AS level biology
Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler organisms, whereas Eukaryotic cells are
more complex. The organelles found inside a Eukaryotic cell are:
Organelle Description
Nucleus A large organelle surrounded by
a nuclear envelope (double
membrane) which contains
many pores. The nucleus
contains chromatins and are
often a structure called
nucleolus
Lysosome A round organelle surrounded
by a membrane with no clear
internal structure
Vesicles A small fluid-filled sac, which is
in the cytoplasm, it is
surrounded by a membrane
Ribosomes A very small organelle that floats
free in the cytoplasm or is
attached to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic There are two types of
Reticulum endoplasmic reticulum these are
smooth ER (due to no
ribosome’s) and the rough ER,
which is covered in ribosomes
Golgi A group of fluid filled flattened
Apparatus sacs. Vesicles are often seen at
the edge of the sacs
Centrioles Hollow cylinders, containing a
ring of microtubules
Mitochondria Are double bound membrane,
the inner one is folded to form
cristae and inside that is the
matrix. It contains enzymes
which are used for respiration
Function
Chromatins is made from
proteins and DNA. The pores
allow substances to move
between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm. The nucleolus
makes ribosomes
Contains digestive enzymes,
these are kept separate from the
cytoplasm by a surrounding
membrane but can be used to
digest invading cells or to break
down worn out components of
the cell.
Transport substances in and
out of the cell and between the
organelle.
The site where proteins are
made
The smooth ER synthesises and
processes lipids
The Rough ER folds and
processes proteins that have
been made at the ribosomes
It processes and packages new
lipids and proteins. It also
makes lysosomes
Involves with the separation of
chromosomes during cell
division
The site of aerobic respiration,
and is where ATP is produced.
They are very active and require
a lot of energy
There are many differences between Eukaryotes and prokaryotes, these include the
size of ribosomes, the size of the cell, and the cell walls involved; most of the
differences are listed below:

Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
Larger cells (2-200um) Extremely small cells less and 2.0um
DNA is linear DNA is circular
Nucleus present-(DNA is inside) No nucleus-DNA is free in cytoplasm
No cell wall in animal cells, cellulose cell Cell wall made of polysaccharides but
wall in plants and chitin cell wall in not cellulose or chitin
fungi
Many organelles, mitochondria present Few organelles, no mitochondria
Large ribosomes Smaller ribosomes
Example Human liver cell Example E.Coli bacterium
Protein Transport

1. Transcription occurs changing DNA to mRNA, where the mRNA leaves the
nucleus via pores in the nuclear envelope.
2. Proteins are made on ribosome’s
3. The ribosomes sometimes attach to the rER where the protein made moves
through making the 3-D shape en route. (ribosomes on the rough
endoplasmic reticulum make proteins that are excreted or attached to the
cell membrane, whereas the ribosomes which are free in the cytoplasm make
proteins which stay in the cytoplasm)
4. Vesicles pinch off the rER, these contain the proteins.
5. Then they are transported to the Golgi apparatus where the vesicle fuses
with the flattened sacs of the Golgi apparatus; here the proteins may
undergo further processing/moulding.
6. Vesicles’ containing the modified protein pinches off the Golgi apparatus, to
be transported around the cell. Such as extracellular enzymes will be moved
to the cell membrane ready to be excreted.

Cell organisation

Similar, specialised cells group themselves into clusters, they work together to form
a tissues, cells have special adhesion molecules on their cell surface which help
them recognise eachother.such as xylem tissue is a plant tissue with two jobs,
support and transportation of water and nutrients. It contrains xylem vessel cells
and parenchyma cells.

Cell In a multicellular organism cells are specialised for a particular

function
Tissue A group of specialised cells, working together to carry out one
function. E.G muscles cells working together to form muscle
tissue
Organs A group of tissues working together to carry out one function.
E.G muscle, nerve and epithelium work together in the heart
Organ systems A group of organs working together to carry out a particular
function, E.G the circulatory system.
Genes are expressed through master genes. Such as in fruit flies once the main
body segment have been determined, the cells in each segment become specialised
for the appropriate structure, (Wings Antennae) The master genes control the
development of each segment. These genes were discovered by looking at
mutations. The master gene produces mRNA which is translated into signal
proteins. These proteins switch on the genes responsible for producing the proteins
needed for the specialisation of the cell in each segment.
The Cell cycle and Mitosis

The cell cycle is a process that all body cells from

multicellular organisms use to grow and divide.
The cell cycle starts when a cell is produced by
cell division and ends with the cell dividing to
produce two identical cells. Mitosis ensures
genetic consistency.

The cell cycle consists of a period of cell growth

and DNA replication called interphase and a
period of cell division called mitosis. Interphase
is sub divided into three separate growth stages
These are called G,S and G2. Mitosis is used for
growth, repair and asexual reproduction. Mitosis
contains two processes these are: The DNA is
separated in nuclear division and the cytoplasm
is separated via cytoplasmic division.

