When using raw marzipan with an almond/sugar ratio of

2 : I an equal weight of sugar and marzipan brings the
ratio to I : 2, which is what is required for macaroon bis-
cuits, etc.

ExaDlple 3 parts raw mar:zipan = 2 parts almonds + I part sugar

3 parts raw marzipan +
3 parts sugar = 2 parts almonds
+ 4 parts sugar
.'. Almond/sugar ratio = 1'2

Similarly, if a ratio of I : I is required, then:

3 parts raw marzipan + I part sugar = 2 parts almonds +
2 parts sugar
Cake marzipan needs no addition of sugar when a ratio
of I : 2 is required.
For a ratio of I : I, then ground almonds must be added
as under:
3 parts cake marzipan = I part almonds X 2 parts sugar
3 parts cake marzipan + I part almonds = 2 parts al-
monds +2 parts sugar

Due to the presence of the moisture in the marzipan the

amount of whites to be added has to be adjusted slightly,
but this is the only modification in the formula.
The method when using marzipan is as follows:
The marzipan should be warmed slightly so that it is
pliable. It is then placed in the machine bowl, together with
the sugar. Egg white is added gradually until a soft paste is
obtained. This takes approximately two-thirds of the total
whites. The remaining one-third whites is whisked to a
stiff foam and added on two portions. The first is blended in,
and the mixing cleared. The remainder is then folded in
lightly.
Macaroon Paste Macaroon paste is virtually a rather tight macaroon
biscuit mixture, that is it contains almonds and sugar in the
ratio of I : 2 plus albumen solution.
A typical formula is:
Marzipan (2 : 1) 150
Granulated sugar 75
Castor sugar 75
Albumen solution 40

This is equivalent to:

Almonds 100
Sugar 200
Egg whites 40
ALMOND GOODS

Provided that the macaroon paste contains almonds and

sugar in this ratio of I : 2, then aU that it is necessary to do
is to add the additional whites and beat. Alternatively, and
better still, whisk the whites to a stiff foam and add in two
additions.
Typical recipes are as follows:

MACAROON BISCUITS-USING GROUND ALMONDS

Almonds
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Sugar
1 - Whites

Ground almonds 2 - Mix dry ingredients to- 100

Sugar 4 - gether. Add whites and 200
Ground rice - 6 beat 3 minutes top 60
Egg whites 1 4 speed.

MACAROON BISCUITS-USING MARZIPAN

Almonds
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Sugar
Whites
Raw marzipan 3 - Mix together to a smooth 100
Sugar 3 - paste. 200
Egg whites - 14 60
Egg whites - 6 Whisk to a stiff form.
Add half and clear.

Fold in remainder
lightly.

CONGRESS TARTS

Almonds
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Sugar
Whites

Ground almonds I 8 Mix dry ingredients to- 100

Sugar 3 - gether. 200
Ground rice - 4 80
Egg whites 1 4 Whisk to a stiff foam.
Add half and clear.
Fold in remainder
lightly.

Line pastry pans with sweet paste and spot with raspberry jam.
Pipe in almond filling.

259
 CAKE MAKING

DUTCH MACAROONS
..
Almonds
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Sugar
Whites
Ground almonds
. 1 4 Mix together and heat
to 90° F.
100
240
Castor sugar - 4 80
Icing sugar 2 12 Layout and allow to
Egg whites 1 - stand for 24 hours

FRENCH MACAROONS

Almonds
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Sugar
Eggs

Raw marzipan 2: 1 3 - Work egg gradually into 100

Castor sugar 3 12 the marzipan alter- 240
Whole eggs 2 4 nately with the sugar 110
until smooth.

Layout into crimped sweet-paste-lined pans.

PARISIAN ROUTS

Almonds
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Sugar
Whites

Ground. almonds 2 - Mix together and heat 100

Icing sugar 2 - to 100° F. 100
Egg whites - 10 30

Pipe out into fancy shapes. Allow to dry and flash in hot oven.

Japonaise Japonaise mixings have a similar composition to almond

goods proper, containing almonds, sugar, and whites.
Taking a survey of current recipes, a general formula for
J ap fancies and gateaux is:
Almonds 100
Sugar 150-200
Egg whites 100

A rather firmer mix is required for jap slices, so that the

ratio of almonds to sugar is nearer to I : 1·5, while there are
some very light jap fancy mixings with a ratio of I : 3.
Use of Hazelnuts Many jap mixings contain a small proportion of ground
hazelnuts. This is a direct replacement for ground almonds.
Marzipan and macaroon pastes are again used extensively
rather than ground almonds.
Method of Mixing The normal method is to produce a stiff meringue by
whisking the egg whites and approximately an equal

260
ALMOND GOODS

weight of sugar. The ground almonds and the remainder

of the sugar are then carefully blended in to form a clear
mix. This produces a much lighter article than the normal
almond mixings.
When using marzipan this must first be softened with
some of the whites. Some of the sugar is mixed in at the
same time. The remainder of the whites and sugar-equal
weights approximately-are whisked to a stiff meringue.
The meringue is then added to the paste in two portions,
the first mixed in well and the second blended in lightly.
Typical recipes are as follows:

JAP FANCIES USING GROUND ALMONDS

Almonds
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Sugar
Whites
•
Egg whites I 4 Whisk to a stiff meringue. 100
Sugar I 4 130
100
Ground almonds 1 4 Mix together and blend
Sugar - 6 in carefully
Cornflour - 4

JAP FANCIES USING MARZIPAN

Almonds
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Sugar
Whites

Raw marzipan 2 : I 2 4 Mix sugar and cornflour. 100

Castor sugar - 10 Add whites and sugar! 150
Egg whites - 10 cornflour alternately 100
Cornflour - 4 to produce a smooth
paste.
Egg whites - 14 Whisk to a stiffmeringue.
Sugar - 12 Add half and clear,
fold in remainder
lightly.

JAP SLICES-USING MACAROON PASTE AND HAZELNUTS

Almonds
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Sugar
Whites
Macaroon paste 4 - Place in machine bowl. 100
150
Sugar I - Whisk to a stiff meringue. 100
Egg whites I 14 Add in two additions.
Ground hazelnuts I - Fold in lightly.
 CAKE MAKING

JAP FANCIES-USING MACAROON PASTE

..'-
Almonds
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Sugar
Whites
Macaroon paste
. 4 - Place in bowl. 100
200
Egg whites I 14 Whisk to a stiff meringue. 100
Castor sugar 2 - Add in two additions.

Ground hazelnuts I - Fold in lightly and clear.

Frangipane Frangipane fillings are virtually good-quality cake mix-

ings where a substantial proportion of the flour is replaced
by ground almonds. They contain fats, sugar, eggs, flour,
and ground almonds. It is a very common practice to use a
percentage of good-quality cake crumbs in place of ground
almonds. This produces a very satisfactory filling, provided
at least 40 per cent of the dry ingredients are ground
almonds. The distinctive character and flavour is due to the
almond content, so that where the cake crumb content
virtually replaces almonds, then the product, strictly speak-
ing, should no longer be referred to as frangipane.
As with the other almond goods dealt with in this chap-
ter, marzipan or macaroon paste can be used in place of
ground almonds and sugar with the same basic rule apply-
ing: that is to maintain the same almond/sugar content as
in the original formula.
Good-quality frangipanes have a general formula of:
Fats 100
Sugar 100
Egg 75-100
Almonds/cake crumb/flour 100
Mixing Methods The normal sugar-batter m'Cthod is used for these mix-
ings with the dry ingredients-ground almonds, cake
crumbs, flour-being added at the final stage. The only
modification to this is when using marzipan or macaroon
paste.
In the case of marzipan the fat is first of all added to it in
order to produce a soft paste free from lumps. The addi-
tional sugar is added and the mixture is then beaten up
fairly light, the eggs added as in the sugar-batter method,
and finally the flour is mixed in. The batter should be well
cleared at the final stage.
With macaroon paste this is creamed up with the fat,
then the eggs added as in the sugar-batter process and the
flour mixed in at the final stage and cleared.
ALMOND GOODS

Typical recipes are as follows:

FRANGIPANE-TOP Q.UALITY
Ground almonds = 75 per cent dry ingredients

Flour!
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Almonds
at 100
Butter or margarine 2 4
Compound fat - 12 Cream up light. 100
Castor sugar 3 - 100

Eggs 2 8 Add in four additions. 80

Ground almonds 2 4 Mix together, add and 100

Flour - 12 well clear.

FRANGIP ANE-USING MARZIPAN

Almond = 75 per cent dry ingredients

Flour!
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Almonds
at 100

Marzipan 2 4 Mix together to a Fat 100

Butter or margarine 2 - soft paste. Sugar 100
Eggs 75
Sugar I 4 Add and mix in well.

Eggs I 8 Add in four addi-

tions.

Flour - 8 Add and clear.

FRANGIP ANE SLICES-USING MACAROON PASTE

Almond = 47 per cent dry ingredients
Flour!
INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method Almonds
at 100
Macaroon paste 2 - Mix together and Fat 100
Butter and margarine I 4 beat up light. Sugar 100
Eggs 100
Eggs I 4 Add in four addi-
tions.
Flour - 12 Add and clear.

Wafer mi~dngs as a whole are virtually soft cake mixings Almond Wafer
using egg whites instead of eggs. This produces the langue- Mixings
de-chat type of product. Almond wafer mixings are very
similar, the only difference being that a considerable pro-
 CAKE MAKING

portion of the flour is replaced with ground almonds. They

are often coloured and are exceptionallY' good for using
with stencils to produce various fancy shapes.
A typical recipe is:

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method

Marzipan 2 - Work down marzipan, sugar and

Icing sugar I - some egg whites to produce a
Dairy cream - 2 smooth paste. Beat in cream,
Cornflour - 2 cornflour, and whites to produce
Egg whites a flowing consistency. Leave for
I hour before using.

Use of Other Nut Many of the foregoing types of goods can be satisfactorily
Products made using other nuts. While some are used as substitutes
due to the high cost of almonds, others, for example, hazel-
nuts, walnuts, ground apricot kernels, or paste, may be
used in their own right. Coconut is also used extensively in
its own right to produce a good range of products, one of the
most common being coconut macaroons. With coconut it is
necessary to heat the mixing and a typical recipe is:
COCONUT MACAROONS

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method

Fine dessicated coconut 3 - Mix together thoroughly.

Castor sugar 5 -
Ground rice - 8
Egg whites 2 8 Add and mix well over a bain-
marie to approx. 100° F. Allow
to cool-mix again before piping
-out.
Gateaux and Fancies 23

THERE is a wide variety of decorative materials available to

the confectioner with which he can produce a selection of
very attractive gateaux and afternoon tea fancies; attrac-
tive not only in their appearance and finish but in their eat-
ing qualities. •
It is with this point in mind that careful consideration
must be given in deciding the type of finish to be made to a
specific variety of cake base.
The forms of decorative materials include: fondant, Decorative
marshmallows, buttercreams and fresh creams, almond materials
pastes, marzipans, sugar pastes, jams, jellies, chocolate,
fudges, meringues.
The variety of cake bases available will vary from the Cake bases
very lightest of sponges through butter sponges, light high-
ratio cakes, medium light flour batter and blended cakes,
boiled Genoese to the heavier sugar-batter type Genoese, as
well as the sweet pastry lined fillings, meringue and almond
meringue mixtures.
It can be seen that each of the decorative mediums will
not make an attractive blend, either in appearance or eating
quality, with every type of cake base mentioned.
The lightest of the sponges and cake mixtures will prove
most appetizing when sandwiched with jams, jellies,
creams, or blends of marshmallows and buttercreams, and
decorated with a light icing, such as water icing, fudge or a
buttercream.
Cake bases of medium lightness will blend attractively
with a light fondant icing: that is a blend of fondant and
marshmallow, 60/40, or a fudge icing, or buttercream finish,
particularly as layer cakes.
The heavier Genoese varieties are most suitably used with
fondant, particularly when hand dipping is employed, also
with the marzipan-wrapped cakes, such as Battenburg,
where a clean, firm cut surface of cake without undue
crumbliness is required.
 CAKE MAKING

Another important consideration is the relative sweetness

of the cake base to the quantity and sweeCtiess of the sand-
wiching and decorating material used, avoiding excessive
sweetness in the overall taste of the confection.
Packaging and distribution will also be a determining
factor in the type ,of decoration employed. A fudge icing or
cream, which dries with a thin shell-like crust, being ideal
for the individual wrapped unit, as will the marzipan or
sugar-paste-covered cakes, together with the chocolate-
enrobed varieties, which are also suitable for wrapping in foil.

Preparation While the very light sponges are best decorated and
of Cake Bases finished as soon as they are cool, the Genoese and cake mix-
for tures will slice and sandwich more easily if left for a day
Decoration after baking. Sheet Genoese should be subjected to a little
pressure with a baking sheet to close the crumb slightly
and make it firmer for cutting.
All traces of skin or crust should be removed from the
cake base, as this tends to spoil flavour, and the cake layered
once or twice with appropriate jam, jelly, or flavoured
buttercream, into which can be incorporated chopped nuts
or fruit as desired.
The masking of the cake surface on top and sides where
possible with a good-quality apricot puree, freshly boiled,
will always provide a little sharpness to the overall flavour,
whether it is buttercream or fondant that is being used for
decoration. It also acts as an insulating layer, preventing the
passage of moisture from fondant to the cake, so helping to
retain the gloss and fresh appearance of the fondant cover-
ing for a longer period.
The scope and variety of finish of gateaux and fancies, a few
of which are illustrated, is practically unlimited.
The attractiveness of the fondant finish is essentially in
the perfection of the covering, the brightness, and the
minimum thickness offondant, together with simplicity and
effectiveness of line and added decor, being a complete
blend with the flavour of the gateau or fancy.
Appealing flavour blends can be produced in preparing
fondant-covered fancies by varying the topping mixtures
used on the Genoese bases, shaped marzipan pieces or piped
macaroon mixtures being particularly suitable. Alterna-
tively, marshmallows or a blend of buttercream and
macaroon mixtures can be used effectively.
For chocolate-covered confections a piped chocolate
ganache provides an ideal topping. It is essential that these
piped toppings are allowed to set and become quite firm
GATEAUX AND FANCIES

before covering with the icing or chocolate, and the butter-

cream varieties are best subjected to refrigeration for a short
period before dipping.
Fondant-covered gateaux and fancies always appear most
attractive and fresh when a bright clear gloss is produced on
the surface. This can be attained by paying attention to the
preparation of the cake base, using a boiled puree for
0
masking, warming the fondant carefully to 100-110 F.
without over-heating, and by using stock syrup to produce
the correct consistency for covering. The use of good-
quality leaf gelatine in the stock syrup! oz. to every 1 pint
syrup or the addition of a small quantity of marshmallow,
10 per cent of the fondant, will help considerably in retain-
ing the fondant gloss for a longer period.
A fondant glace finish produces an attractive variation of
the more conventional finish. For this variety chopped fruit,
pineapple or cherries being very saitable, is placed firmly
on the surface of the cut Genoese pieces after a masking of
hot apricot puree has been applied.
The Genoese pieces are then placed on to draining wires
and then completely enrobed with suitably flavoured and
coloured fondant which has been heated to 1400 F. As
soon as the fondant is dry, the wire full offancies placed on a
drip tray are then put into an oven at 4000 F. for a few
minutes, just until the fondant begins to melt at the side of
the fancies. Withdraw them from the oven immediately,
allow to cool and set, as they will, with an attractive
transparent glaze. This variety of finish is less sticky in
nature, easier to pack, and because of the thinner covering
offondant, less sickly sweet to eat. This is a method lending
itself to a continuous finishing sequence.
Tinned fruit can also be used in preparing a delicious
variety of jam-dipped fancy. The small mandarin oranges,
apricots, or peaches are best used. These are placed firmly
on the apricot pureed surface of cut Genoese shapes, to-
gether with a half cherry to brighten the colour contrast.
Using a dipping fork, the fancies are immersed in freshly
heated apricot puree, surplus jam removed, and the sides
of the fancy then pressed into a fine roasted coconut.
Other jam-dipped varieties can be decorated with marsh-
mallow topping, in place of the fruit, or alternatively, piped
with buttercream after the jam-dipping process.

Mechanical aids can be usefully employed to produce Large-Scale

semi-automatic sequences in the decoration and finishing Production
processes.
 CAKE MAKING

Cake trimming and slicing machines with horizontal and

vertical vibrating slicing blades can be usecl:~'to cut Genoese
sheets into suitable shapes for bar gateaux and layer cakes,
Battenburgs, and enrobed fancies.
Ribbons of cream can be applied continuously as a layer-·
ing or topping through suitably shaped extruder nozzles,
prior to passing'tlirough an enrober applying an icing or
chocolate on a continuous-band production line.
Added decorative line piping can also be introduced
automatically.
Mechanical sheeting rollers can be used, pinning out
marzipan and sugar pastes to accurate degrees of thickness
in the production of Battenburg cakes and marzipan-
wrapped fancies.
Marshmallow and cream toppings can be applied on to
biscuit and sponge bases automatically using mechanical
depositors.
Continuous Swiss-roll production plant can be used to
produce sponge layer bars, splitting lengthwise after cream
spreading; angled guide arms achieving the layering, and
subsequently being cut in suitably sized bars which pass on
to the enrober and cooler.

Torten and The word 'Torte' is the German term for a large, flat gateau.
Continental 'Torten' is the plural.
Type Fancies These cakes vary considerably in different parts of
Europe, and indeed, within the borders of Germany itself,
in the make-up of the base and in the decoration.
The secret of success when producing this type of gateau
is to emulate the continental confectioner in his meticulous
attention to detail. This is a product which the craftsman
can take a pride and joy in making.
In Germany, Torten are usually divided into equal sec-
tions and, with certain exceptions, each segment is decorated
identical to its neighbour. These sections are cut and sold
to the cash-and-carry customer in the shop or, more
popularly, to the person taking morning coffee or afternoon
tea in a restaurant. It is sold, also, as a whole cake for
parties, etc.
The packaging of the pieces is very important, and small
cardboard trays are necessary to ensure the customer gets
the cake home in first-class condition.
Torten can be divided into three main groups.
(I) The first incorporates a wide variety of bases and is
finished with buttercream and/or chocolate. The top
decoration signifies the overall flavour. For example, a
GATEAUX AND FANCIES

'rum and chocolate Torte' would be coated with chocolate,

finished with buttercream decor, and have a piped 'R' as a
motif.
The second group of Torten use a smaller variety of (2)
bases, mainly sponge types and puff paste, but incorporate
large quantities of fresh cream in combination with fresh or
canned fruits.
In this country legislation does not allow this type of cake
to be labelled as a 'fresh cream Torte' because the cream has
been combined with a stabilizing agent such as gelatine, or
with custard to produce a cream known as 'diplomat'.
This is really of little consequence, because once the
customer has tasted it, further purchases are assured.
Torten containing fresh cream should never be attempted
unless adequate refrigeration is available both in the
bakery, and in the shop or restaurant. Daily production is
absolutely necessary if high standards are to be maintained,
although this need apply only to the finish, as the part-
finished bases lend themselves admirably to the process of
deep-freezing, being taken from stock as required.
The third grouping consists of speciality cakes such as the (3)
Linzer Torte, which has a base made from a type of
Viennese containing ground almonds, or the Sacher Torte,
a rather heavy chocolate sponge, sandwiched with a layer
of apricot jam and topped with a special chocolate icing.
There are also Torten produced to celebrate various holi-
days, such as the grape Torte for the wine festival. A wide
variety of bases and fillings can be combined to produce very
pleasing results, and many confectioners have a speciality
of their own particular establishment.
With this type of confectionery it is important to remem-
ber that a careful balance between bases and fillings must be
maintained. The fat and sugar levels should be such that
the eating quality is not too sickly.
Sponge bases are made with a high egg, low sugar con-
tent, and fillings are made from eggs and custards. When
using fruit the sugar content should be kept at a minimum
so that the natural sharpness of the flavour is predomin-
ant.
Natural flavours should be used as far as possible. The
vanilla pod, lemon or orange zest and juice, spirits and
liqueurs, roasted nuts, block chocolate, and powdered coffee
will enhance the quality of these cakes, leaving the essence
bottle for the more common type of confectionery.
Torten are cut into segments, and the interior is on dis-
play, so every effort should be made to see that the inside is
269
 CAKE MAKING

as attractive as the finish. Good contrast of colour between

base and filling should be aimed at, anq: strong adhesion
between one layer and another, so that a good, clean cut is
possible. To ensure good packaging do not exceed a height
of 21- in., coat smoothly and keep the edging perfectly square.
Make the decoration simple but interesting.
A few examples of well-balanced Torten are given as
follows:
Hazel Nougat From a sheet of roulade coated with nougat buttercream,
Torte cut strips I in. in width, and proceed to roll these up as for
Swiss roll until a disc 10 in. in diameter is obtained. Place
in a refrigerator to set. Sandwich between two chocolate
Vienna sponge discs approx i in. thick, using buttercream
containing roasted, crushed hazelnuts.
Coat with nougat buttercream, set off, and then coat
again to get a better finish.
Divide into 16 or 18 portions and decorate simply with
clean lines, finished with roasted whole hazels and also
chocolate motifs. Refrigerate before cutting.
Rum and Take 6 thin discs of dobos sponge and sandwich alter-
Chocolate Torte nately with white rum-flavoured butter cream and a dark
chocolate buttercream. Brush each layer generously with a
rum syrup (75 per cent rum: 25 percent syrup). The filling
should be at least t in. thick, so that, when cut, the brown
and white layers show distinctly.
Coat with a layer of well-beaten ganache and mature for
12 hours in a refrigerator.
Coat with a good quality of baker's chocolate (or add
25 per cent couverture). Mark and cut through the choco-
late layer with a hot knife so that the chocolate does not
splinter when finally cut by the shop assistant or customer.
Finish with a whirl of ganache on each section, a touch of
green decor, and a chocolate 'R' motif.
Strawberry Torte From good-quality puff paste cut out an I I-in. vol-au-
vent case with a I-in. edge, and two very thin well-docked
discs also II-in. in diameter. These must be baked out
thoroughly untU they are really dry; an oven at about
4000 F. is ideal. The bases can be stored in a dry cupboard,
at a temperature of 80 0 F., providing the humidity is kept
low; and made up as required.
Brush the bottom of the vol-au-vent case with boiled
apricot puree or flanjelly, and fill with strawberries. Fill in
between the fruit with a sauce made from I pint fruit juice
coloured bright red and thickened with I oz. of arrowroot,
to which is added, while still hot, two leaves of soaked gela-
tine. Place on top of this one of the discs cut to fit in the top
GATEAUX AND FANCIES

of the vol-au-vent. Now place a lo-in. metal plate over this,

and with a sharp knife trim to this size, so that it will fit into
a 2-in.-high Torte ring.
This will approximately half fill the ring, the remainder
being filled with the following mixture:
t pint of vanilla custard (to which has been added, while
still hot, three leaves of soaked gelatine) and t pint whipped
cream. The custard must be cooled to at least 60° F. before
blending gently but thoroughly through the cream.
Trim the remaining disc to 10 in. and place on top, then
refrigerate until firmly set. Cut round the ring and remove.
Coat the whole with whipped cream, and dress the sides
with crushed macaroon or jap pieces. Mark the top into
sections, and on to each place a whole glazed strawberry.
Finish with a little cream piping on each segment.
Sandwich a i-in. chocolate sponge to a disc of sweet Black Forest
almond shortcrust using black cherry jam. Torte
Place into a 2-in.-high Torte ring and cover with a layer
of pitted black cherries in a sauce as given for Strawberry
Torte.
Cover with another disc of chocolate sponge and cool
thoroughly. Fill with t pint custard containing 4 oz. plain
chocolate and three leaves gelatine cooled to 60° F. and
mixed with t pint whipped cream.
After setting off in the refrigerator, remove the ring and
coat with plain whipped cream. Cover the entire Torte
with flaked chocolate, dusted with icing sugar.
When making fresh cream Torten, the cream should be
slightly underwhipped to allow for further mixing when
blending with custard or coating.
It is impossible to give a complete range of bases that can Torten Bases
be used in Torten and continental fancies but important
details for the production of the main ones are given as
follows:
The eggs and sugar are warmed until the sugar is com- Sponges
pletely dissolved (approx. 110° F). They are then whipped WARM MIXTURE
together until a thick sponge results. The flour is folded in by
hand.
Whip the egg yolks and some of the sugar to a sponge. At COLD MIXTURE
the same time whip the egg whites and the rest of the sugar
to a meringue.
Combine the two together and fold in the flour.
Maximum addition up to t of sugar weight in the warm BUTTER SPONGE
mix-up to i sugar weight in the cold mix.
Raw marzipan can be used providing it is made to a ALMOND SPONGE
smooth paste with egg yolks and a weight not exceeding the
CAKE MAKING

VIENNA SPONGE
.~

INGREDIENTS lb. oz. Method

Eggs 1 1 Warm eggs and sugar to 1l0° F.
Talks - 3 Whisk to a thick sponge.
Castor sugar -- 14
Salt . nr
Water - 1 Warm and add.
Grycerine - 1
Lemon zest
Cake flour - 10 Sieve together, add and fold in
Cornflour - 3 carefully.

Bake at 4000 F.
For Chocolate Vienna add 2 oz. cocoa, deduct 2 oz. flour,
and increase sugar by I oz. Also add i- oz. cinnamon and
chocolate colour.
ROULADE

IINGREDIENTS oz. I Method

Eggs 10 Warm eggs and sugar to llO° F.
Talks (3 oary) Work in marzipan as per
Raw marzipan 3 Almond Sponge method.
Granulated sugar 5

Breadflour 2 Sieve together, add and fold in

Cornflour I! carefully.

Bake at 5000 F. for 4 minutes.

Yield: I sheet 15 in. X 18 in.

DOBOS (COLD SPONGE MIXTURE)

This mixture is usually stencilled out on to greaseproof
discs using a 10 in. X ~ in. ~etal stencil.

INGREDIENTS oz. Method

Castor sugar 2i Whisk to meringue.

White (8 onM
Castor sugar 3 Whisk to sponge.
Talks (8 DaM
I
Butter 2t Add at 110° F. to the yolk/sugar,
mix prior to blending in the
whites/sugar mix.

Salt flour 6 Add.

Bake at 4200 F.
Yield: 6 bases sufficient for one Torte.
GATEAUX AND FANCIES

sugar content is added. No alterations to the recipe are

necessary.
Add ground almonds (slightly bitter) up to the equivalent
sugar weight. Deduct the weight of almonds from the flour
content.

The range of small confectionery items over the whole of Continental

Europe is too large to include in a book of this type, but a Type Fancies
description of the more general items can be made as
follows:
A typical recipe for this item is given in Chapter 2 I. The Othello Shell
It is a light sponge drop with a dry texture, having an
indentation on the underside in which various fillings are
placed. Two are sandwiched together to form an almost
spherical shape and then covered with fondant and other
media.
The sponge shell is filled with thick vanilla custard, glazed Chocolate Othello
lightly with puree, and coated with a rich, chocolate/fon-
dant. A spiral of the same fondant is piped on to the top, and
it is then finished with a silver dragee.
The sponge shell is filled with a mixture of raw marzipan The Carnival
which has been softened down with a liqueur or rum with Othello
quantities of finely chopped glace fruits added. Glaze with
puree and coat with white fondant. Finish by painting on a
face with edible chocolate colour and add a marzipan hat.
It is important to fill the othello shell sufficiently to
moisten the sponge all through as it stands. Insufficient
filling is a common fault with this type of fancy and leads to
a poor eating quality.
These are formed from sheets of thin sponge, japonaise or Strip Fancies
pastry, etc., and sandwiched with jellies, flavoured butter-
creams, fresh cream, and other fillings to give a cut surface
as neat and colourful as a cut Torte.
These fancies can also be built up in half-round formers,
shaped like a gutter, to give a different look to the finished
fancy.
Cover the inside of a half-round former with plain Orange Slice
roulade and coat with buttercream flavoured with fine zest
and juice of an orange. Place mandarin orange segments
along the entire length with tinned cherries on either side
and add enough buttercream for good adhesion. Cover with
a strip of chocolate roulade. Fill up the rest of the mould
with more orange-flavoured buttercream to which has been
added a large quantity of broken macaroon pieces soaked
in orange curacoa. Close the former with another strip of
chocolate roulade and set off in the refrigerator. Turn out

K
 CAKE MAKING

from the mould and finish by coating the rounded surface

with very thin orange marzipan (to which has been added
50 per cent raw marzipan). Divide into sections and add a
little decoration to each portion. A low-sugar, custard
buttercream should be used because of the high proportion
of filling, and the slice must only be cut when firmly set.
Apple Slice Line the inSide of a half-round former with plain roulade
and fill with the following mixture:
12 oz. diced apples cooked in wine or lemon juice and
water, with only enough sugar added to avoid sharp-
ness.
4 oz. small sultanas boiled to soften and then soaked in
rum for 12 hours.
l pint custard containing 4 leaves gelatine and cooled to
60° F.
i pint whipped cream.
Drain the fruits and mix together, blend the custard and
cream, and add the fruit. Turn at once into the former and
close with another strip of roulade. Set up in the refrigerator.
Cut into sections and dust heavily with icing sugar. Enclose
each slice in a sling of greaseproof paper for easier handling
and packaging by shop staff.

274
Baking of 24
Confectionery Goods

IT is most important in the bakery to have efficient ovens,

for high fuel consumption is ruinous to any business. Ovens
should be easily controlled, so that the heat can be regu-
lated to the requirements of the goods. They should be easy
to heat up to bakery temperatures, and be so constructed
that when heated they will not lose heat except in perform-
ing the work for which they have been designed. A bright
and clean exterior is also desirable, and so it is always best to
have glazed tiles, or vitreous enamel, to oven fronts, and
polished handles on doors and fittings, since all these help
to give a bright appearance to the bakery.
There are many types of ovens in use, and it is difficult to
state which types are the best, but for confectionery work
there has been for many years an increasing tendency to use
either gas or electricity as fuels, since they are clean and
involve the lowest labour cost in their operation.
Ovens may be classified in various ways, according to
their construction, method of use, method of heating, or
according to the class of articles baked therein.
Electrically heated or gas-heated multi-deck peel ovens
are now widely used together with reel ovens. In larger
establishments straight-through travelling ovens or con-
trolled tray ovens are used. Today the trend is towards
heating by turbo-radiant effects rather than direct gas
heating as in the traditional biscuit and confectionery
travelling ovens. For slab cake and pound cakes oil-fired
draw-plate ovens are still extensively used or turbo-radiant
swing tray ovens, also oil-fired.

Multi-deck, electric- and gas-fired steam-pipe ovens have Multi-Deck

gained in popularity. These are constructed in units of two Ovens
to four or five decks of varying sizes, the main advantages
being economy of floor space and fuel. Steam-tube ovens

275
 CAKE MAKING

consist of straight tubes placed in rows between each oven

chamber so that the bottom tubes of one neck constitute the
top tubes of the deck below.
The tubes project into a fire box, and small bunsen
burners play on each tube so that the maximum efficiency
is obtained fr~m .the gas consumed. Each row of burners is
thermostatically controlled, which means that it is possible
to have a different temperature on each deck and, thus, to
bake a range of confectionery in one unit.
The chambers possess a low crown and, consequently, it is
found that goods bake more quickly because the heat is
constant and, owing to thermostatic control, is being re-
placed as soon as it is used. Also, because of the low crown,
there is less cubic capacity, and so less air to heat up and
become saturated with water by evaporation. Consequently,
by reduced baking time, losses from evaporation can be re-
duced and weight conserved. In some cases it is found that
temperature readings from 10 to 20 degrees lower than
normal may be used, and yet give a similar type of baking.
Electric ovens have now reached such a stage of efficiency
that their use for confectionery work is becoming wide-
spread. Peel ovens find flavour, and are particularly suited
for small bakeries. The method of heating by means of
elements differs with different makes, and much attention
has been given to the distribution of heat uniformly in crown
and sole, and to the loading factor-a most important con-
sideration.
The reel oven is now popular because of its efficiency in
running and its versatility in baking. Reel ovens are built in
many sizes to suit small or large production, they are
economical on labour and are heated either by gas or oil,
depending on their size and the bakery in which they are
situated. -

Confectionery There are two main types of travelling ovens used for con-
Travelling fectionery, namely the 'Straight Through' and 'Controlled
Ovens Tray'.
Gas firing by multiple burners with the flame directly in the
baking chamber is sometimes used for confectionery ovens.
This method gives accurate control of both top and bottom
heat along the whole length of the baking chamber, and
enables the baker to have any desired temperature at any
point in the oven by lighting or turning-off burners at the
required points. The greatest heat can thus be concentrated
at either the feed or the delivery end of the oven to suit the
goods being baked, which is a marked advantage over peel
BAKING OF CONFECTIONERY GOODS

and drawplate ovens, where no such temperature variation

can be economically exercised. These ovens are built in
many varieties, some having a single baking chamber,
while others have two decks-one above the other-and
each deck can again be sub-divided into various baking
chambers. Such ovens can be made to suit the output of any
bakery, the length ranging from 25 ft. to 50, 60, or even 100
ft. It should here be stated that with their great flexibility,
due to accurate control of both heat and baking time, these
ovens can be used for an unending variety of goods. The
articles to be baked. should naturally be arranged to follow
one another in such a way that only small adjustments need
be made to either the speed or the temperature of the oven,
as a new line is fed into the baking chamber-the underly-
ing principle being the same as in the case of baking in a
peel oven with a 'falling' temperature.
The ovens can be built to have the operating (control)
side to suit the bakery layout. The drive usually incorporates
a variable speed device so that the baking time can be
quickly adjusted to suit a variety of goods.
The body of confectionery travelling ovens is usually con-
structed in steel, having double walls packed with insulating
material. They are all fitted with inspection doors to enable
the operator to see the goods at various stages of baking.
Oven lights, thermometers-and, in some cases, steam-
injecting pipes are also provided.
The gas burners are fed from a gas compressor, which
either simply boosts the gas from the main and allows for the
air to be mixed at the burner injector or else adopts the pre-
mix method of adjusting the quantities of gas and air and
then boosts both together. The raising of the pressure is to
give an equal flame along the whole length of the burner
tube and so ensure even baking across the oven.
Turbo-radiant types of ovens work on the 'Heat flow'
principle, which comprises the radiation of heat from sets of
tubes through which hot gases are passed, the heat being
derived from either a single or a number of burners, each
heating a section of the oven. These burners can be either
gas or oil fired.
No confectioner's oven is ever required to exceed 5000 F.
A competent confectioner should always know the tempera-
ture at which to bake his goods most effectively. When these
have been well made and ready for baking it depends on the
efficiency of the ovensman whether they come out correctly
baked, with an attractive and appetizing appearance. The
majority of the products should be baked in as hot an oven
 CAKE MAKING

as possible, consistent with their being baked before taking

on too much colour. When cakes are bakell. in too hot an
oven a thick crust is produced with a huge crack on top.
This is due to the heat forming a crust before the cakes have
finished rising; then, as the gas in the interior expands, it
must crack the .crllst to escape. Thus, too hot an oven will
spoil the general appearance of goods and make them close
and heavy in texture. On the other hand, if they are baked
in too cool an oven they will come out with an insipid
appearance, and the inside may look dark, open, and
crumbly, and have a bitter taste, or eat harsh and dry.
The ovensman can make or mar all the work of the rest of
the staff by lack of judgment or care.
It is necessary to regulate the work so that the goods re-
quired to be made can be baked in the correct rotation in
the oven. It is the usual practice to have the ovens heated
to the correct temperature in the morning in preparation
for the day's work, and the ovens so regulated that they
gradually cool down during the process of baking. The
following baking temperatures of the various types of
products are only a guide to those whose ovens, when
registering about 4600 F., can bake a batch of bread
properly. One should remember that it is not good policy to
be guided too closely by the reading of the thermometers;
experience of the conditions of the ovens must be included.
An efficient ovensman must be gifted with a large amount of
common sense. He must develop a sense of judgment which
instinctively tells him when goods are baked.
Small goods of all types usually come first in the day's
work, not only because they are wanted first in the shop and
in a fresh condition but also-because the oven is usually
more suitable then than later in the day. Whenever possible,
each batch of goods should be just sufficient to fill the oven,
and whenever the goods are taken from the oven, there
should be another ovenful ready to go in, especially when
electrically heated ovens are used which can give con-
tinuous baking. Other ovens may have to be left for 5 or 10
minutes before further baking can be carried out.

FerDlented Fermented goods are usually made first thing each morning.
Goods When sufficiently proved, they should be baked in a hot
oven (450-4600 F.). About 8 minutes is sufficient to bake
a batch of 2-oz. plain or currant buns properly if the oven is
right. They should be baked to a rich brown colour, careful
note being made that they are properly baked by testing at
the light-coloured parts of the sides. Rich Bath-buns require
BAKING OF CONFECTIONERY GOODS

a slightly cooler oven (about 4300 F.), and if the:: oven is

inclined to be hot on the sole a good plan is to ba...ke them
on a double baking sheet. Chelsea buns, which are batched
close together on baking sheets, should also be baked at this
lower temperature, otherwise, the hot oven would brown
them on top before the centre buns were baked: Baking
time 12-15 minutes.

Sultana scones, cream scones, wholemeal sccmes, other Chetnically

varieties of oven scones, the cheaper varieties or aerated Aerated
buns, such as raspberry, rice, lemon, orange, and r~ck buns, Goods
with not more than 4 oz. fat and 4 oz. sugar to each pound
of flour, should all be baked in a hot oven (about.,450o F.).
Richer varieties of aerated buns, such as raspberry buns
containing more fat and sugar than the above proportions
should be baked in a cooler oven (about 4200 F~). Small
cakes, such as Madeira, lunch, cherry, and queen cakes,
which are baked in patty pans or cases, require a Qloderate
oven of 380-4000 F., depending on the richness of the mix-
ture.

The baking temperatures of these depend on the <J.llality of Short-paste

the paste and filling employed. Jam and lemon "tarts are Goods
usually baked at 4200 F. Fruit tarts and custard tarts are
also baked at the same temperature. Small meat pies and
patties require an oven about 420 0 F., but the larger sizes
require a lower temperature. Madeira and rice "tarts are
also baked at about 4000 F.

The majority of puff paste goods should lie at least 30 Puff-paste

minutes before baking. Open tartlets or vol-au-v~nt cases Goods
are baked at about 4200 F. Eccles cakes, Banbury cakes,
Coven tries, and other pastries of this type are baked at
4200 F. Almond tarts are baked to suit the filling at 3800 F.
Sausage rolls should also be baked at 4200 F.

These are products richer in quality than those pJ'eviously Sweet-paste

noted. With Frangipane, Delicia, Maid of Honollr, Con- Goods
gress, and other tartlets of this type made with swect paste
and a good quality filling, the oven temperature should not
exceed 3600 F. Almond slices and Frangipan slices are also
baked at the same temperature.

Sponge cakes should be baked in frames on the ().ven sole. Sponge Goods
Victoria sandwiches are baked at the same tem]lcrature.
The heat recorded should not exceed 4000 F. Savoy fingers

279
 CAKE MAKING

and drops should be baked in a warmer oven (450° F.). It is

advisable, when the sole of the oven is too f{ot, to turn the
baking sheet over and place the papers containing these
products on the reverse side of the sheets. This ensures that
they will not form a crust underneath, but will bake to an
appetizing colour without being dry. They require only a
few minutes to bake. Swiss rolls and buttercream rolls are
also baked in a fairly hot oven (450° F.). Savoy cakes and
sponge loaves are baked in a much cooler oven. They re-
quire a steady heat of about 360° F. Othellos are a very rich
type of sponge goods which also require baking in a cool
oven (about 360° F.). Genoese, bases or light gateaux
should be baked at 380° F. for about 20 minutes, depending
on the thickness of the cakes.

Macaroon and Almond macaroons require careful baking in a steady oven

Meringue (about 380° F.). Too warm an oven will cause them to flow
Goods out more than is necessary. A little steam in the oven while
they are baking will help to produce a better honey-combed
appearance. Fancy macaroons, orange macaroons, ratafias,
and other dessert biscuits of this consistency also require to
be carefully baked at 360° F.; care must be taken not to dry
them out too much. Dutch macaroons and Patience biscuits
are biscuits containing a larger quantity of sugar; as a re-
sult, they must be partially dried before baking. After
drying they are baked in an oven at 350-360° F. Parisian
routs and English rout biscuits are types of biscuits that
require to be dried or set before baking, so that they may re-
tain their shape during baking. They must, however, be
baked in a very hot oven (about 460° F.). They are not dried
out, but only coloured to a nice golden, appetizing colour,
then washed over with stock syrup to enhance their appear-
ance. Cakes decorated with boiled meringue need only be
coloured for a few minutes in a hot oven (about 450° F.).
Coconut macaroons should be baked in a cool oven about
330° F. Meringue shells and fancies require to be baked
in an exceptionally cool oven (250-300° F.) with the door
open, so that the steam is allowed to escape. Too hot an
oven for these goods causes the meringues to colour quickly
and rise more than is necessary during baking, thus spoiling
their appearance. The majority of confectioners bake their
meringues at the close of the day's work, when the oven is
usually most suitable.

Choux Paste Cream buns are usually baked in their own steam under
cover in a special cream bun pan in a hot oven (450° F.) for
280
BAKING OF CONFECTIONERY GOODS

at least 20 minutes. Care must be taken not to remove tbe

cover until they are baked, otherwise the buns will collapse
and be quite unsaleable. Eclairs are usually made from the
same mixing as cream buns, but are not baked under cover,
as they are not required to puff up so much; therefore, they
are baked on open baking sheets at about 4500 F. if there is a
full oven, but good results are obtained by having a little
steam in the oven when there are not enough eclairs to fill it.

Gingerbread, on account of the syrupy nature of the dough, Gingerbread

must be baked in a cool oven (about 3200 F.). If the oven is and Ginger
too hot the cakes will rise too much, then sink in the centre, Cakes
and they will also be too highly coloured. Rich ginger
cakes, containing more fat than ordinary gingerbread,
should be baked in a moderate oven (about 3500 F.).

The baking temperature for shortbread depends on the size Shortbread

and thickness of the pieces to be baked. Small cakes should
be baked in an oven at 4200 F. Larger and thicker cakes
should be baked in a cooler oven (as low as 3800 F. for the
thickest cakes). These require a band of paper round them
to protect the borders from taking on too much colour. It is
not easy to tell when shortbread is sufficiently baked, but
when the colour is right, then they can be regarded as
finished~ If the oven is too cold they may colour through
from the bottom and acquire a bitter taste before the top
colour indicates that they are baked. They should be baked
in as hot an oven as possible without browning them too
much before they are sufficiently baked.

The baking temperature for all kinds of cakes depends Round Cakes
mostly on their richness and quality. The rule is-the richer and Slab
the cake, the lower the temperature at which it should be Cakes
baked. Cakes should be baked in as short a time as is pos-
sible in an oven that will not give them too much colour or
too thick a crust. Cakes are best baked in large batches with
the oven door kept shut, so that the steam is retained until it
is considered that they are cooked. Good-quality I-lb. cakes
require baking at about 3800 F. Larger sizes require a
cooler oven (about 3500 F.). Cheap-quality I-lb. cakes re-
quire a warmer oven (up to 4200 F.), and larger sizes a
correspondingly lower temperature (down to 3800 F.). The
same rule applies to slab cakes. An oven that will bake an
8-lb. slab cake of about 4 in. thick in 2-2! hours is the best,
depending on the richness of the cakes. For heavy fruited
slabs and wedding cakes, the oven should be about 3300 F.

281
 CAKE MAKING

Table VIII summarizes baking times and~emperatures:

TABLE VIII

CLASS Type
. Baking
temp.,
Baking
time
Other
information
of. (approx.)

Bread and White bread (Ii lb.) 480 40-45 min. For malt and fruit
rolls Brown and germ bread tempera-
Breads (14 oz.) 450-470 35--40 ture must be
French and Vienna 480 20--25 " lowered as malt is
Bread rolls 480 10--12 " increased.
Malt and fruit breads 325-400 "
F crmented Plain 460 8-10
buns Medium rich (Chelsea, etc.) 450 12-15 "
Rich buns and dough cake 420--440 "
Powder buns Individual scones 470 9-12
and small Rounds of scones 450 15--18 "
cakes Rock, raspberry buns, etc. 430--450 10--12 "
Madeira, fairy cakes, etc. 430 10--12 "
"
Puffpastry Egg washed and unfilled 460--480 Puff pastries baked
Sugar glazed or filled 420--440 in too cool an
Crisps and french pastries 420 oven will lack
volume, lightness,
Short and Normal short pastry 400--420 and bloom. The
sweet Savoury and pie 400--450 fat will run out
pastry
Choux pastry
Rich sweet pastry
Eclairs, cream buns
380--400
450--460 20--25
on to the baking
sheet. .
"
Sponge Dry-mix Swiss roll (aerated) 500 4-5
goods Beaten Swiss roll 430--460 5--6 "
Sandwiches 400--420 18--20 "
Small goods 420--440 "
Fingers and drops 450 £-8
"
Cakes and Pound Madeira 360-380 50--60 Cakes baked in too
slab Pound fruit 350-370 60::70 " hot an oven have
Slab Madeira (4 to 5 lb.) 330-350 2-2t hr." peaked tops, high
Slab fruit (5 to 7 lb.) 320-340 2!-3 " colour, streak un-
Rich cakes (wedding, etc.) 320 der crust; in too
cool oven, flat top,
Biscuits Plain 450-500 poor colour, stale
Rich (wine, etc.) 400--420 rapidly.
Shortbread (small) 430
Shortbread (large) 380--400
Almond and Macaroons 340-360
coconut Fancy macaroons 320-340
goods Japs and pyramids 340-360
Meringues All types 250-280
BAKING OF CONFECTIONERY GOODS

For medium-fruited slabs the temperature should register

3500 F. Madeira and seed slabs require a higher temperature
(3800 F.). Cheaper-quality slabs containing a larger per-
centage of flour and milk than the other ingredients require
to be baked at 4000 F. During the baking of the slabs the
oven temperature should be falling gradually. In no circum-
stances should cakes be baked in an oven on a rising heat.
As a matter of general guidance, the following timing can
be taken in regard to fruit cakes:
WEDDING OR RICH-FRUIT CAKES

Hoop sizes, in. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Batter weight, lb. It-I! 2-2t 2t-2! 3t-3! 4t-4! 6t-6! 7t-8 9t-9! ll-llt
Baking time, hours
(approximate) 2 21 2! 2! 31 31 41 4t 5
 Refrigeration in the 25
Bakery

REFRIGERATION is so extensively used today that due con-

sideration must be paid to its many applications in the con-
fectionery bakery. Particulars concerning the working of
refrigerating units will not be dealt with here, since such
information is covered in other books dealing with that side
of the work.
The use of refrigeration can be considered under the
following headings:
(1) storage of raw materials for both long and short
periods;
(2) use of refrigeration during processing;
(3) retardation of fermented doughs;
(4) storage of finished products at temperatures above
freezing point;
(5) deep freezing of finished products.
In the storage of raw materials in the bakery the operat-
ing temperature ranges generally from 38° to 45° F. By the
use of bulk storage for raw materials, such as cream, eggs,
butter, margarine, milk; certain types of fats, and meat
products, waste can be eliminated, and adequate stocks can
be carried to meet any contingency and fluctuation in trade.
During processing refrigeration may be used to produce
cooler water for dough making in hot weather, ice for use in
processing, and cool air for air conditioning rooms when
special work such as pastry making is carried out. In warm
weather bulk storage of puff-pastry and short pastes can be
carried out, while cake batters can be made in bulk and
used as required when only small quantities of a particular
type are required at anyone time.

Dough Retardation of bun and roll doughs is now becoming normal

Retardation practice, and for this, temperatures of 36-38° F. are used.
REFRIGERATION IN THE BAKERY

There must be sufficient humidity, and a relative humidity

of 85 per cent is adequate. Most units supplied for retarda-
tion can achieve this with ease at from 34° to 38° F. Re-
tardation of bun doughs is more successful than that ofro11s
because of the higher fat content in most bun mixings. If the
fat content of rolls is increased sufficiently, satisfactory re-
sults can be attained.
Dough retardation is simplicity itself if the following
points are watched:
(I) The temperature of the bulk dough should not ex-
ceed 76° F., so that the yeast content of doughs will
probably need to be increased by 20 per cent over normal
formulae. A slightly lower temperature is used so that
the pieces of dough will be cooled down more quickly
when placed in the retarder, and so less power will be
consumed in working the plant. A cooler dough also im-
proves the mellowness of the final product.
(2) The buns should be made from doughs in which fat
is used at the rate of 3 lb. per gallon of liquid, with sugar
at the same level at least.
(3) As soon as the buns are moulded and placed on the
sheets they can be transferred to the retarder and left until
required. This may be from 24 to 48 hours, and as long
as the fat content is sufficient they will stand for at least
48 hours and, moreover, produce a bun with a more
mellow crumb.
(4) When the buns are required for baking they can
be withdrawn from the retarder, as many trays at a time
as are required, and left in the bakery for 15 minutes to
come up to baking temperature before being placed in a
steam prover for final proof, which will take about 30
minutes. They should then be baked in an oven 20°
cooler than normal, because they will take on more colour
than buns made in the normal manner.
Rolls are not so easy to produce satisfactorily because of
the lower fat content. As a result they get some proof in the
retarder before fermentation is arrested and so the texture
tends to be more open. Further, there is a tendency for
blistering and white spots to appear, and with leaner mix-
ings a short bulk fermentation period is desirable.
If, however, retardation of roIl doughs is to be carried out,
fat should be used to the rate of 2! lbs. per gallon ofliquid
for a 24 hour retardation period.
Storage of puff-paste and Danish pastry at 38° F. is quite
successful, and it is common practice to cut out the pieces
 CAKE MAKING

overnight and lay them on the trays and in the morning

place them in a warm prover prior to bapng off, treating
puff-pastry the same as Danish pastry, with highly successful
results.
With cake batters kept at 38° F. it is essential to bring
them up to 70° F. before baking off. The best practice is to
place the batter in the papered pans and hoops rather than
leave it in bulk. These should be left for : I hour in the
warm bakery before baking off.
It is also considered desirable to counteract the effects of
chilling, which tends to give a closeness in the crumb of the
finished cake.

Deep Freezing Much attention is now being paid to deep freezing of bakery
products, and because of the high capital investment in-
volved it is very necessary to plan carefully the installation
of deep-freezing equipment. The first step is to consider the
proposed method of use and work out a detailed plan of
working. The quantity of goods to be stored and their
nature must be estimated. Seasonal fluctuations need to be
taken into account as well as the build-up of stock for week-
end trade.
In this way the size of unit required can be estimated, also
taking into account the proposed method of packing the
goods. Packing in nesting wire baskets leaving at least a
2-in: air space at the top of each basket is to be recom-
mended. The baskets stacked on trolleys up to a height of
6 ft. will require about i cu. ft./lb. of goods stored. If the
goods are stored on wire trays on racks slightly more space
is required, which can be estimated from the number and
size of racks and allowing an ex~ra 50 per cent for gangways
to facilitate removal in.any order. When space for the whole
installation is being considered allowance should be made
for a thawing-out area.
Equipment for Conventional freezing equipment (gas compressors) is
Freezing generally used, although a new technique involving the
spray application ofliquid nitrogen can also be used. This is
being used in Britain for maintaining freezing temperatures-
during the transport offrozen foods, but not as yet in bakery
equipment.
When large quantities of goods have to be handled con-
tinuously a blast freezing system can be employed. Where
perishable products are concerned, it is an advantage to
blast freeze in a tunnel and store in a frozen state, rather
than freeze and store in a static freezer with a large cubic
capacity.
REFRIGERATION IN THE BAKERY

In the case of bread, and flour confectionery, the quicker

the freezing the better, as staling is accelerated at low
temperatures above the freezing point of water. '" .
Normally, the rate of freezing of rolls and buns is ade-
quate under ordinary deep-freeze conditions. One earlier
disadvantage of blast freezing would be the increased rate
of evaporation of moisture from the surface of unwrapped
products, so that when blast freezing is used the goods
should be wrapped prior to freezing. This presents no
problems today.
In the- preparation of a site for a built-in unit it is usual
to excavate to a depth of 12-14 in. to allow the finished floor
to be level with that in the bakery. There is usually a 4-in.
layer of concrete with 6 or 8 in. of insulation, finished
off with 2 in. of granolithic concrete. This is necessary
to prevent the ground freezing and pushing up the
floor. •
The cabinet or room may be constructed of wood or brick
to which there is 6-8 in. of insulating material attached,
which must be completely sealed to prevent the penetration
of water, since such penetration can cause off-odours which
will be absorbed by the baked goods.
When the door is opened during operations, heat enters
by exchange of air with the bakery, and unless precautions
are taken, there will be a severe build-up of frost on the
walls and ceiling and even on the goods themselves, which
can cause spoilage on thawing.
The cooling coils inside the cold room need to be de-
frosted at regular intervals, preferably every 8 hours. A
remote-control indicating thermometer s_hould be fitted out-
side the cold room so that a constant check can be kept on
the satisfactory operation of the equipment. For safety, it is
desirable to have door fastenings which can be opened from
the inside as well as the outside.
It is generally accepted that an operating temperature of Freezing
-5° F. is adequate for freezing baked goods, although up to Temperatures
- WO F. is used.
The temperature at which baked goods freeze is deter-
mined largely by the proportion of soluble solids present.
Thus, although bread will freeze over a range between 22°
and 29° F. Madeira cake, having a much higher proportion
of soluble solids, does not freeze until it reaches about
6° F.
As the rate of staling of bread and similar products in-
creases as the temperature is lowered, it is essential to use a
refrigeration temperature which will reduce the tempera-
 CAKE MAKING

ture of these goods through the staling range as quickly as

possible. 1-1
Articles for The following articles can be frozen satisfactorily; bread-
Freezing particularly Vienna bread-soft rolls, morning rolls, fer-
mented buns, and tea cakes. Choux pastry goods, raw puff
paste and short paste, baked puff pastry goods including
Eccles cakes and -jam puffs, sponge sandwiches-jam and
cream filled, jam rolls, Genoese, scones, raspberry buns, jam
tarts, macaroons, plain Madeira or fruited cake, high-ratio-
type cakes, queen cakes, and cup cakes. Pies containing
fruit or meat fillings can also be frozen, but these present
problems on thawing out.
The following is a method used in Scotland for morning
rolls, using a brick-built chamber of the walk-in type with
1,000 cu. ft. capacity with an outer air lock of 500 cu. ft.,
which serves as a normal cool store.
The insulation of the deep freeze can be so effective that
the temperature of the air lock has to be maintained at
30° F. by a special compressor unit of! h.p.
This deep-freeze chamber can take 18 trolleys, each of
which carries 2 I trays of morning rolls; each tray carries 35
rolls, so that 13,230 rolls can be held in deep freeze.
The temperature of the deep freeze is -10° F., and
aluminium trays are recommended. Special emphasis is
laid on adequate provision for defrosting, since unless
an automatic system is used, much mess results from
water.
This installation was installed to deal with morning rolls,
in order to use deep freeze rather than dough retardation,
and it is now used to keep production a day ahead of actual
requirements.
The baked rolls are normally cooled for 30 minutes and
then put in the deep freeze. Tney are then taken out as re-
quired and left for 30 minutes to defrost before being sold.
To speed up defrosting, the tray of rolls may be placed in an
oven at 25° F. for 2 minutes. Tea bread should be cooled
for 20 minutes before being put in the freezer. It should be
left for 20-30 minutes in the open bakery when withdrawn
for sale. The quality of this product is considered to be im-
proved.
Cakes such as iced buns, fondant-covered gateaux, or
fancies are all affected by condensation, so that they must
be wrapped before deep freezing, and specially prepared
icings should be used which will stand up to the freeze-
ing. Soft fudge icings are well suited to deep freezing. Un-
baked pastry products, such as sausage rolls and vol-au-vent
REFRIGERATION IN THE BAKERY

cases, are made and are packed in boxes and have a big
sale.
Baked custards, because of moisture seepage, present a
problem, but this has been largely overcome by the addi-
tion 0·1-0·2 per cent (of the filling) of sodium acid pyro-
phosphate and the use of 0·6- 1 ·25 per cent of phosphate-
modified starch, preferably gelatinized in part of the milk
before use, together with an increase in the quantity of eggs
to 8 oz. of egg per pint of milk.
Fruit Hans and similar goods in which a gelatine jelly
has been used may sometimes be spoiled due to shrinkage of
the jelly away from the fruit and pastry.
When goods are wrapped before freezing, special moisture-
proof cellophane which will not become brittle at low tem-
peratures must be used, and any printing must be in fully
waterproof inks. ,
Certain lines of deep-frozen confectionery, such as cream Thawing
sponges and unbaked puff-pastry preparations, are on sale
as such in shops which sell the usual range of deep-frozen
foods.
Flour confectionery, however, does not usually compete in
this market, and with this deep freezing, is used as a produc-
tion aid. Therefore the problem of thawing out the pro-
ducts to produce goods which have every semblance of
freshness is all important.
When goods are removed from deep refrigeration to
room temperature, moisture in the atmosphere will condense
as long as the surface temperature of the goods remains
below the dew point of the atmosphere. This condensation is
more obvious on some goods than others, depending on the
ability of the surface to absorb moisture. In order to mini-
mize the amount of condensation, it is necessary to increase
the surface temperature of the goods to the dew point of the
atmosphere as rapidly as possible. The speed at which
this is done will depend upon the manner in which the
goods are packed to allow for easy access if circulating warm
air, and the temperature of the air.
It will be evident, therefore, that some means of calcula-
ting the amount of heat which will be required to thaw
products would be useful; normally for confectionery goods
this can be taken as 50 Btu/lb.
In practice, the difficulties in thawing depend on the
scale of operation. On a small scale a temperature of
70°-75° F. is adequate, but in commercial practice, where
there may be racks of goods, the conditions at the centre of
the stack will be cooler and more moist than in the sur-
28 9
CAKE MAKING

rounding atmosphere. Small unwrapped goods require an

atmospheric temperature of 80°-go OF., and'M'rapped goods
gOO-100° F. Higher temperatures may be used, and they
will generally increase the rate of thawing, but some con-
trol of humidity is desirable in the case of unwrapped goods,
as, once they have been thawed, they will tend to lose
moisture if the' atmospheric temperature is high and
humidity low.

290
Bakehouse Machinery 26
and Plant

THE use ofmachinety and mechanical aids is, today, general

in flour confectionery establishments because of the in-
creasing number of machines available, designed to help in
the production of all normal articles of production in both
small and large bakeries.
In large bakeries, flour is now delivered in bulk and is lla~ ~aterials
taken into the bakery by pneumatic suction. In smaller Intake
bakeries it is delivered in paper bags, generally 70 lb. in Flour
weight, since this is an easier unit to handle and avoids the
risk of dirt and fluff getting into finished products. It also
cuts down the amount of dust in the bakery, thus aiding the
maintenance of more hygienic conditions. These bags may
be taken into the bakery by conveyors or manually in very
small units and then stored in a clean, well-ventilated store
on wooden slats or skids. Each delivery of flour should be
dated and labelled so that it can be used in the correct rota-
tion.
From the store or storage bins the flour is taken as re-
quired and must be sifted to safeguard against any foreign
particles getting into the mixings as well as to aerate it prior
to use. It may also be blended, when special blends are re-
quired. These operations can be carried out by special
blenders and sifters available in different sizes according to
the volume of output in the bakery.
Bulk deliveries of sugar are now the general practice in Sugar
many larger bakeries, and so provision of suitable storage
bins has to be made from which it can be delivered by meter-
ing devices as required. With the increasing use of con-
tinuous mixers this method of supply is becoming in-
creasingly important. For other establishments it is still de-
livered in I-cwt. paper bags, and in the case of icing sugar
polythene bags.
The introduction of pumpable shortenings has led to the Fat
 CAKE MAKING

need to instal fat-storage tanks which can be temperature

controlled. The fat is delivered by tanker and pumped into
the storage tanks, from which it is metered as required. In
smaller establishments the normal containers used are fibre
board, to eliminate the risk of nails and splinters getting into
the finished goods, which formerly happened where wooden
boxes were used: .
Egg Although much of the egg used in bakeries is delivered
in the frozen state to the cold store or refrigerator, bulk
supplies of liquid egg are now being used, which calls for
special storage tanks and handling to prevent contamina-
tion and risk of the development of harmful bacteria before
it is used. Dried egg is supplied in polythene bags.

Cake-m.aking There are many types of cake mixers, some which are only
Machines suitable for cake making, while the more modern types can
be used for both cake making and sponge whisking.
The horizontal universal type of mixer is made by many
firms, and the 'Baker' cake machine is representative of this
class.
These machines are of very strong construction, and the
troughs are so arranged that the ingredients can be readily
put in and discharged.
The cake beaters are for mixtures containing butter or
fats, and are so constructed that they will mix into the
mass any kind of fruit, without damage.
An automatic safety lid is fitted to the machine as part of
the standard design to prevent the machine being opened
while in motion. Two speeds are provided, the high for
mixing light batter, and the slow for mixing in the flour,
fruit, etc.
All gearing is totally enclosed, and the machine can be
supplied either for pulley drive-or direct drive by electric
motor.
The machine is made in three sizes with capacities from
18 to 600 lb.
Three-speed Cake These machines have been developed to deal with all
Machines types of mixings in the bakery-doughs, batters and
sponges, and foams, such as meringues.
The machines vary in size from 10 to 80 quarts capacity
according to the make. Three speeds are generally provided,
and gear changing is simple-either through the normal
gate change and clutch or through a combined clutch and
gear control. Automatic timing devices are also fitted.
The bowls are secured to a circular ring during the time
the machine is in use, but they can be detached and re-

292
BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

moved from the machine with ease either by placing them

on a suitable trolley or by normal manhandling. Stainless
steel is now extensively used for these.
The machines are fitted with whisks for spo~ge work,
beaters for cake batters, and dough hooks for bread or bun
doughs or for pastry work.
The whisks and beaters revolve, describing a planetary
motion so that they practically scrape the sides and bottom of
the bowl. In some machines an automatic scraping device is
fitted which keeps the sides of the bowl clean d\lring mixing.
In some machines variable-speed motors are fitted which
eliminate the gear-box, while with other machines three-
speed, constant-mesh, pre-selective gear-boxes With complete
automatic lubrication are fitted.
Well-known makes of such machines are Peerless, Hobart,
Collins, Hunts, and Artofex.
This is the accepted pattern for sponge-whisking machines, Morton Pressure
and the machine is of the stationary type. It embodies the Whisk
familiar Morton whisk in the centre container, and has two
hoppers, one at each side, by means of which the eggs and
sugar are fed into the mixing compartment. The reason for
having two hoppers is to prevent the sugar becoming wetted
by the eggs, and so producing a stoppage in the hopper.
The larger machines are motor driven, and there is an air
compressor embodied in the structure. With S\lch machines
it is not necessary to remove the lid until the end of the day,
since there is fitted an ejector valve through which the
batter can be ejected when sufficiently whisked. The com-
pressor is fitted with an automatic regulator, which is set
and locked to ensure that the pressure will not rise above
what is required to work the machine. There is also fitted a
safety valve on the air receiver and a special type of safety
cock on the machine itself, by means of which the lid can-
not be removed unless the cock is open to allow the air to
escape. Pressure gauges are also fitted on all machines in
order that the working pressure can be observed.
The ejector valve is of the piston type. This is at the bot-
tom of the container, so that when the valve is opened the
pressure of air in the container ejects the batter into a bowl
or mixing machine as required.
By means of this machine a sponge batter can be pro-
duced in 3 minutes, instead offrom 15 to 30 :minutes, while
an increased yield of 10 per cent is claimed because of the
more efficient aeration. The sponge produced has a very
fine even texture of great uniformity. The machine is built
in many sizes from 5 to 75 quarts.

293
 CAKE MAKING

Oakes Continuous This mixer is being used for the production of all types of
Mixer confectionery which lends itself to continuous production.
It is of hygienic construction and is easy to clean and main-
tain. It is accurate in operation, yet with adequate capacity.
The operational part of the machine is the mixing head.
The ingredients are fed in the form of a slurry (liquid batter)
continuously with a stream of air into the back stator of the
mixing head, and flow radially outwards to the periphery,
and then flow radially inwards along the front stator be-
fore being discharged through the outlet.
The rotor speed and teeth distribution are arranged to
give the optimum intensity for a particular product. At the
outlet a pressure-regulating valve is situated, which enables
the pressure in the mixing head to be regulated to ensure
that the air bubbles are completely incorporated within the
slurry before the mixture is released through the delivery
pipe.
The mixing head is equipped with cooling jackets, should
cooling be necessary, but with cake mixers the temperature
rise rarely exceeds 2°_3° F., due to the fact that the material
is only in the mixing head for the matter of seconds. The
degree of mixing obtained produces a completely homo-
geneous product in which the air is uniformly dispersed, so
that the finished cake has uniform cell structure, texture,
and good keeping qualities.
The method of operation usually employed in mixing
cake batter consists of dumping all the ingredients, wet and
dry, into the bowl of a batch mixer, mixing for 1-3 minutes
to produce a uniform dispersal of materials within the
slurry, and transferring it to a holding tank adjacent to the
mixer. The slurry flows by gravity from the holding tank to
the suction of the product pump on the mixer, which de-
livers the material under pressure through a pipe-line to
the mixing head and then to the depositor, the output
of the mixer being exactly synchronized with that of the
depositor.
Tweedy Mixer This mixer, hitherto well known for its use in bread
making, has been adapted for all types of cake making, such
as slab cake, sponges, choux paste, and angel cake, by the
use of special blades. As in bread making, the mixing pro-
cess is determined by the number of watt-hours per pound of
batter. For the majority of cake batters between 1·5 and 2·0
watt-hours. lb. is the optimum, but this may be reduced as
improvements in the design of the plate are made. With this
machine all ingredients are placed in the mixing bowl at
once, mixing is completed in I minute for slab cakes and 3·5
BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

minutes for angel cake, 1'5 minutes for sponge sandwiches,

and under I minute for choux paste.
No vacuum is required in cake work.
These incorporate the feature of a turbo-shear mixing A.M.F.
action, which ensures complete uniform dispe~sion of small Continuous
air or gas bubbles through the mix. This system offers a Mixers
choice of two types of operations, the first method being the
semi-continuous sytem. All the ingredients except flour are
alternately loaded into two bowls, thoroughly mixed, and
then pumped into the disc blender bowl. There the proper
amount of flour is added to the mixture. This pre-mix is
then pumped into the continuous cake mixer, where the
correct degree of aeration is carried out. The specific gravity
of each batter can be varied according to the type of pro-
duct required, and this is measured by the U-tube density
meter, which detects, records, and controls the specific
gravity of the batter, increasing or decreasing the amount of
air metered into the batter.
The second method utilizes the A.M.F. Glen mixer. This
is a semi-automatic system, and all the ingredients are pre-
mixed in batch form and passed into the Ioo-gallon holding
tank. The batch is then processed and aerated through the
continuous cake mixer. .

There is a wide range of machines designed to deposit Depositors

accurately predetermined quantities of mixes used for the
production of a wide range of confectionery products, such
as cake batters, fruited and plain, cup cake mixings, sponges,
meringues, Viennese mixings, short-bread biscuits, choux
paste, crumpets, and similar batters.
Some will perform most of these functions, others only a
limited number, depending on the size, while others will
work in conjunction with sheeters and spreaders, as in the
case of Swiss-roll production.
This handles any mix which will exit freely from the The Copeland
hopper under the influence of suction from the depositor Depositor
plunger. This includes a wide range of mixes from light
sponge to heavy fruit cake.
The machine consists of a hopper and depositing head
which is arranged to give a lift motion to break the deposit.
Alternatively, the head can be stationary when there is wire
cut-off.
An intermittent chain conveyor transports sheets or tins to
a position under the depositing head. There is quick hand-
wheel change-over on the conveyor when changing from one
size of pan to another.

295
 The hopper and parts of the depositor head in contact,
with the mix are of stainless steel, an$ this material is also
used for the conveyor table.
The machine is built specifically to deal with pans 762
mm. (30 in.) long X 457 mm. (18 in.) wide, but it can be
adapted to take pans as large as 9 I 4 mm. X 508 mm.
(36 in. X ~o .in.).
The speed range is 9-36 strokes a minute, and the
deposited weight capacity is up to 2 kg. (4t lb.) per stroke,
depending upon the density of the mix.
The hopper has a capacity of 108 litres (95 quarts).
There are today a range of depositors suitable for small
bakeries, typical of such is the Oddy Junior, which is de~
signed to handle all normal cake batters and fruit mixings,
as well as sponges and coconut meringues. The weight
range is easily adjusted as required. The table height can
be controlled and moves through 3 in. of travel, so that it
can make 40 drops per minute with a weight range from t to
3 oz. The machine is powered by i-h.p. motor, and so can
be run from a light point if necessary, as it is quite
mobile. The machine, of Austrian. design, is capable of
dropping biscuits such as hitherto have been dropped
only by a Savoy bag, and has a wide range of possible
shapes.
A newcomer to this field is the Oakes depositer, designed
to work in conjunction with the continuous mixer. This is
suitable for depositing marshmallow as well as sponge and
cake batters, and has enabled marshmallow products to
be made with a much more tender structure. It is an ex-
tremely flexible machine, depositing a variety of shapes and
SIzes.

Pastry Brakes Power pastry brakes have ~een developed, so that today
and Sheeters machines are available for the smaller confectioner as well
as the larger ones. In addition, pastry sheeters are used as
alternatives to pastry brakes for some goods on large-scale
production.
All brakes are designed to produce continuous sheets of
dough of predetermined thickness by passing bulk dough
from the mixer backwards and forwards through a pair of
rollers, without stopping the motion, by the use of a simple
reversing movement, altering the setting of the rollers until
the required thickness is obtained.
All machines are fitted with an index wheel for gauging
the thickness of the sheets of dough.
In some types of brakes the platforms on which the dough
BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

is extended consist of moving belts, the speed of which can

be varied so that the take-off belt runs at a faster speed than
the feed in, to take into account the reduction in thickness
which has taken place, so that the speed of dough can be
manipulated at once by being fully extended. All machines
must be fitted with safety guards to prevent the operator
getting his arms and hands in the rollers.
Pastry sheeters are designed to deal with short pastes and
pie pastes, as well as marzipan. These produce the layers of
doughs in one operation, but are not capable of producing
laminated doughs, such as is accomplished by means of the
pastry brake.
The most outstanding new machine, however, is the Puff Pastry
Florida puff-pastry machine, of Continental design, and Machine
marketed by the Atlas Co. in this country.
This machine is capable of producing the necessary
laminations in dough so that the final paste will rise with
even layer formation during baking. First of all the basic
dough must be of the correct consistency and extensibility
and the fat of the correct plasticity. The dough is extended,
and on to it the fat is layered by extrusion and a final layer
of dough is extended on the top of the fat. These three
layers then go forward, where they are reduced to a pre-
determined thickness, after which the dough sheet is layered
by a looping technique on to a cross conveyor, where it is
passed through further rollers and finally emerges as a
continuous sheet of paste. The machine has an hourly
capacity of 1,600 lb. of puff paste.
The sequence of operations are all photo-electrically con-
trolled at each stage, and air blasts ate used to remove as
much as possible the need for dusting flour.
This machine calls for a high degree of technical pro-
ficiency for satisfactory working. It is linked up with a
production line so that all types of puff-paste goods can be
produced. It can also be used for the production of Danish
pastries with suitable modifications of techniques.
The successful operation of this machine depends on the
following factors:

(1) Having the machine in an air-conditioned room so

that a constant temperature is maintained all the year
round and extremes of atmospheric temperatures avoided,
since the fat must be maintained at a constant tempera-
ture to ensure regular layer formation.
(2) The fat must be consistent in composition and

297
 CAKE MAKING

physical constants to ensure continuous plastic-film for-

mation in the paste. ~
(3) The flour used must be consistent so that it will
have a regular gluten content and quality. The water
absorption must also be consistent, since the dough con-
sistency must pe.related to the physical properties of the
fat to ensure continuous layering of dough and fat through
the feed rollers.

Fruit Cleaning When dried fruit reaches the confectioner it is in a com-

Machines pressed form. It contains dirt and stalks, and so requires
washing. There are a number of machines which do this
most efficiently. In most machines the fruit is emptied into
a hopper, from which it passes to a vibratory or static grid,
which breaks up the lumps and so permits the individual
fruits to meet the water which will wash it. The manner in
which the water impinges on the fruit varies according to
the design of the machine, but the aim is to float the fruit
and cause the dirt and stones to settle. Rotary sieves or some
similar device may be used for destalking, followed by spin
driers to remove surplus water, after which the fruit passes
on to a magnetic table for final inspection, when it can
also be hand picked. It can then be passed through a
Gintel metal detector before being transferred to the fruit
bins.

Enrobers Enrobers for chocolate work have been in use for many
years, but these have mainly been machines suitable for
large-scale production. Of recent years, many machines
have been introduced suitable for smaller units, while
machines suitable for fondant-work are now available and
are most efficient and economical. These machines have
made it possible to produce fondant-dipped fancies and
gateaux at more competitive prices with the limited skilled
labour available. Some of these machines are all-purpose
machines suitable for covering cakes, biscuits, and con-
fectionery centres, or for bottoming biscuits or cakes only.
They are thermostatically controlled and fitted with multi-
speed gear-boxes. The Nielson enrober is one type which
is proving popular in confectionery bakeries because it can
be used for fondant, icing, and chocolate work. The Oddy
and Mono machines are particularly useful where only
small batches have to be dealt with. The Walden enrober is
particularly useful for all chocolate work, as it is fitted with
a refrigerator tunnel. The J ahn Princess enrober is an alter-
native type of chocolate enrober which can be used for
BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

biscuits, wafers, fondants, caramels, etc., and for bottoming

only.
This is supplied with either wire-mesh trays or a wire- The Nielson
mesh conveyor on which the articles to be coated are placed. Enrober
A tray is placed on the slide and pushed gently forward
under the curtain of fondant flowing down from the distri-
butor, until it is free of the curtain. It is followed by a
further tray, and during the time this tray is passing through,
the surplus fondant from the first tray will have dripped into
the tank. Another tray is now pushed through the curtain,
and by the time this tray is through, the first tray will be in
position over the waste tray at the take-off end of the
machine and ready to be removed or transferred for decora-
tion. This machine covers tops and sides only.
For fondant work, the white fondant should always be
done first, as with hand dipping, and colours, from pale
shades to stronger shades, should be added as required,
starting the colouring at a point dependent on the number
of pieces to be covered.
The machine consists of a large tank with heater thermo-
statically controlled and a pump conveyor which brings the
mass from the tank to the distributor, which can be adjusted
for a single or double curtain. There is also a blower which
equalizes the spread.
A vibrator can also be used. Puree pre-coating or spray-
ing equipment can also be attached, as well as infra-red dry-
ing tunnels for fondant work.
Electrically heated scrapers can also be used to trim off
the surplus fondant drippings.
For cleaning, the conveyor and distributor can easily be
removed, and the whole machine washed without difficulty.

Emulsifiers and homogenizers are almost a necessity in a Emulsifiers

bakehouse of any size today. Many machines are available
for emulsifying oils, fats, and milk in the production of
ordinary aerated goods, custards, ices, and cheap slab cakes.
The action of the emulsifier is to reduce the particles of
butter or fat to approximately the same size as those of
water, as a result of which they remain distributed with the
water and so produce an emulsion. When a perfect emulsion
is obtained no separation takes place, and in order to pro-
duce such emulsions, a third substance, known as a stabi-
lizer, is required. For this purpose, milk powder is generally
employed with agar-agar or gelatine solutions, lecithin, or
promulsin. On these machines cream of a definite butter-fat
content can be produced.

299
 CAKE MAKING

Pie-making There are many varieties of these machines, all of which

Machines work on the same principle. The new Errcsson 'O-Matic'
is a machine designed for the automatic raising and mould-
ing of pies, tarts, custards, etc. It can be supplied with
filling attachments to deposit viscous fillings so that a
series of operat~o~s can be carried out for the production of
any particular article. It has a capacity up to 2,000 articles
per hour, and is fitted with a safety clutch to avoid accidents.
The dies are interchangeable and can be used cold or
electrically heated. The machine will raise paste in tins
for articles of any shape up to 6 in. in diameter by 3 in.
high, moulding, gimping, and cutting a clean edge all in a
single operation.
There are many other varieties of machines, small and
large ones; hand- and power-operated, for the small and
large trader. Some have gas-heated dies, while others func-
tion in the cold. The object of all types, however, is greater
production of articles which are uniform in appearance and
which have not been touched by hand during the manu-
facture. The use of such machines means more hygienic
production offoods, a very necessary factor, especially where
large-scale production and distribution demands perfect
keeping qualities. With the different types of machines, the
kind of paste used must be altered to suit the machine, but
guidance is always obtainable when such machines are pur-
chased.
The 'Zenith' meat scaling-off machine is capable of
scaling off meat and depositing it in the cases at a rate of
2,000 portions per hour. Its use results in a regular distribu-
tion of meat.
In factories it is customary to work two multiple machines
and a meat scaler in series, the first machine putting in the
lining, the Zenith meat scaler filling this, and a further
multiple machine putting the lid on and notching them.
Travelling Ovens Various gas-fired ovens with wire bands have been in-
for Pies ' stalled for the specific purpose of baking jam tarts and pies
with either pork, steak and kidney, fruit, or other filling.
The variable baking time of these ovens can usually be
adjusted from 20 minutes to I j hours, to suit the baking of
any type of pie.
Some of these ovens have been constructed with two
bands, one above the other, in two separate baking cham-
bers, each deck having both top and bottom gas burners for
accurate heat control.
The pies are shaped on an automatic pie-moulding
machine which lines the tins with paste. The tins are then

300
BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

conveyed to a scaling-off machine, where the meat or other

filling is deposited into the paste linings. From here the tins
travel to an automatic lidding machine before being fed to
the oven on a conveyor band, from which they are auto-
matically spaced directly on to the steel band of the oven.
The pies are baked in the oven and then pass, on the same
steel band, into the cooler with its cool, conditioned air.
The air is washed and purified and its temperature con-
trolled before it is blown into the discharge end of the cooler,
so that it travels both over and under the pies, which have
already been considerably cooled down, the draught then
blowing towards the feed end of the cooler, gathering heat
as it goes, until it reaches the hottest pies coming straight
from the oven. The stream of conditioned air absorbs as
much heat as possible, cooling the pies to a temperature at
which they can be handled without d'l;maging the crust, and
which also allows jellying.
After cooling, the pies can be automatically demoulded
and conveyed to the jellying and dispatch departments.
The empty pie tins can be conveyed to the feed of the
oven on the returning steel band on the top of the oven.
The output of this type of plant can be as much as 10,000
units per hour.

The latest machine of Continental design, marketed by Automatic

Atlas Equipment Ltd., is not only one of tremendous Jam-tart
potential, with an output of 6,000-9,000 per hour but is also Machine
capable of producing a very high class product with the
minimum of labour costs.
Foil cups or patty pans are automatically delivered from a
multiple-column stacker on to the transport table; a
multiple piece divider simultaneously drops dough pieces
into the centres of the containers, after which the containers
move forward and the multi-block turret-type stamping
head accurately shapes the dough pieces within the foil cups.
The ingenuity of the design prevents any surplus dough
escaping from the die, so that there is no scrap, no waste,
and no dirt. A special valve in the top die, in conjunction
with additional air pressure, ensures the release of the
moulded pieces and eliminates stick ups. The upper die is
electrically heated.
The paste in the foil cases now travels on to the twin filling
depositor, which deposits the requisite amount of jam, from
one spot to 4 oz.
The unit can be arranged so that for the production of
jam tarts, three different-coloured jams can be delivered at

301
 CAKE MAKING

the same time through three different nozzltfi, and the cases
then proceed to the panning station, wbere they are
automatically placed in rows in the oven. After baking, the
tarts can be packed straight from the conveyor, three
colours in one case, and finally sealed in film wrapping. The
same unit can be used for tarts in which a topping mixture
is used, while mince pies and fruit tarts can be made by the
use of a lidder which incorporates a dough sheeter, lid
stamper, and scrap return.

Bun-making Bun making has been subjected to mass production, and

Machinery automatic units similar to those used for rolls are in use for
this purpose, with travelling ovens for the baking of the
products. This results in a standardized article being pro-
duced not only as regards quality but also shape. As there is
a large potential market for buns and teacakes, and a
standard shape is required, these plants can be very efficient.
In Scotland they turn out the morning bap or soft roll, as
well as buns.
These units are the same in principle as those for roll
making, but scaled down to the size of the article being pro-
duced. They are only practicable when the daily output is
of the order of hundreds of thousands. Where smaller out-
puts are considered, semi-automatic units are now being
used. For large-scale production the 'Winkler' unit is now
widely used, as well as the Baker Perkin.
With bun and teacake making, dough-room control is
most important, and a separate dough-room is desirable in
which dough temperature can be controlled, since cool
doughs must be produced and maintained at a suitable
temperature all the time ofbuik fermentation if satisfactory
results are to be obtained, :parti_cularly as the dough passes
through the various machines. Hot doughs will not stand
up to machine working; cool doughs are essential. There are
some modifications of the 'Integra' moulding mechanism
which tend to give a better finished mould.
For smaller production, the combined divider and
moulder is useful when there is a very considerable output.
These machines are used either for producing round pieces
or for handing-up pieces prior to further processing by such
machines as the Collins' finger moulder for Swiss buns.
The 'Dopin Minor' is a very valuable machine for
pinning out teacakes from the rounded pieces which have
been produced from one of the normal moulder type of
machine. The secret of success with this machine is correct
resting of the dough after handing-up.

302
BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

The Baker Perkin units are seven- or eight-pocket plants Universal Bun
designed to handle soft, hard, and fruited doughs that fall and Roll Plant
within the accepted levels of consistency (25-45 seconds
extrusion) at an output of from 5,000 to 10,000 per hour,
depending on pan loading and baking time.
Each complete plant consists of:
(I) Seven- or eight-pocket divider with the respective
weight ranges of 1-4 or 1-3 oz.;
(2) Multi-stage moulder.
(3) first prover and distributor.
(4) sheeting and curling unit.
(5) units for shaping, pinning, and panning.
Dough is normally fed into the drawer-type safety hopper (I) DIVIDER
in pieces of approximately 7 lb.
The reciprocating head division box is designed to give
low dough pressure and good volume.
The main variable-speed drive (with 5-h.P. motor) can
be altered manually to give outputs within the range
stated.
Vibrating chutes deliver the dough pieces from the (2) MULTI-STAGE
divider to the correct position on the moulder band; this MOULDER
method allows relaxing periods between dividing and
moulding.
These can be arranged to give proof times to suit the (3) FIRST PROVER
goods at agreed outputs (maximum 10,000 per hour). AND
Pieces not requiring first proof can be made to by-pass the DISTRIBUTOR
prover.
Proved pieces leave the prover via distributor cups, which
deposit them across the band, which takes-them through the
remainder of the plant.
There is a secondary discharge from the distributor,
where any dough pieces requiring special treatment can be
collected.
Situated below the distributor, it automatically receives (4) SHEETING
the pieces via timing flaps and chutes. AND CURLING
Chain mail does the curling, but this can be removed if UNIT
not required.
Pressure boards are provided as required, each with the (5) FINGER
proper number of channels to give the length of finger rolls SHAPING BOARDS
required.
This is mounted above the main moulding band. It con- (5) PINNING
sists of a web band which is synchronized with the speed of UNIT
the main band. It can be raised or lowered by a handwheel
to vary the degree of pinning and raised out of the way when
not in use.
 CAKE MAKING

(5) PANNING Pan feed can be manual or conveyor. Pans measuring

UNIT 30 in. X 18 in. or 30 in. X 20 in. are prelfented at the
setting point the 30-in. way across. The dough pieces are
arranged on the setting web in numbers and positioned tc
suit the size of the pan and the size of the dough piece being
produced. Each pan is loaded in one operation. The num-
ber of rows to be panned the 18-in. or 20-in. way can vary
from three to eight.

Automatic Swiss roll was the first type of flour confectionery to be sub·
Swiss-roll jected to automatic production, and today many plants ar.
Plant producing this article. The production of this product w,
made possible by the use of steel band conveyors on whic .
the batter could be deposited and baked. Baker Perkin
Ltd. pioneered the plant in collaboration with Mr. E. G
Ellis, who jointly evolved the process.
With the development of conveyors it has been possible
to carry out the complete process of making Swiss rolls,
from the preparation of the sponge batter to the wrapping
of the finished product, without the removal of it from
the conveyor, the operation being one of continuous pro-
duction.
The sponge batter is produced by means of the Morton
high-pressure whisk, or the Oakes mixer, the operation
being completed in 3 minutes. With these machines a con-
tinuous supply can be produced. The batter from these
machines is ejected by means of the compressed air which
has assisted in the production of it; it is then transferred to
the hoppers, from which the batter is deposited on to a
travelling steel band. The bands pass underneath special
burnishing machines, by means ..of which they are scrupu-
lously cleaned and polished-a most necessary factor in the
production of any sponge goods. -To each oven there is a
conveyor steel band of 31t in. width of approximately
62-ft. centres. These travel at a speed of about 15 ft. per
minute, but they can be regulated as required.
After being burnished, the bands pass under a greasing
machine, where a mixture of flour and fat is placed on them
by means of special brushes designed so as to produce a
continuous film.
The batter is fed on to the pre-heated band in a measured
uniform layer, which can be controlled, and to a width of
14-16 in. This forms a continuous layer which is baked in
the oven for about 4 minutes at a temperature of from
4500 to 5000 F. As it emerges from the oven as a correctly
baked piece of sponge, it is removed from the steel band by
BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

a suitably designed mechanism attached to the terminal

wheel of the conveyor. This transfers it to wire conveyors
set at a decline so as to bring the two pieces of baked sponge
?n to the two main steel conveyors on the lower floor.
During this process the sponge is reversed so that the baked
surface is underneath and the spongy face is now ready to
receive the jam or cream filling. These conveyors travel in
the opposite direction to the oven conveyors. During its
passage along these conveyors the sponge must be cooled
down to a temperature suitable for spreading of jam or
.y1eam fillings, which have a fairly low melting point.
~In order to obtain this cooling, which is essential for good
1ieping qualities and freedom from mould, the conveyor is
,~rtially enclosed and a cooling chamber is constructed.
'.: After cooling comes the spreading of the jam or cream,
yhich is carried out in a similar way to that used originally
for depositing the sponge batter.
After the jam (or filling) has been spread, the sponge
ribbon is cut mechanically into pieces, using a suitable
gauging tool, regulated to take into account the speed of the
band. An attachment can now be used for rolling the sponge
into shape. From here, by conveyor band, the rolls are
conveyed to the wrapping machine and wrapped in cello-
.phane. At the same time the day of manufacture is re-
corded on them, so that in case of necessity each roll can be
traced.
The daily production of such a plant is about 25,000 rolls,
and it is used for producing both large and small Swiss rolls
of all varieties.
The steel conveyor oven can also be used for baking small
sponges, cakes and sponge sandwiches, and with its intro-
duction into the bakery a most hygienic method of handling,
free from all risk of taint, rancidity, contamination, or
spoliation by rough handling, has been made available.

Just as bread production has been completely automated, Baker Perkins

in a similar manner cake production has followed. Automatic
The automatic operation of this plant is based on the use Cake Plant
of tins strapped together in a frame. Incorporated in the
strap are distance pieces and lugs which are necessary to
make possible the automatic handling of these units. Any
size, shape, and number of tins which can be accommodated
within the overall strap size can be handled automatically
on this plant.
Full synchronization of this plant can be achieved by
means of a Heenan & Froude Adjusto-Spede unit.
L
CAKE MAKING

The cake batters are produced in the normal type of

mixer or continuous mixer and passed to the depositor, which
consists of two individually adjustable heads, with a com-
mon drive, which feed cake batter from the hopper through
dies mounted over the line of cake tins. The tins pass be-
neath the depositor in two streams, each stroke of the
machine depositi~g' batter in one tin of each stream.
The depositor conveyor consists of intermittently mov-
ing chains fitted with dogs which engage the tin straps
and position each tin in turn beneath the depositing
head.
From the depositor the tin straps pass through a right-
angled transfer corner on to a grouping conveyor, from
which the batch of tins is loaded on to the oven, by means of
the oven feed pusher. This is a Baker Perkins Turbogas
direct gas-fired wireband oven with turbulence and thermo-
static zonal heat control.
The tin straps are discharged from the oven band by
means of rollers to a pre-cooler, which can be equipped
with air-conditioning equipment.
The cakes are transferred from the pre-cooling conveyor
on to the detinner feed conveyor by means of an unloader,
and transferred to an automatic detinner, which mechanic-
ally inverts the tin straps, dropping the cakes into a catcher
and returning the tins to a return tin conveyor, which
carries the empty tins back to the washer or, alternatively,
directly to the depositor.
The cakes pass from the detinner along an intermittently
operating stainless-steel slat conveyor. This conveyor re-
mains stationary until the cooler feed pusher transfers the
batch of cakes to the cooler infeed comb plate. The cooler
is of the swinging-tray elevated type, with a horizontal
chamber and floor mounting legs.
The cooler can be supplied either completely open, i.e.,
natural cooling, or can be fully air-conditioned.
The cooler discharge conveyor can be arranged to feed
to an automatic finishing and packaging line.
The empty tins are fed to a tin washer which consists of
a travelling grid with flights on to which the tin straps are
placed, in an inverted position. The tin straps pass through
washing, rinsing, drying, and cooling sections before reach-
ing the discharge point of the machine.
Prior to passing to the depositor, the washed tin straps
are greased.
The single tin plant utilizes loose tins instead of straps,
and is limited to round tins. The plant is essentially similar

306
 BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

, to that for handling straps, but includes conveyors and

transfer points designed to handle separate loose tins.
The detinner used on this plant operates with the tins
entering and leaving the machine at the same end, the cakes
being delivered to the cooler from the other end. A batch
of tins leaves the unloader and enters the upper part of the
detinner. The cakes are removed from the tins and are
conveyed back along the return tin conveyor to the tin
washer.

Automatic coolers for confectionery are used in some of the Confectionery

larger bakeries. These travelling coolers can be built to Coolers
have either one- or two-tiered swings suspended from chains,
and are driven by a small motor incorporating a variable-
speed device to regulate the variations in cooling time for
different articles. The output varies according to the size
of the cooler, which is naturally based on the available oven
capacity. 'Natural' or 'open-air' cooling is usually adopted,
but 'conditioned air' can be used if the cooler has a totally
enclosed main structure.
These coolers are especially valuable for Swiss rolls, cakes,
and pies when baked on trays-enabling the goods to cool
off before going to the finishing and packing department,
thus avoiding the congestions in the bakery which cooling
racks so often cause. Further, they reduce the wear of the
baking floor-a most important point. The cooler need not
have its feed and delivery points at the same level, in fact
the goods can be placed in the cooler on any floor where the
ovens may be situated and delivered at the ground floor or
suitable level of the dispatch department.

Machines for cutting and slicing are today becoming of Slicing

greater importance, and the 'Segmenta' machine made by Machines
Messrs. J. Crollie & Son Ltd. is a hand-operated machine
which will cut any size of round sponge sandwich up to 7 in.
in diameter into eight equal segments. If required, only the
top half of the sandwich need be cut. The same firm market
the 'Multi-Secta' slab-cake slicer, which is a power-operated
machine for dealing with all types of slab cake up to
22 in. X 8 in. X 3i in. in size; whether they are Madeira or
fruit, they can be cut into 2-lb., I-lb., or i-lb. pieces
according to requirements. Slicing the cake for spreading
with jam or cream is done by the 'Auto-Slica', which
can also be used for sponge sandwiches, but for slab-cake
work there is an adjustable line top web, which makes
it possible to hold these cakes while cutting them. This
 CAKE MAKING

machine is extensively used for slicing Genoese and Angel

cake. ~

Wrapping With the advances which have taken place in the sale of pre-
Machines packed cakes, mechanical methods of wrapping have ad-
vanced.
The two most 'Popular types of machines used for wrap-
ping cakes are Forgrove B.W.6 and B.W-6P. universal over-
wrapping machines and the Forgrove 84-H Flowpack
machine.
The B.W.6 and B.W-6P are simple adjustable machines,
suitable for a wide range of cakes, cartons of cakes, biscuits,
and crumpets. The principle feature is the self-measuring
paper feed, which gives substantial savings in wrapping
materials.
In the 84-H Flowpack machine the wrapping material is
formed into a tube around the article inside a folding box,
the longitudinal seam on top of the pack being the fine-seal
type. The cross seals are then formed by rotary crimpers,
and integral knives separate the packages.
These machines are versatile and utilize a wide range of
wrapping materials by special attachments for sealing,
printing, and type coding, and will deal with from 40 to roo
packages per minute, depending on the nature of the
product.
Rose Brothers also produce wrapping machines and a
range for wrapping round cakes, while for wrapping Swiss
rolls the Senning 563/A/SO, with a capacity of 55-65 rolls
per minute, is widely used.

Wrapping A wide range of materials is available today for wrapping

Materials confectionery products, and in general transparent film is
used because of the attractive appearance it confers on the
product, as well as its capacity to prevent drying out. The
following types of film are available.
Cellulose A~etate This is produced from waste cotton fibres by the action of
Film glacial acetic acid and acetic anhydride to form a solution
of cellulose triacetate. This is then partially hydrolysed to
give a product of greater stability, and from it the cellulose
film is produced. This is a clear film which is hygroscopic
and very permeable to water vapour but less permeable to
odours.
Polythene is produced by polimerization of ethylene in an
autoclave under high temperature and pressure. It is readily
formed as a film and can be heat-sealed. It possesses low
permeability to water vapour, but one disadvantage from its

308
 BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

• use in confectionery wrapping is its lack of transparency as

compared with cellulose film.
Polypropylene is now being developed as a wrapping
material for confectionery packs.

This is moistureproof and heat-sealable, and is available MSAT

in three gauges (300,400,600). For most purposes 300 gauge 'Cellophane'
is sufficient. It is in general use for wrapping cakes whose
ingredients present no special problems. It is used for low-
moisture-content Swiss rolls to prevent drying out.

This is copolymer-coated by an aqueous dispersion MXXTA

process. It is an excellent moisture barrier. It also has good 'Cellophane'
dimensional stability and a sparkling surface brilliance, and
is not affected by folding or creasing. Specially suitable for
items of rough texture and when very high moisture pro-
tection is required, such as with biscuits. It is heat-sealable.
Available in 300 and 400 gauge.

This is copolymer-coated by a solvent process and is MXXT/S

more moistureproof than MSAT 'Cellophane', as it is not 'Cellophane'
affected by normal creasing or folding.

This is highly permeable to moisture, heat-sealable, and QSAT

is used for wrapping high-ratio cakes, where heat-sealed 'Cellophane'
closures are required, also Swiss rolls containing more than
25 per cent moisture. Available in 300 gauge.

This is non-moistureproof, not heat-sealable, and is for PT 'Cellophane'

high-ratio cakes, also iced wedding and birthday cakes,
where protection from dust and grease is required. It is
available in 300 and 400 gauge.

This is moistureproof and heat-sealable, and more MSAT 300/30

flexible than MSAT 300 at normal temperatures; it retains 'Cellophane'
flexibility at low temperatures and dry atmospheres. Used
for packaging cakes that are to undergo freezing.

Of a low-density type, it is also used for wrapping certain BCL Polythene

cakes. It is heat-sealable and available in various gauges.
Both 'Cellophane' and BCL polythene films can be
printed to a very high standard. Colour printing can in-
corporate the name of the firm and the name of the product
in attractive designs (seasonal if desired), and can be a
valuable advertising aid. British Cellophane Ltd. does not

30 9
 CAKE MAKING

supply printed film, but Colodense Ltd., of Bristol, and

many other companies are specialists in su~ work.
Mould As one of the greatest problems involved from the wrap_
Prevention ping of confectionery is risk of mould spoilage, much re-
search has been carried out on the incorporation of anti-
mould agents on wrapping papers, but this has not yet
become commercially practicable, since there are many
technical difficulties involved. Likewise, the use of carbon
dioxide in the packing of cake has been investigated by Mr.
Seiler of the B.B.I.R. A., but this has not yet reached the
stage of commercial application.

Electronic The 'CinteI' industrial electronic metal detector is a

Metal Detector scientifically designed fully automatic inspection device that
will detect the presence of any metal, ferrous or non-ferrous,
in any product of a non-metallic character, such as bread,
cake, or biscuits.
In view of the trouble which is experienced today by
metal particles gaining access to food products, this device
may prove of great value in all food factories, particularly in
examining dried fruits after they have been washed for use.
The equipment supplied consists essentially of two parts:
(a) the search head; (b) the control units.
The search head is so constructed that, when installed, it
completely surrounds a section of the conveyor line, and the
belt carrying the fruit or cake passes through a central
aperture. The size of the search head is made to suit the
product, the width of the aperture being governed by the
width of the conveyor belt and the height by the maximum
height of the product. In this way maximum efficiency is
obtained in every case.
A typical search head consists of a former on which are
wound three coils, one known as an 'oscillator' coil and the
remaining two as 'pick-up' coils. This coil system is then
suspended in an all-metal casing which is strongly con-
structed. The search head 'screens' the sensitive area from
metal objects it is not required to detect such as roof sup-
ports, nearby moving machinery, etc. This latter advantage
considerably simplifies the problem of installation, for
hitherto the conveyor on which the search head was mounted
had to be constructed of entirely non-metallic materials
for at least 3 ft. on either side of the head. This non-metallic
section, while still necessary, has been considerably reduced
and is now approximately 18 in. on either side. It should
be emphasized that this metal screening in no way affects
the high sensitivity of the instrument.
BAKEHOUSE MACHINERY AND PLANT

The control unit is a standard item with all installations,

and consists of the following separate units.
A main amplifier detector controls the whole system. The
valves and components are mounted on a cadmium-plated
steel chassis mounted inside a solid, dust-proof casting which
can be locked. The casting is fitted to the wooden panel
with anti-vibration mountings, and thus the circuits are not
affected by any knocks or vibrations that the casting may
receive. The case also contains spare valves, fuses, and a
special valve-pin straightening tool.
To ensure a constant maximum sensitivity of the apparatus, Stabilizing
it is essential that the variations in mains voltage, which Traniformers
always occur in factories, do not reach the amplifier. Special
transformers 'iron out' all such variations and provide the
apparatus with very stable supplies. The transformers are
mounted in a small cast box which is sealed after installation.
The search head, which is connected'to the control unit
by a cable link, contains three coils, as previously described,
and these coils are so arranged that an 'electrical balance,
exists between them. The 'oscillator' coil is energized from
the control unit with a high-frequency source, and this, in
turn, provides an electro-magnetic field which completely
covers the aperture in the search head.
As the head is in a state of 'electrical balance', no voltage
is transferred from the 'oscillator' coil to the 'pick-up' coils,
but as soon as any metal particle enters the field existing in
the aperture it upsets this balanced state, and a minute
voltage is induced into the 'pick-up' coils. This voltage is fed
back to the control unit, where it is amplified many times
and finally used to operate a relay.
The operation of this relay is used to control an alarm,
and various systems are available. The simplest is the light-
ing of a red warning lamp which may be mounted in any
convenient position. In some instances aural warning is
preferable, and in these cases either bells or hooters can be
fitted. Another system widely used is the stopping of the
conveyor belt immediately metal is detected. The latest
alarm system is automatic ejection, where the article con-
taining the metal is automatically removed from the con-
veyor line. It is, of course, possible to use any combination
of these systems.
X-ray
Inspection of
The visual X-ray method of inspection of food products is Bread for
now being employed by many branches of industry, and has Foreign
in practice proved to be the most versatile type of equip- Objects

311
 CAKE MAKING

ment for the detection of foreign inclusions, such as ferrous

and non-ferrous metals, rubber, stones, gl:u~, etc., many of
which cannot be detected by any other system.
The unit consists of:
(I) Protective cabinet
(2) X-ray tube
0) Conveyor belt
(4) Fluorescent screen
(5) Mirror
(6) Observation window of lead glass
The intensity of the fluorescence of the screen is entirely
due to the quantity and quality of the X-radiation which
strikes it.
The efficiency of the X-ray method of examination is due
to the fact that it is extremely sensitive to any change of
density in an otherwise homogeneous mass. For example, if
a loaf of bread is being viewed it presents a uniform image
on the fluorescent screen, but if a pin is embedded in the
loaf the uniformity of the image is destroyed and the form
of the pin is clearly seen as a black image due to the absorp-
tion of the X-radiation through the plane in which the pin
lies. The remarks referring to the pin are, of course, applic-
able to any of the other foreign inclusions previously men-
tioned.
The speed and ability of this method is clearly indicated
by the following figures which the bakery itself prepared
from the information gained on initial trials in a bakery:
Typical examples of foreign body detection were:
i in. glass in 5 in. flour.
i in. " " 6 in. lard.
i in. " " 4 in. sugar.
i in. " " 6 in. loaf.
Insulating tape, glass, and metal were detected in packets
of biscuits at a rate of inspection of 5,000 packets per hour.

Tray-Washing In the interests of hygiene the use of tray-washing machines

Machines is recognized as a matter of the greatest importance, and
today there are many compact machines designed for this
purpose occupying little floor space yet having a capacity
of up to 500 trays per hour.
In these machines steam and suitable detergents are used
for cleansing, and infra-red lamps for drying.

QI2
Nutritional Value of 27
Flour Confectionery

FOOD may be defined as anything, either solid or liquid,

which, when it is swallowed, can do one or more of three
things:
(1) Provide the body with material from which it can
produce heat and other forms of energy.
(2) Provide material to enable growth, repair of bodily
tissues, or reproduction to proceed.
(3) Supply substances which normally regulate the
production of energy or the process of growth, repair, or
reproduction.
There are many substances which can be classed as foods
according to the above definition. All foods must contain
certain nutrients to give them a right to be classed as such.
The nutrients of which foods are composed are as follows:
(a) Carbohydrates-which include starches and sugar.
These provide the body with heat and energy, and may
produce body fat.
(b) Fats-which provide heat and energy and may
produce body fat.
(c) Proteins-which provide energy and material for
growth and repair of tissues. .
(d) Mineral substances-which provide material for bone
growth and repair, and for the regulation of the body to
maintain normal vitality.
(e) Vitamins and other accessory factors which regulate
the body processes.
In co-operation with these nutrients, water and oxygen
playa fundamental part in the correct functioning of the
human body.
Although all foods do not contain all the desired nutrients,
most foods are mixtures and contain several.
 CAKE MAKING

Flour confectionery, cakes, and biscuits, however, are

almost unique, inasmuch as they contain ~l the nutrients,
although not in the ideal proportions. However, combina_
tions of such foods eaten with milk, cheese, and fruit are as
near the ideal as can possibly be prepared.
Let us now consider the following groups individu_
ally:
Carbohydrates All types of sugars; glucose, lactose, maltose, sucrose.
All types of starches.
Dextrin is derived from starch-produced during baking
and toasting.
Glycogen is produced from glucose in the liver and stored
in the muscles of living animals.
Pectin, present in fruits, particularly apples and citrus
fruits.
Fats Animal fats and oils. Vegetable fats and oils. Marine and
fish oils.
All oils and fats which are edible are glycerides, and when
boiled with caustic soda produce soap and glycerine. This
process is known as saponification.
Mineral oils and greases cannot be saponified, and for
this reason are not edible, and so must not be used as an
ingredient in human food. It is not even advisable to use
them for greasing tins in the preparation of food.
Flour only contains a small percentage of natural fat, but
in the case of cake, this is greatly augmented by the baker
during manufacture, and in the case of fermented goods is
usually appreciably supplemented when consumed.
Oatmeal of all cereals contains a much higher proportion
of fat, generally about 2'5 gm. per oz.
Proteins These are essential constituents of plant and animal life.
The muscular tissue of all animals is composed of protein.
Likewise, the tissue or structure of a loaf also con-
sists of protein, for without gluten no loaf could be
made.
Use of Proteins Proteins differ from one another because of the different
in the Body kind and different arrangement of amino acids in them.
Thus, when a comparison with starches is made, whereas
purified rice starch, potato starch, and corn starch are all
very similar, since they are all composed of glucose units,
beef protein, bean protein, and cheese protein are by no
means similar, since the arrangements and kinds of amino
acids in them are different.
The human body can convert many of the amino acids
it does not need for its own structure into others that it does.
There are, however, ten amino acids which the body cannot
NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FLOUR CONFECTIONERY

make, and which must therefore be supplied in the diet.

These ten are called essential amino acids.
Proteins from different foods can be graded, depending on
whether or not they contain all ten of the essential amino
acids in sufficient quantity to satisfy the needs of the body.
In general, it can be said that animal proteins usually
contain the essential amino acids in proportions reasonably
appropriate for human needs, while vegetable proteins may
be lacking in one or other of them. For this reason, animal
proteins are often called first-class protein, and vegetable
proteins second-class protein. There are, however, excep-
tions of the superiority of animal over vegetable proteins, and
to the 'completeness' or 'incompleteness' of either, since
some of the cereal protein and soya-bean proteins are almost
first class.
Gelatine, which is an animal protein derived from meat
and is the principal ingredient in gristle, hoofs, horn, etc.,
is completely deficient in at least one essential amino acid,
tryptophane. Gelatine has therefore little value as food un-
less supplemented by other proteins.
On the other hand, certain of the proteins in cereal grains,
soya beans, and Brazil nuts contain all ten essential amino
acids. .
Proteins are derived from both animal and vegetable
sources, being present in all forms of animal and fish pro-
ducts in appreciable quantities. Proteins occur to a lesser
extent in vegetables, particularly in green vegetables and
root crops. Peas and beans are richer in protein, while
nuts contain a high proportion.
Of cereals, wheat contains the highest proportion, and
the proportion in flour depends on the length of extraction.
Wheat germ is rich in protein, so that any bread containing
germ will have a higher protein content than ordinary
bread.
When the protein of food is derived from animal sources
less is required than when vegetable protein is used, since
the degree of difference between animal and human protein
is less than between vegetable protein and human protein.
The energy value of food is measured in terms of heat Energy Value of
units called calories, and the calorie used in nutrition studies Foods
is what is known as the 'large calorie' and is the amount of
heat needed to raise the temperature of 1,000 gm. of water
1° C. Thus:

I gm. of protein absorbed by and oxidized in the body

produces 4 calories.
 CAKE MAKING

1 gm. of carbohydrate absorbed by and oxidized in the

body produces 4'10 calories. 'f:I
I gm. of fat absorbed by and oxidized in the body pro-
duces 9'30 calories.

From these figures the nutritive value of a food can be

calculated, given its composition. For example, wheatmeal
bread contains I 1'2 gm. of carbohydrate, 0·6 gm. of fat,
and 3' 1 gm, protein per ounce, The energy value of one
pound will therefore be:

Carbohydrate 16 X 11"2 X 4 = 716.8 calories

Fat 16 X 0·6 X 9 = 86'4 "
Protein 16 X 3'1 +
4 = 198 '4 "

It must be remembered that everyone requires a basic

number of colories for the maintenance of life, and this is
averaged at 1,700 calories per day for men and 1,450 calories
per day for women, In addition, they require extra calories
according to the type of occupation they pursue or for move-
ment and ordinary bodily exertions, This may add another
1,000-3,000 calories per day. At one time it was customary
to give figures for children according to age group, but in
addition one must also consider the size of the body and the
degree of physical activity of the child. The following figures
give an indication of the average daily requirements:

Children 0-6 years - 1,650 calories

6-10 " _ 2,3 00 "
" 10- 1 4" 2,75 0 "
Females 2,300-2,750 calories
Males 2,75 0 -5,000 "

Miners, blacksmiths, and wood-cutters carrying out very

heavy muscular work require the highest calorie diet and
may even exceed 5,000 calories per day,
Dietic Value of Cake is basically an energy producing food with a rela-
of Cake tively high calorie value, in addition it has the advantages
of possessing an attractive appearance, pleasing flavour and
aroma also a richness of texture which has a distinct appeal
to the palate, It adds variety to the diet and during times
when egg and fats were in restricted supplies, provided an
 NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FLOUR CONFECTIONERY

excellent means of distributing these more uniformly to the

public, and at the same time rendering a considerable
amount of carbohydrate in cereal products more palatable.
Cake occupies a place midway between bread and bis-
cuits as a source of calories and this has been set out dia-
grammatically by C. H. F. Fuller in a paper in Chemistry and
Industry (1949, 45, 771). Fig. 2 compares the calorie value
of bread, cakes, and biscuits, the shaded portions in the
columns indicating the limits of variation in the values .

.;,
8 300~------------------~
._
S 200~---4~~~.J-------------~~·~j-------------i

100~----I

o~--~~~------------~~------------~~~
BREAD
By Courtesy the Editor !if 'Chemistry and Industry'
FIG. 2. Calorific values

Fig. 3 shows the fat-protein-carbohydrate relationship of

some types of cake, bread, and biscuits. The carbohydrate
content of all these foods is obviously relatively high, while
the protein content of cake is lower than the other products;
cake, however, has the highest fat content.

I-
Z
LI.I
U
a:
lJJ
c..

"
By Courtesy the Editor of 'Chemistry and Industry'
FIG. 3. Fat-protein-carbohydrate-water content

While the mineral content of cake has not been seriously

I', considered in the past, the calcium-phosphorus content is
not inconsiderable and the iron content is of interest.

M
CAKE MAKING

Fig. 4 shows a comparison of the calcium phosphorus

content of cake, bread, eggs, and milk. Thellery large varia_
tion in the calcium and phosphorus content is due to the
use of phosphate aerating powders containing both calcium
and phosphorus as A.C.P. or phosphorus, combined with
sodium as pyroph?sphate.

By Courtesy the Editor of 'Chemistry and Industry'

FIG. 4. Calcium-phosphorus content

In the case of bread, the black portion represents the

calcium content of bread made from flour to which there
has been no addition of creta preparata.
The calcium phosphorus contents of egg and milk are
given as these are normal ingredients of cake; the better the
cake the higher the egg content and, thus, the greater the
calcium phosphorus content.
28

24 r-----
20 r-----
-
E 16 r-----
a.
a. 12 I--

"o -
CAKE BREAD EGG MILK
By Courtesy the Editor of 'Chemistry and Industry'
FIG. 5. Iron content

Fig. 5 shows the relative iron content of the same products.

In the case of cake and fruit bread, it is appreciably in-
creased by the use of currants, sultanas, and raisins.
While cake has not, in the past, been regarded as a source
NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FLOUR CONFECTIONERY

of vitamins, it is, nevertheless, a means of supplying both

vitamins A and B to the diet.
The vitamin A content of cake is derived mainly from the
egg and butter-fat content of the cake, where such is used,
since manufacturers' margarine is not enriched with vita-
mins, and so bakery margarines and fats cannot contribute
any vitamin A.
In Fig. 6 the comparative thiamine, riboflavin, and nico-
tinic acid contents are given. In baking, a 10 to 20 per cent
loss of thiamine normally occurs in both bread and cakes.
The use of some types of baking powder results in an alkaline
reaction in the crumb of the cake; this causes an increased
destruction of thiamine during baking, and therefore care
should be exercised to prevent this happening. The loss in
the case of biscuits, however, may exceed 50 per cent mainly
due to the higher temperature employed, as will the alka-
linity of the product in certain cases.
3 . 0 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - N _ _-.:.N.:.-_

2'5 f - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0'4 ~·Ol--------------

'"
C>
C>
=::..
0'3 OlE' .1·51----------
,;,
C>
C>
=::..
z
,;,
E 0'2

.1·0

o BREAD BISCUIT EGG MILK

CAKE
By Courtesy the Editor of'Chemistry and Industry'
FIG. 6. Thiamine-riboflavin-nicotinic acid content

The following analyses, given by Fuller, are of particular

interest since they give a picture of how the composition of
cakes changed during the war and afterwards, due to a
shortage of enriching ingredients, and later to a change in
the character of the products resulting from the necessity of
producing cake at an economic price, which became possible
due to the discovery of certain new products such as emulsi-
fYing agents.
CAKE MAKING

Plain cake
->$
Fat, Sugar, Protein, Egg Flour Water,
% % % solids, solids,
%
% %
Pre-war 17·4 30·8 6·6 4·2 30·2 -19·0
Pre-order 1942 13-5 22·8 6·8 2·0 36·7 2+3
I94!)-On 14·8 28·2 5·9 2·7 35·7 19·6

The above table presents the relevant analytical values

for a plain (unfruited) cake. A distinct decrease in fat, sugar
and egg contents is shown for the war-time cake and a
corresponding increase in flour and water. The results for
the present-day cake show that some improvement has
occurred in its quality, but the continuing shortage of egg
and fat is reflected in the relatively small increase in the
content of these two ingredients.
The results of analysis of pre-war, war-time, and present-
day fruit cake are compared in the following table. At first

FRUIT SLAB CAKE

Fat, Sugar, Protein, Egg Flour Water, Fruit

% % % solids, solids, % solids,
% % %
- - -- - -
Pre-war 13·2 44-0 4·7 H 17·2 18·l 35·8
Pre-order
1942 15·l 32·0 5·3 3·6 24-8 24·1 1704
1949 18·6 34·3 4·8 3·4 2H 20·5 18·9

glance these figures may be somewhat misleading, as they

would seem to suggest a continuous increase in the fat con-
tent and a maintenance of the egg content throughout the
war and post-war periods. This is due to the severe decrease
in fruit content, caused by the shbrtage of supply of fruit
ingredients. If the fruit is treated as a separate 'phase' and
the crumb of the cake analysed separately a more correct
picture of the changes taking place in the crumb ingredients
is obtained, as is shown in the table below. The values now
FRUIT SLAB: CRUMB ONLY (ALL PER CENT OF CRUMB)

Fat, Sugar, Protein, Flour Egg Water,

% % solids, solids, %
%
% %
Pre-war 23-6 26·7 7·0 30·8 6·2 17·0
Pre-order £942 19·5 22·8 6·4 31-6 4·6 25·0
1949 24·3 24·8 5·7 28·0 4·5 20·7

320
NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FLOUR CONFECTIONERY

show changes in fat, sugar, and egg contents similar to those

for the plain cake. In this particular cake the post-war re-
covery in quality is more marked, especially in fat content,
but the egg solids remain low.
These two sets of results indicate the changes that have
had to be made by reputable bakers during the war and
post-war periods. The best use has been made of the avail-
able materials. Some unavoidable reduction in fat, sugar,
and egg contents has occurred, and has resulted in an
increase in the flour and water contents of the cake. The
basic principles of cake manufacture have been adhered to
throughout, and the incorporation of so-called substitutes
for fat and egg, of doubtful or unproved nutritional value,
has been avoided.
McCance and Widdowson give the following figures
for the products listed below made ,from certain specific
recipes:

TABLE IX

Gm. per 100 g. Mg. per 100 g.

FOOD Available Calories
Protein
N X 6·25 Fat carbo-
hydrate
per
100 g.
Ca F
I Fe
Oatmeal biscuits 9·5 23·9 62·0 516 35·8 204·5 2·15
Orange cake 6·3 25·5 52·6 478 20·6 87·5 0·98
Pastry,jlaky (raw) 4·9 29·4 35·8 440 9·7 49·4 0·52
Pastry,jlaky (baked) 5·9 35·8 43·5 535 11·7 60·0 0·63
Pastry, short (raw) 6·0 24·7 44·5 437 11-4 59·8 0·60
Pastry, short (baked) 7·3 30·4 54·8 537 14·0 73·5 0074
QJteen cakes 6·4 22-4 57·1 469 32-4 94·1 1·06
Rock buns 6·0 16·8 63·8 442 48·9 78,3- , 0·72
Rock cakes 6·4 16·0 64-7 441 42·3 8% 1·09
Scones (with egg) 9·2 10·5 59·5 380 47·2 117·5 0·97
Scones (without egg) 8·4 13·2 57·1 391 63·1 109·5 0·66
Shortbread 6·6 27·2 64·1 543 15·7 69·2 0·62
Sponge cake 9·5 7·0 53·5 323 34·9 144·5 1-61
Welsh cheese cake 5·0 18·9 60·2 444 17·5 61·5 0·99
Cherry cake
Chocolate cakes 4·9 24·0 55·5 471 32-1 70·6 1·22
Coconut cakes 6·8 23·3 54·3 468 22·3 103·0 1·28
Doughnuts 7·4 23·4 54·0 469 35·0 101·5 1-09
Dundee cake 6·6 15·8 48·8 374 21·3 55·0 1·62
Eccles cakes H 15·0 62·3 412 50·3 78·5 2·02
Ginger biscuits 5-l 29·3 51-4 504 24·8 57·3 0·82
Lemon-curd tarts 6·3 16·7 70·4 469 21·3 75·9 1·26
Apple tart 2·3 8·7 32-6 224 5·9 29·2 0·36
Custard tart 5·5 14·4 27·7 272 72·7 96·9 0·56
Treacle tart 3·9 13·5 62-6 398 1904- 46·3 1-03
Sausage roll, flaky
pastry 7·3 36·0 35·5 409 13·4 80·0 1·30
Steak and kidney pie 1504- 18·9 16·7 308 10·1 213·0 5·57

32I
CAKE MAKING

The above analyses of confectionery products show how

they contribute to the food requirements of h:6man beings.
In assessing the relative values, consideration must be given
to the protein, fat, and carbohydrate values as well as the
calorie value, while the proportions of calcium, phosphorus,
and iron are not igsignificant. Variations in quality of rich.
ness may not affect the overall calorie intake, but it is, of
course, the differences in the proportions of the various
nutrients which are important, since it is this which deter.
mines the value of confectionery as an important article in
the dietary.

322
I Testing of Raw 28
Materials

IN the Examinations for the Technicians' Certificates of the

City and Guilds of London, candidates are required to have
a working knowledge of certain tests which can be carried
out to determine the nature and quality of the basic products
they are using. These tests are more in the nature of an
assay rather than a chemical analysis, bearing in mind that
it is the performance of the product in bakery practice
which is all important. They can be divided under two
headings:
Those which would normally be carried out in a laboratory. I.
These should include tests on: Laboratory
I (a) Flours: moisture, protein, particle size, colour Tests
(brightness) .
(b) Fats: slip point, dilatation curve.
(c) Eggs: amylase, soluble solids, solubility of dried
egg.
(d) Sugar: identification of types in mixtures.
(e) Baking powders and self raising flours: available
and residual carbon dioxide.
(D Jams, fondants, syrups: total dissolved solids (by
refractometer), reducing and non-reducing sugars.
(g) Chocolate, marzipan, etc.: fat, proteins, sugars,
composition to comply with current codes of practice. I
Those which would be carried out in a test bakery with 2.
standard test bakery equipment. The most common under Bakery Tests
this heading are:
I (a) Baking tests.
(b) Creaming tests for fats.
(c) Whipping tests for eggs, egg whites and creams. j
The laboratory tests are fairly standard procedures used
in laboratories, and it is not proposed to give details in a
 CAKE MAKING

work of this nature. This chapter deals with the bakery

tests only. Full details of the various tests on'lftour are given
in Bread-making, Principles and Practice, by E. B. Bennion
(Oxford University Press, Fourth Edition 1966), and so are
not included in this volume.

Baking Powder Practical baking tests are based on a scone mix, as the
Baking Test only aeration in these goods is that due to the baking
powder. To reduce variation due to manipulation and other
ingredients an emulsion method is used, followed by pin-
ning out to a standard thickness between gauging bars.
The degree of aeration is assessed after baking by measuring
the height of 6 scones and calculating the average.

BASIC RECIPE oz. Store at 70° F. overnight.

Flour (patent grade) 16
Oil 3
Sugar 3
Egg 2
Milk 8
Baking powder 1-

Method Sieve together baking powder and flour-ensure that the

sieve is no smaller than 16 mesh to avoid separation of the
constituents of the baking powder-and mix well.
Pass the oil, sugar, egg, and milk through an emulsifier
or high-speed mixer after ensuring that the sugar is dissolved
in the milk. Make into a smooth dough with the flour!
baking powder.
Allow the dough to rest 20 minutes (time from addition
of emulsion), then pin out between! gauging bars. Cut out
scones with 2t-in. cutter and place on lightly greased baking
sheets. Rest for 20 minutes. Bake at 4400 F. for approx. 20
minutes, coolon wire racks, and-measure height when cold.
Notes For control baking powders use appropriate quantities
(I) CONTROL of acid ingredient and sodium bicarbonate weighed for the
test and sieved with the flour.
(2) MANIPULA- Keep dough-making technique standard. A 5-qt. machine
TION bowl and hook may be used to prepare the dough, using
standard times according to the efficiency of the machine.
(3) EMULSION If adequate precautions are taken to keep the ingredients
intimately mixed, a bulk emulsion may be made up to
supply the whole test series. Make 8 oz. more emulsion than
will be required to ensure adequate supply.
(4) BAKING Arrange scones in staggered pattern on baking sheets and
if possible alternate rows of control and test dough.
(5) VOLUME This can be measured in the same way as for puff pastry.
TESTING OF RAW MATERIALS

Fats
This test is designed to measure the rate of increase of Creaming Tests
volume when a mixture of castor sugar and shortening are on Bakery
creamed together under controlled conditions. The test may Shortenings and
be extended to cover the effect of additions of egg products Margarines
and the quality of cake produced.
5-qt. bowl and beater, fitted to a Hobart* IO-qt. cake EQUIPMENT
machine
Scoop balance to weigh 500 gm.
Gram weights
Specific volume cup
Stop clock
Thermometer, scraper, palette knife
Bain marie at 70° F.
For extended test to produce cakes, in addition:
18in. X 18 in. baking sheets
5l in.cake hoops
Greaseproof paper, circles, and bands
BASIC RECIPE
Fat sample 320 gm.
Castor sugar 320 gm.

All utensils and equipment, samples, and raw materials

should be stored at 70° F. before testing, preferably in a
temperature-controlled room for 24 hours. If this is not
possible the test should be carried out in a bakery at a
temperature of 65-70° F. with the machine bowl, beater,_
and raw materials heated to 70° F. in a bain marie contain-
ing water at 70° F.
Place bowl on machine and fit beater. Turn to slow speed Method
and start machine and clock together. Beat for 30 seconds,
stop machine, scrape down, beat for a further 30 seconds, and
scrape down. This is done once only.
Turn to second speed and beat for 2 minutes, stop,
scrape down, and beat for a further 30 seconds. Fill specific
cup with creamed material-avoiding air pockets or exces-
sive pressure-and weigh. Note the batter and room
temperature, and return cream to bowl.
Repeat this procedure up to a total beating time of 10
minutes (4 weighings). After this scrape down at 4-minute
intervals and weigh at 5 minutes up to a total of 40 minutes.

* Other table machines are equally suitable but various makes differ
in speed for the three gears. Whatever machine is used the revs. per
min. should be noted.
 CAKE MAKING

Tabulate the temperature, filled-cup weight, and cal-

culated specific volume. Draw a graph of specific volume
against time, and report on the suitability of the fat for
creaming purposes.

Extended Test Extra Ingredients (at 70° F.) for shortening cake margarine
Egg (frozen or shell) 400 380
Soft flour 400 380
Water 80
Salt (add first) 4

These quantities balance the fat/water ratio between

compound fat and cake margarine.
Method After the creaming test, add salt, then add egg in 5 equal
portions, beating for I minute after each addition and
scraping down after the second and fourth additions. The
water should be added after this and beaten in for 30 se-
conds.) Determine the specific volume of the batter. Add
flour, blend in on slow speed for 60 seconds, scrape down,
beat on slow for 60 seconds, scrape down and determine the
specific volume.
Scale at 400 gm. into 5!-in. hoops and bake at 3800 F.
for I hour. Score the next day.

Deternlination ! The specific volume is the ratio of the volume of I gm. of

of Specific material under test (fat/sugar, cream, cake patter, etc.) to
Volume ofa the volume of I gm. of water at the same temperature, and
Cream or is the reciprocal of the specific gravity of the product.
Batter I t is used as a measure of the increase in volume of a
(Standard mixture of fat and sugar when creamed together as in the
Method) initial stages of cake making, or as a measure of the light-
C.B.C. ness of a cake batter before baking. I
Messrs. Craigmillar & British Creameries Ltd. use a
standard method for this determination. The creaming of
the sugar and the fat is carried out under the same controlled
conditions as already described. C.B.C. specify that the
volume of the specific volume cup should be approximately
80 m!. and the size approximately 21 in. in diameter at the
top, I ! in. diameter at the base, and I i in. deep. The method
for filling the cup and the calculation is as follows:
IMethod Fill the volume cup with the cream, or other product
being examined, in four stages, using the palette knife. Fill
down and round the cup in the three actions and fill the
remaining hollows on the surface with the fourth actiol!,
avoiding any air pockets.
TESTING OF RAW MATERIALS

Carefully scrape the surface level with the special straight-

edge scraper. Weigh the cup plus the cream to an accuracy
of I gm.
The specific volume is calculated by using the following Calculation
formula:
Specific volume = ~b = ~c
a-

Where V = capacity of cup, i.e. volume of cream, etc.;

a= weight of cup plus cream;
b= weight of cup alone;
c= weight of cream.

The fonowing is a useful table: with a cup of 78 mls.

capacity.
TABLE ~
Specific Volume Chart
Volume of Cup: 78 mls.

Wt.ofmix: Wt.ofmix: Wt.ofmix:

fat/sugar Specific fat/sugar Specific fat/sugar Specific
cream or volume cream or volume cream or volume
batter,gm. batter,gm. batter,gm.

100 0·78 74 1-05 48 l-62

99 0·79 73 1·07 47 l-66
98 0·80 72 1·08 46 1·70
97 0·80 71 HO 45 1·73
96 0·&1 70 HI 44 1·77
95 0·82 69 1·13 43 1·81
94 0·83 68 1-15 42 1·86
93 0·84 67 1·16 41 1·90
92 0·85 66 H8 40 1·95
91 0·86 65 1·20 39 2·00
90 0·87 64 1·22 38 2·05
89 0·88 63 1·24 37 2·11
88 0·89 62 1·26 36 2·17
87 0·90 61 1·28 35 2·23
86 0·91 60 1·30 34 2·29
85 0·92 59 1·32 33 2·36
84 0·93 58 1·34 32 2-44
83 0·94 57 1·37 31 2·52
82 0·95 56 1·39 30 2·60
81 0·96 55 H2 29 2·69
80 0·98 54 1-44 28 2-79
79 0·99 53 1-47 27 2·89
78 1·00 52 1·50 26 3·00
77 1-01 51 1·53 25 3·12
76 1-03 50 1·56 24 3·25
75 1·04 49 I-59 23 3·39

In practice, a cup or baker's patty pan of 78 mls. capacity

is counterpoised on the balance and the weight of 78 mls.
 CAKE MAKING

of the cream determined. By using the prep¥ed chart, the

8
specific volume of the cream 7 is read off directly.
c

Puff Pastry This test is designed to examine the suitability of a pastry

Test fat or margarine"for making puff pastry when used under
(Standard normal recommended conditions employing the French
Method) method. A general impression is gained on the way the
product handles and whether it is suitable for usual bakery
procedures.
By holding the product at 70° F. for 24 hours before use
and using it in slices without any hand plasticizing, informa-
tion is gained on its hardness, consistency, and plasticity,
and hence on its suitability for immediate use at a tempera-
ture of 70° F.
This test takes approximately 5 hours with one operator
carrying out one test.
Preparation for The pastry margarine should be held for 24 hours at
Test 70° F. before testing.
MATERIALS Flour-breadmaking flour
Salt
Cake margarine
Pastry margarine-sample under test
EQ,UIPMENT I scale 7-1b. capacity for weighing ingredients
I electric oven, thermostatically controlled
I quart measure
I pastry brake
I rolling pin
I French knife
I board brush
I wash brush
I cutting board 3 in. wide by approx. 20 in. long
Baking sheets
I cloth for covering dough and paste

lb. oz.

Recipe Flour I 8
Salt !
Cake margarine 3
Water 12-1 5
Pastry margarine. I 5

Method (I) Assess and record character of fat under test.

(2) Sieve the flour and salt together.
(3) Rub in the 3 oz. cake margarine until it is thoroughly
dispersed throughout the flour.

3 28
TESTING OF RAW MATERIALS

(4) Add the water an~ dough up to give a clear, weIl-

developed dough.
(5) Mould into a ball and allow to rest for 30 minutes
covered with a damp cloth.
(6) Now roll out the dough to a rectangle of approxi-
mately 18 in. X 9 in., using the minimum of dusting flour.
(7) Meantime, examine the pastry margarine, which
should have been held at 70° F. for 24 hours, for hardness,
plasticity, stickiness, spottiness, and sheen, and record
observations.
(8) Cut the pastry margarine into slices approximately
l in. thick, so that I lb. 5 oz. will cover two-thirds of the
rolled-out dough. Weigh I lb. 5 oz. of the sliced margarine.
(9) After brushing off excess flour cover two-thirds of
the dough with the sliced pastry margarine and fold in
three to give three layers of dough separated by two layers
offat.
(10) HandroIl this paste to a suitable thickness (approx.
Ii in.) for passing through the pastry brake at the maxi-
mum setting.
(I I) Machine roll the paste to approximately 9 in. X 25
in. or l in. in thickness and fold in three. This latter rolling
and folding constitutes one half turn.
(12) Give a second half turn in the same manner and
allow the paste to rest for 20 minutes covered with a damp
cloth.
(13) A further two half turns are then given and the paste
again allowed to rest for 20 minutes covered with a damp
cloth.
(14) At this stage a cross-section sample is taken from the
folded paste by cutting approximately I in. off the end across
the direction of the fold. By doing this carefully with a sharp
knife the degree oflamination can be examined and observa-
tions regarding the definition and uniformity of the layers,
and any lumpiness in the fat, can be noted and recorded.
(15) Give the paste a further two half turns and rest 20
minutes covered with a damp cloth.
(16) Roll the paste carefully to a uniform thickness of
0·3 cm. and use guide strips below the ends of the rolling
pin to finally control the paste thickness.
(17) From the paste, cut with a sharp knife, 20 X 3 in.
squares, cutting longitudinally and then transversely using
a wooden guide 18 in. long and 3 in. wide.
(18) Convert 10 squares from each paste into crossover
tarts.
(19) Place the squares on one baking tray and the cross-
CAKE MAKING

overs on another and, after resting approximately I hour,

bake at a temperature of 4800 F. * 11
(20) After baking (approximately 15 minutes) remove the
trays from oven and coolon rack.
(2 I) Measure heigh t of pastries.
(22) If required, the pastries are photographed for re-
cord purposes.
(23) When 24 hours old examine and assess the pastries
using a standard report form.

DOUBLE SCALE
GRADUATED
, 1037

22 22 _j_
i.,
;..
21
20
19
21
20
19
-1
18 18
17

SCALE

FIG. 7. Frame for Measuring Puff Pastry

Reproduced by permission of C.B.C. Ltd.

• It is usual to .test from two to six batches of margarine at one time,

and therefore when placing the pastries on the trays one from each batch
is placed consecutively in rows, each row starting with a different batch
of pastry. This results in the pastries being in a staggered position when
baking to avoid and overcome variations in baking due to position on
the tray and protection from neighbouring pastries.

33 0
I~ TESTING OF RAW MATERIALS

Report form for Puff Pastry Test.

Recording of
BRAND
Results
DATE

CODE

FAT Softness
HANDLING
Fracture
Free water
Aroma
Colour
Quickness in mouth (flex)
Continuity of fat layers
after half turns

Softness of paste
Rigidity of paste
CmING Distortion

Stickiness
BAKED Shape
PASTRIES
Surface Condition
Layer formation
Translucence of flakes
Oiliness between flakes
Brightness of flakes
Crispness of flakes
Filming on palate
OTHER OB- General quality of product
SERVATIONS and pastries. Preference
for number of turns, etc.

!
HEIGHT Squares
Squares

33 1
 CAKE MAKING

IDeternlination The determination of the specific volume of baked

of Specific goods is carried out by the seed displacemenp method.
Volullle of Specific volume is used as a comparative measure of the
Baked Goods volumes of goods under test-especially cakes-and one
test takes only a matter of minutes.
Preparation for the test only necessitates having the
appropriate appa:r;atus or equipment available.
EQUIPMENT I. One measuring box of a size such that when the article
to be volumed is placed into it there is a clearance of
approximately I in. around the sides of the article and I in.
between the top of the article and the top of the box. For
voluming the standard Madeira cake or half of the standard
high-ratio slab cake a box with the following internal di-
mensions is suitable: 8 in. X 7 in. X 5 in. deep.
2. One tray approximately 18 in. X 14 in. X 3 in. on
which to place the measuring box.
3. A supply of rape seed.
4. One scale sensitive to I gm. for weighing the rape seed
and cakes.
5. One straight-edged scraper.
6. One container to hold the seed in use during the
test.
Method The box designed to hold the article to be volumed is
placed on the tray and filled with rape seed delivered from
its container in a steady stream and from a fixed height
until the box is filled and the seed overflows into the tray.
Care should be taken during filling to maintain an even
flow of seed and to avoid any vibration. The seed is then
levelled by removing the surplus, by placing the straight-
edged scraper across the centre of the box-resting on the
edges-and pushing in a steady movement to the back of
the box. The motion is then repeated pulling the scraper
to the front of the box. A final sweep is then made by drawing
the scraper steadily across the surface of the seed in a
diagonal direction from one corner to the opposite corner.
The surplus seed which falls into the tray is then removed.
The seed in the box representing the volume of the box is
then transferred to an empty container and the article to be
volumed placed in the measuring box.
ThC;! seed in the container is now filled into the box con-
taining the cake until the box overflows. Levelling of the
surface Qf the seed is carried out as already described and
the excess seed in the tray and that left in the container is
weighed. The seed represents the volume of the cake, and
from its weight the specific volume of the cake is calculated,
using the following formula:

33 2
TESTING OF RAW MATERIALS

Weight of seed X 1'5 S 'fi I

. ht ocae
W elg f k = peCI c vo ume

I' 5 is the specific gravity of the rape seed, but this should
be checked with each batch and at regular intervals while
a batch is being used. j
The apparatus should be so designed as to enable the Note
seed to be dropped at a steady rate of flow and from a fixed
height, in order to remove the personal packing error conse-
quent upon variations in rate offlow and height from which
the seed is poured.

This test is designed to measure the height of five pastries, Determination

and only takes a few minutes. of height of
Preparation for the test only necessitates having a special Pastries or
measuring frame available, together with the test pastries. Scones
One measuring frame constructed of three sides mounted EQ.UIPMENT
on a rectangular base with a measuring scale calibrated in
centimetres fitted to the inner face of the central side (see
Fig. 7).
Select five of the most regular test pastries-open tarts Method
or crossover tarts-and place them on top of each other in
the measuring frame. Read off the total height on the scale
provided.
If th$! pastries are irregular, arrange them in the frame
in such a manner that the high side of one pastry coincides
in position with the low side of another pastry by inverting
anyone of two irregular samples.
This same apparatus and procedure can be used for
measuring the height of scones.

These tests are used to determine the whipping quality of Egg

whole egg, the suitability of flour for sponges, the selection Sponge Whipping
of a particular method to suit the materials available (and Tests
vice versa), the effect of other ingredients and conditions,
and so on.

oz.
Whole egg 10 Basic Recipe
Castor sugar 8
Flour 7!

Have all ingredients at 700 F. (21 0 C.). The sugar and Method-Standard
flour are best kept overnight in a temperature-controlled Traditional
room and the egg heated over warm water as required.
Place the egg and sugar in a 5-quart machine bowl, set
up on a machine fitted with a whisk. Whisk for 2 minutes

333
CAKE MAKING

Report sheet for Baking Tests.

TEST DATA

Basic recipe quality 'Fat, % Sugar, % Egg, % Milk,%

Flour: 100%

Method

Batter stage Control Test I Test 2 Test 3

F/S temp., 0 F.

F/S sp. vol., c.c./gm.

F/S/E temp., 0 F.

F/S/E sp. vol., c.c./gm.

Batter temp., 0 F.

Batter sp. vol., c.c./gm.

Cake characteristics Control Test I Test 2 Test 3

,
Volume 10

Shapeliness 10

Crust character 10

Crumb colour 10

Brightness of crumb 10 ~

Grain (texture) 10

Softness 10

Aroma 15

Eating qualities 15

Score 100

Cake wt., gm.

I
Cake volume, c.c.
Cake sp. vol., c.c./gm.

334
TESTING OF RAW MATERIALS

(speed 2 on Hobart, speed 3 on Peerless). ~top the machine,

carefully fill the 'specific volume' pan wIth batter, scrape
level, and weigh: record weight and return batter to bowl.
Continue whisking and checking specific volume until the
pan plus batter weight remains significantly constant. Re-
move bowl from machine knock out whlsk, then blend
flour in by hand, taking ca:e to adopt a standard technique
for ~his operation. Check specific volume of batter before
scahng off at 200 gm. Weigh directly and :arefully into
tared pans on a gram balance. Note t~e c~ns~stency of the
bat~er, e.g. lumpy/smooth, stiff/fluid, dry /stlcky. B~ke at
380 F. (193° C.) for 20 minutes: bake sponges untIl they
are cooked and note any variation from the standard times
and if possible the reason for this. :Knock sponges out on to
wires, cool right side up, and make critical assessment 24
hours later. Practical Notes
If the bakery temperature is below 70° F. ensure that
(I) TEMPERA-
batter temperature is maintained at 70° F., e.g. stand bowl
TURE
in a bain marie at this temperature when checking specific
(2) WEIGHING
volumes.
Weigh as quickly as possible, but double check figures
before returning batter to bowl. specifi?-v~lume pan must
be washed and dried between each we1ghmg, and should
be at room temperature before filling with batter.
Prepare all ingredients before starting the test series and (3) IDENTIFICA-

n: ark containers as weighing is completed. Use greaseproof

TION

clrc1:s in the bottom of the pan and m a: k these for identi-

ficatIOn of the finished goods. Mark bakm~ sheet to ensure
easy location if other tests are being baked m the same oven.
(4) CALCULA-
Weight of pan empty = WI gill. TION OF
" " " full of water = W2 gro- SPECIFIC
" " " full of batter = W3 gm. VOLUME
Then Volume of pan (ml.) = W2 - WI ml.
Weight of this volume of batter = W3 - WI gm.
W2 - WI
Specific volume = ~I
Delayed Soda
8 oz.
Castor sugar 10 oz.
Recipe
Frozen egg 7! oz.
Flour
Cream powder
Sodium bicarbonate
--
10gm·
5 grn.

!
-
oz.
Water

335
 Whisk on top speed to maximum volume (12 minutes.
Hobart, 15 minutes Peerless) checking specifi[4 volume at
2-minute intervals.
Mix and add to the sponge on slow speed. Whisk on
second speed for I minute. Check specific volume before
dropping out at 200 gm.
All-in As for delayed soda, but all ingredients, including sodium
Recipe bicarbonate, are whisked on top speed to maximum volume.
Check as for delayed soda and drop out at 200 gm. when
specific volume is at maximum.
This method may also be used to study the effect of
various modifications in formulae, e.g.:
Modifications ( I) Acid ingredients.
(2) Use of G.M.S. emulsions (\- oz. of 1 '. 3 emulsion).
(3) Lower-quality recipe-effect of'Hymono' type G.M.S.
(4) Use of dried egg.
(5) Flour quality.
Index

Acetone, 78 Almond (contd.)

dicarboxylic acid, 78 goods, 256
Acid-benzoic, 104 classification, 256
calcium phosphate, 89 mixing methods, 257
pectic, 159 wafer mixings, 263
potassium sulphate, 81 Almonds, I 17
sodium pyrophosphate, 95 Alicante, I 17
sulphate, 86 Barbary, 117
Acidity of cake batters, 239 composition of, I 17
offlour, 15 flaked, 118
of milk, 21 green, 121
Acids, ground, 118
acetic, 27, 185 Jordan, 117
action on egg whites, 27 method of blanching, I 18
on sugar, 59 nib, 117
butyric,21 preparation of, 118
citric, 138 substitutes of, I 18
fatty, 40 split, 118
in food, 87 Valentia, 117
lactic, 2 I whole blanched, I 18
succinic, 2 I Alum, 86
tartaric, 80, 138 Aluminium hydroxide, 87
Adulterants of vanilla extract, 103 in food, 87
Adulteration of ground almonds, sulphate, 77
118 Amaranth, 114
of honey, 69 American icing, 186
of spices, 108 lards,48
Aerated goods, 207 Ammonia alum, 86
Aeration by chemicals, 75, 207 Ammonium bicarbonate, 85
by eggs, 25, 36 carbamate, 84
Agar-agar, 157 carbonate, 84
Agents, colouring, I 12 hydrogen carbonate, 84
stabilizing, 245 sulphate, 84
Albumen, 27 Amygdalin, I 17
action of heat on, 27 Angelica, 131
dried,33 Animal charcoal, 62
Albumen substitute, 38 oils, 42
Alginates, 158 Apples, dried, 128
Alkalis, 75 Application of oils and fats, 42
Alkaloid, 110, 163 Apricot,
Allspice, I 10 dried, 128
Almond puree, 195
essence, 104 Arachis or groundnut oil, 52

337
 INDEX

Argol,81 Butter (contd.)

Aromatic seeds, I I I clarified, 47
Arrowroot jelly, 147 cocoa, 165
Artificial essences, 101 composition of, 46
Automatic Swiss-roll plant, 304 continental, 194
Danish,46
English,46
Babas, 203 fat, 21
syrup for, 204 flavours, 106
Bakers' chocolate, 170 in fermented buns, 200
Baking, New Zealand, 46
acids, effect of, 96 rancidity of, 47
confectionery goods, 275 sponges, 253
fats, 40 uses of, 47
fermented goods, 278 Buttercream, 189
powder, 207 legal definition, 189
temperatures, 278 Buttermilk, 23
tests for baking powder, 324 acidity of, 23
tests for egg, 333 dried,24
tests for fats, 326 Butyrin,47
tests for puff pastry, 328
Balance in cake making, 235
Ball degree of sugar boiling, 65 Cacao beans, 163
Bath buns, 202 composition, 164
Beating up whites, 27 degree of roasting, 164
Beef fat, 49 nibs, 164
Beet sugar, 61 Cake,
Benzaldehyde, 104 aeration of, 226
Benzoic acid, 104 flour, 15, 240
Bicarbonate of soda, 78 machines, 292
JBiscuits, margarine, 53
Macaroon, 259 quality, factors governing, 234
rout, 257 Cake making,
Blackcurrants, 137 acidity of batters, 239
jam, 137 baking, 281
Blanching almonds, I 18 balance, 235
Bleaching of sultanas, 125 blending method, 229
Blood albumen, 38 continuous method, 232
Blow degree, 65 egg/fat ratio, 235
Boiling jams, 139 fats in, 235 . / '
Bottled fruit, 131 faults in, 242
Brazil nut paste, 121 flour batter systems, 228
Brazil nuts, 12 I flour/sugar batter" 228
composition of, 123 fruit in, 236
Brioche, 203 high ratio, 236
Bun glazes, 20 I high-speed, 233
Buns, aerated, 212 metlIods, 227
Bath,202 mixing, objects of, 227
Chelsea, 202 recipe construction, 235, 237
currant, 202 sugar batter system, 227
doughnuts, 202 sugar in, 235
fermented, 197 wedding, proportions, 242
washes, 201 Calcium biphosphate, 89
Bun-making machinery, 302 carbonate, 62, 84
Butter, phosphates, 89
Australian, 46 sulphate, 89
INDEX

Calcium (contd.) Chocolate (contd.)

tartrate, 8 I unsweetened block, 165
Candied Angelica, 13 1 uses, 174
peels, 129 vanilla, 167
Cane sugar, 61 Cholesterol, 28
Canned fruit, 133 Choux paste, 224
Caramel colour, I IS baking temperature, 225
Caramel degree, 66 Churning milk, 46
Caraway extract, I I I Cinnamic aldehyde, 109
seeds, I I I Cinnamon, 109
Carbohydrates, 59 bark, 109
Carbonate of ammonia, extract, 109
of magnesia, 76 Citral, 103
of soda, 79, 76 Citric acid, 77
Carmine, I IS Citron peel, 130
Carmoisine, 114 Citrus fruits, 129
Carotene, I IS Cloves, 109
Casein, 21 Coagulation of eggs, 27
Cassia, 109 Coated anhydrous monocalcium
Castor sugar, 63 phosphate, 92
Catalyst, 50 Cochineal, I 15
Catalytic hydrogenlltion process, Cocoa, 163
50 analysis of powders, 179
Cellulose ethers, 38 butt6r, 164
Chelsea buns, 200 low fat, 173
Chemical aeration, 75 legal standards, 179
Chemically aerated goods, 207 powder, 170
baking temperatures, 212 powder composition, 179
flour for, 13 powder in cakes, I 79
Cherries, 129 quantity to use, 179
bottled, 132 uses, 189
Chlorophyll, I IS Coconut, 120
Chocolate, 16'2 c~mposition, 1'l3
as foodstuff, 163 macaroons, 264
bakers', 170 oil, 52
buttercream, 177 uses of, 120
colours, I 14 Coffee buns, 2 I 3
couverture, 165 extracts, 106
couverture, addition of oil or lard Colour mixing principles, I 13
to, 176 Colouring matter, 112
coverings, 166, 170 in jam, 138
dipping temperature, 167 permitted list, 114
fat and sugar bloom, 169 regulations, 112
fondant, 175 testing of, I 16
addition of butter to, 175 Colours, I 12
gateaux, 177 primary, 113
Genoese, 178 "oocondary, 113
hints on using, 168 tertiary, I 13
history of, 162 testing of, I 16
manufacture, 163 Compound fats, 50
melting, 167 Conching, 165
milk, 165 Confectioners' piping jelly, 145
moisture on, 168 Confectionery coolers, 307
special fats, 171 nutritive value of, 313
tempering for use, 166, 173 travelling ovens, 276
types of, 166 Congress tarts, 259

339
INDEX

Food value (contd.) Glucose (contd.)

of pistachio nuts, 123 use of, 68 tJ
of walnuts, 123 Glucosides, 104
Frangipane, 262 Glue, 150
using marzipan, 263 Glycerides, 40
using macaroon paste, 263 Glycerine, 73
Fructose, 68 effect of, 73
Fruit, bottled, 131 in royal icing, 185
canned, 133 Glycerol mono-stearates, 54
cleaner 'Tornado', 298 Golden syrup, 73
dried and crystallized, 129 Gooseberries, 137
flavours, imitation, 105 Granularity of flour, 15
frozen, 135 Granulated sugar, 63
in cakes, 236 Granulators, 63
in confectionery, 124 Grape sugar, 59
in fermented buns, 200 Green almonds, I'll
jellies, 143 colours, I 15
jelly with pectin, 145 Ground ginger, 109
juices, 106 almonds, I 18
preparation of, 127 rice, 17
pulp, 139 Gulf currants, 126
sinking in cakes, 241 Gum, 149
sugar, 69 alginates, 158
syrups, 106 animal, 150
Fruits for jams and jellies, 136, 137 arabic, 152
Fruit standard, 141 arabic solution, 195
benzoin, 195
carob, 155
Ganache, 195 classification, 149
preparation for use, 196 ghatti, 155
Gateaux, 265 karaya, 154
bases, 265 marine, 156
decorative materials, 265 paste, 189
flavour blends, 266 sandrach, 195
large-scale production, 267 seaweed, 149
preparation of bases, 266 starch, 149
Torten and continental type, 268 synthetic, 159
Gelatine, 150 tragacanth, 153
properties of" 151 vegetable, 152
uses of, 152
Genoese, boiled, 253, 255
German yeast, 76 Hard ball degree, 65
Ginger, 131 crack degree, 66
cakes, baking temperature, 281 Hazelnuts, I'll
crystallized, 131 composition of, 123
in syrup, 131 Heat treatment of eggs, 32, 33
root, 131 Heavy gateaux, 265
starch of, 109 High-ratio cakes, 236
Glace cherries, 129 high emulsifying shortenings, 240
Glace royal icing, 185 mixing methods, 23 I, 232
Glazes, 194 Honey, 68
Glazing buns, 201 composition, 69
Globulins, 27 uses, 69
Glucono-delta-Iactone, 78, 83 Hydrochloric acid, 82
Glucose, 59, 67 Hydrocyanic acid, 104
composition of, 68 ion concentration, 239

342
INDEX

Hydrogenated fats, 50 Kernels, apricot, 118, 264

Hydrolysis of amygdalin, I 17 peach, 118
of starch, 67 Knocking back a dough, 200

Icings, Lactic acid, 21, 23

American or boiled, 186 action on aerated goods, 23
bacteria, 21
basic ingredients, 182
classification, 182 fermentation, 21
Lactose, 21
dry fondant, 184 Laevulose, 68
fondant, 183 Lard,48
fudge, 185 American, 48
marshmallow, 187
an addition to chocolate, 176
meringue, 185 classification of, 48
parfait, 184 compounds, 58
royal, 185 composition of, 48
soft, 184 European, 48
water, 183
Imitation fruit flavours, 105 food value and uses, 49
methods of rendering, 48
Imitation cream, 192
Indian corn, 17 oil, 42,49
Indigo carmine, 114 processed, 49
Lauricin, 41
Invert sugars, 69
Leaf gelatine, 150
Irish Moss, 158
Iso-eugenol, 103 Lecithin, 55
Lemon curd, 142
essences, 103
oil, 103
Jam, peel, 129
raspberry, 136 terpeneless oil, 103
solids content, 141 yellow, 114
standards for, 141 Lime water, 30
strawberry, 137 Lilac petals, 131
sugar for, 138 Lipases,44-
use of acid, 138 Liqueurs, 102, 106
Jams andjellies, 136 Loaf sugar, 62
boiling, 139 Lutein, 28
colouring matter, 138
fruits for, 136, 137
Jamaica pepper, 116 Macaroon biscuits, 259
rum, 69 . Macaroon goods,
Japonaise, 260 baking temperatures, 280
using ground almonds, 26 I Macaroon paste, 258
using macaroon paste, 261 in almond goods, 259
using marzipan, 261 Mace, 110
Jellies, 143 Machinery, 291
fruit, 143 automatic cake plant, 305
piping, 145 bun-making, 302
Jelly, cake depositors, 295
arrowroot, 147 cake mixers, 291
cornflour, 147 confectionery coolers, 307
gooseberry, 159 continuous mixers, 294, 295
lower cost, 145 enrobers, 298
sugar content, 144- for puff pastry, 297
Jocolatte, 163 fruit cleaning, 298
Jordan almonds, I 17 high-speed mixers, 294

343
INDEX

Machinery (contd.) Non-drying oils, 41 11

horizontal mixers, 292 Nutmegs, 110
jam tart, automatic, 30 I oil of, 110 .
metal detectors, 3 iO Nutritional value of confectIOnery,
pie-making, 300 3 13
pressure whisks, 293 Nuts used in confectionery, II7
raw materials intake, 291
slicing, 307 Oat flour, 17 .
Swiss roll plant, 304- Oil arachis or peanut 011, 52, 122
tray washing, 312 coconut, 52, 120
universal bun and roll plant, 303 cotton seed, 52
vertical mixers, 292 essential, I 0 I
wrapping, 308 ground-nut, 52, 122
Maize, 17 lard, 42, 49
Margarine, 53 of bitter almonds, 104
cake, 53 of cinnamon, 109
composition of, 54 of lemons, 103
manufacture, 54 of nutmeg, 110
pastry, 53 of oranges, 104
fat content, 54 of peppermint, 104
Marshmallow, 187 palm kernel, 50, 52
using agar-agar, 187 sesame, 52
using gelatine, 188 Oils and fats, 40
using boiling starch, 188 in margarine, 53
Marzipan, 119 Oils,
cake, 257 drying, 41
in almond goods, 258 extraction of, 52
uses of, 119 fish marine and animal, 42
Maw seed, I I I hydrogenation of, 50
Melanguer machines, 165 non-drying, 41
Meringue buttercream, 194 semi-drying, 41
Meringues, 186 Olein, 41
baking temperatures, 280 Oleo oil, 49
icings, 185 Olive oil, 41
Metaphosphoric acid, 89 Orange colour, I 14
Mexican cocoa beans, 164 essence, 104
Milk,20 oil, 104-
bacteria in, 2 I peel, 130
butter, 23 Orthophosphates, 87
chemical composition, 2 I Orthophosphoric acid, 87
effects in cakes, 21 Othellos, 247, 273
P9wders, 22 Ovens, 275
separated, 22 electric, 275
skim, 22 multi-deck, 275
sugar, 21 temperatures, 277
uses of, 21 travelling, 276, 300
Mincemeat, 142 turbo-radiant, 277
Mixed spice, I I I
Morton pressure whisk, 293
Palmitin, 41
Palm kernel oil, 42, 52
Natural essences, 101 Pancakes, Scotch, 212
fruit jellies, 143 Parisian routs, 257
Neutral lard, 48 Paste,
New Zealand butter, 46 choux, 224
Nib sugar, 63 method of making, 224

344
INDEX

Paste (contd.) Potassium (contd.)

gum, 189 sodium tartrate, 80
macaroon, 258 Potato flour, 17
pUff, 21 9 Premier jus, 49
short, 215 Preservation of eggs, 29
sugar, 188 Preservatives
sweet, 215 in fruit pulp, 133
Pastry brakes, 296 in sultanas, 126
margarine, 53 Preserved ginger, 109
sheeters, 296 Primary colours, I 13
Patras currants, 126 Proving buns, 20 I
Pears, dried, 128 Prussic acid, 104
Peanut oil, 122 Puff paste, 2 I 9
Peanuts, 122 flour for, 20
composition, 123 goods, baking temperature, 279
Pearl ashes, 75 methods of making, 220
degree, 65 reason for lift, 220
Pectic acid, 159 utilization of cuttings, 22 I
Pectin, 138, 159 Pulverized sugar, 63
fruit jelly with, 145 Puree, apricot, 195
powder, 138 Pyrgos currants, 126
Peel, candied, 129 Pyrophosphates, 97
citron, 130 Pyrophosphoric acid, 88
lemon, 129
orange, 130
Pepper, 110 Quality standards of jam, 141
black, 110 Queen cakes,
white, 110 baking temperature, 279
Peppermint oil, 102
pH of cake batters, 239
of cake flour, 15 Raisins, 124
of egg albumen, 27 Rancidity in butter, 47
Phosphates, 87 in fats, 43
coated,92 in margarine, 54
Phosphatides, 56 in milk powder, 23
Phosphoric acids, 87 Raspberries, 136
Pie-making machines, 300 Raspberry buns, 212
ovens, 300 colour, 114
Pimento, 110 jam, 136
Pine nuts, 122 Raw sugar, 61
Piping jellies, 145 Reconstitution of dried albumen,
Pistachio nuts, 121 34
composition, 123 of dried eggs, 33
Plum jam, 137 of dried yolks, 34
Plums, of full-cream milk powder, 22
bottled, 132 of separated milk powder, 22
crystallized, 129 Recipe balance, 235
Ponceau MX, I 14 Recipes for,
Ponceau 4R, 114 aerated buns, 2 I 2
Poppy seed, I I I almond goods, 259
Potash,75 cakes, 230
alum, 86 chocolate buttercream, 177
Potassium bisulphate, 8 I chocolate gateaux, 177
acid sulphate, 81 chocolate Genoese, 178
bitartrate, 79 chocolate rolls, 179, 180
hydrogen tartrate, 79 fermented goods, 202

345
INDEX

Recipes (contd.) Shortening agents, 4:y

high-ratio cakes, 231 high emulsifying, 240
icings, fillings and creams, 182 Short paste, 215
marshmallow, 187 baking temperature, 279
meringues, 186 flour for, 14,216
pancakes, 2 I 2 methods of making, 216
pastes, 218 with potato flour, 216
piping jelly, 146 Silicate of soda, 30
scones, 209 Sinking of cakes, 241
sponge products, 247 of fruit in cakes, 241
Reconstituted cream, 192 Skimmed milk, 22
Refiner's chocolate, 165 Slicing machines, 307
Refrigeration in bakery, 284 Soda alum, 86
deep freeze, 286 scones, 21 I
temperatures, 287 Sodium aluminium sulphate, 86
Residual salts, effect on flour, 96 bicarbonate, 78
Retardation, biphosphate, 94
dough, 284 bisulphate, 82
for buns, 284 chloride, 82
points to observe, 285 pyrophosphate, 95
Rice, flour, 17, 257 sulphate, 86
Rochelle salts, 80 tartrate, 81
Rock cakes, 2 I 3 Soft ball degree, 65
Rolls, Swiss, baking temperature, 280 crack degree, 66
flour, 15
Soya beans, 122
Saffron, I 15 flour, 122
Salicylic acid, 133 flour composition, 123
Salmonella, 8, 31 flour uses, 122
Salveratus, 78 specific volume, determination of,
S.A.S.,86 3 26,33 2
Saturated solution of sugar, 64 Spice flavours, 105
Savarins, 203 mixed, I I I
Scone flour, 18 Spices, 108
Scones, classification of, 108
cream, 210 Sponge goods, 244
hot-plate, 2 I 1 aeration of, 244
milk,211 butter sponge, 253
soda, 211 effect of emulsifying agents, 246
Victoria, 2 10 effect of extra yolk, 246
Scotch pancakes, 21 I effect of fat, 246
Secondary colours, I 13 effect of glycerine, 246
Seeds, effect of machine speeds, 245
caraway, 1 I I effect of salt, 246
coriander, I I I effect of temperature, 246
Self-raising flour, 18, 208 enriched sponge, 253
Separated milk, 22 Sponges, methods of making, 246
milk powder, 22 all-in, 250
Sesame oil, 52 continuous, 251
Sesquiterpeneless oil, 103 delayed soda, 248
Setting a ferment, 198 high-speed, 252
Shade-dried currants, 126 orthodox, 247
Shea butter, 53 pressure whisk, 250
Shell eggs, 26 separated, 247
Shortbread, baking temperature, Staphylococci, 8
281 Starch, 161
INDEX

Stabilizing agents, 245 Tartrates, 80

Standards for jam, 141 Tartrazine lemon yellow, 126
Stearin, 41, 50 Tea cakes, 200
Strawberries, 137 Tempering chocolate, 178
Strong flour, 14 Tennis cakes, flour for, 21
Sucroses, 59 Terpeneless oil, 103
Sugar ash content, 64 Tertiary colours, 121
batter system, 2'207 Testing of raw materials, 323
dried egg, 35, 36 bakery, 323
for jams, 138 laboratory, list of tests, 323
in cakes, 235 Tests,
in fermented buns, 199 baking, 323
preserved eggs, 32 creaming, 333
Sugars and sweetening power, 69 for baking powder, 324
beet, 61 for egg, 333
cane, 61 for fats, 326
degree of hoiled sugar solutions of, for puff pastry, 328
65 whipping, 333
Demarara, 62 Theobroma cacao, 173
evaluation, 63 Theobromine, 173
extraction of, 6r Thermometers, oven, 252
fruit, 59 Thread degree, 74
grape, 59, 67 Toluene, 110
icing, 63 Torten Gateaux, 268
invert, 69 bases, 271
maple, 59 Black Forest Torte, 270
milling of, 63 classification, 268
of honey, 69 correct balance, base and fillings,
palm,59 269
raw, 61 hazel nougat Torte, 270
refining of, 62 rum and chocolate Torte, 270
relative sweetness of, 69 strawberry Torte, 270
simple, 67 typical formulae, 272
solutions, 64 dobos, 272
standards, 74 roulade, 272
uses of, 66 Vienna sponge, 272
Sultana scones, 'log Travelling ovens, 276, 300
Sultanas, I 25 Treacles, 73
Summary of cake faults, '2041 Tricalcium phosphate, 87
Supersaturated solutions of sugar, 64 Tray-washing machines, 312
Sweet paste goods-recipes, 2 18
baking temperatme, Q79
Swiss buns, 202 Unsweetened block chocolate, 165
roll plant, 304 Use of acid calcium phosphate,
rolls, chocolate, 179 89
I Synthetic gums, 159
vanillin, J03
Syrup, 73 Vacuum bottles, 131
for babas, 204 Valentia almonds, 117
for bottled fruit, 133 Vanilla beans, 102
golden, 73 extract, 102
stock, 183 adulterants, 103
preparation of, 102
Vanillin, 103
Tartar, cream of, 79 Victoria scones, 2 I 0
Tartaric acid, 80 Violet petals, 13 I

347
INDEX

Vol, volatile, 84 Whey powder, 24

Vostizza currants, 126 Whisking machines, 192, 293
Whites of eggs, 27
Winter wheats, 19
Walnut oil, 120 Wrapping machines, 308
Walnuts, 120' materials, 308, 309
Washes, bun, 201
Water, 20
X-ray inspection unit, 31 I
glass, 30
icing, 183
Wedding cake proportions, 242 Yeast, 197
cake baking temperature, 281 Yolks, egg, 28
dimensions of, 242, 243 dried egg, 35
I

(
 Checked 201 0
Cbecked-Of4

11 -'+ 1fL ____ .