Interphase Is then the cycle goes from G to S then finally G2. Interphase is
the intense and organised activity during the cells synthesis of
new cell components such as organelles and membranes and new
DNA. The formation of new cell organelles occurs throughout
interphase, but DNA synthesis only occurs during the S stage.
The length of this stage differs depending in the role of the cell.
There is no interphase for the first few divisions of a human
embryo. By the end of this stage, the cell contains enough
cytoplasm, organelles and DNA to form two new cells.
1. Prophase  The chromosomes condense meaning they get shorter and
fatter
 The centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cell and
start to form a network of protein fibres called spindles.
 The nuclear envelope breaks down allowing the
chromosomes to lie free in the cytoplasm.
2. Metaphase  The chromosomes (each with two chromatids) line up
along the middle of the cell
 They become attached to the spindle by their centromere
3. Anaphase  The centromeres divide, separating each pair of sister
chromatids.
 The spindles contract, pulling chromatids to opposite ends
of the cell. Centromeres first.
4. Telophase  The chromatids reach the opposite poles on the spindle
 The chromatids uncoil and come long and thin again.
 They are now called chromosomes again.
 The nuclear envelope forms around each group of
chromosomes, so there are two nuclei.
 The cytoplasm divides and there are now two daughter
cells that are genetically identical to each other
 Mitosis is finished and the start of interphase begins.
 Root tips and observing mitosis

 Cut the tip from a growing root, should be about 5mm long.
 Place the root tip on a watch glass, and add a few drops of
hydrochloric acid
 Add a few drops of stain so the chromosomes become darker, so are
easily seen. Schiff’s reagent
 Warm the watch glass, by passing it slowly through a Bunsen burner
 Place the root tip on a microscopic slide, and use a mounted needle to
break it open to spread the cells thinly
 Add a few more drops of stain then place a cover slip on it
 Squash the cover slip down gently
 Warm the slid again for a few seconds to intensify the stain
 Now look at the different stages of mitosis under a light microscope

Production of a gametes

Gametes are the male and female sex cells found in all organisms that reproduce
sexually. These two gametes join together to form a zygote, which then divides up
and develops into a new organism.

In animals the male gamete is sperm, and in female it is an egg cell (ova). In plants
the male gamete is pollen grains, and the female gametes are ovules.

Gametes contain only half the normal amount of chromosomes, so in one gamete in
humans it will be 23.

The way the gametes divide is by meiosis; meiosis is a type of cell division that
happens in the reproductive organs to produce gametes. Cells that divide by
meiosis have the full number of chromosomes to start off with (23 pairs). Without
meiosis the number of chromosomes would be double the normal amount.
 1. The DNA replicates so there are two identical copies of each chromosomes
called chromatids
2. The DNA condense to form double armed
chromosomes, made from two sister
chromatids
3. The chromosomes arrange themselves into
homologues pairs, so 1 will match up with 1.
4. First division the homologues pairs are
separated, halving the chromosomes number.
5. Second division – the pairs of sister chromatids
are separated
6. Four new gametes that are generically different
are produced.

Genetic variation is the difference that exists between

individual genetic materials. The reason that it is so
important is that it creates genetic variation , there
are two ways in which this happens, this is crossing
over of chromatids and independent assortment of
chromosomes.

Crossing over of chromatids is when before the first division of meiosis the
homologous pairs of chromosomes come together and pair up, two of the
chromatids in each pair twist around each other. The twisted bit breaks off their
original chromatid and rejoins onto the other chromatid recombining their
genetically material. The point where the chromatids break is called the chiasma.

Independent assortment of chromosomes is when the four daughter cells formed

from meiosis have completely different combinations of chromosomes, so all your
cells you get from your parents maternal and paternal are different, so when the
gamete is produced different combinations of them materials are different.

Fertilisation

Fertilisation is where male and female gametes fuse. It is a term to describe the
exact moment when the nuclei from the male and female gamete fuse. Since each
gamete contains half the required number of chromosomes the fusion of the nuclei
will create a complete set.

In mammals fertilisation occurs in the oviduct, and in flowering plants it occurs in

the embryo sac.

1. Sperm is deposited high up in the vagina, near the cervix. Once there the
sperm makes I way up the cervix and uterus and into one of the two
oviducts. Once here fertilisation occurs.
2. The sperm swims towards the egg cell in the oviduct.
 3. Once the sperm contacts the zona pellucida of the egg cell, the acrosome
swells and bursts, releasing digestive enzymes, these digestive enzymes
digest the zona pellucida, so it can reach the cell membrane of the egg cell.
4. Once the sperm head fuses with the cell membrane, this causes a cortical
reaction occurs, which is when the egg cell releases cortical granules in a
space between the cell membrane and the zona pellucid.
5. The chemicals from the cortical granules make the zona pellucid thicken,
making it impenetrable to other sperm cells.
6. Once the nuclei fuse the tall is discarded.

A flowering plant:

1. A pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower. The grain absorbs water and
splits open.
2. A pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain down the style. There are three
nuclei in the pollen tube. One tube nucleus at the tube tip and two male
gamete nuclei behind it, that digest surrounding cells, making a way
through for the pollen tube to go.
3. When the tube reaches the ovary, it grows through the micropyle, and into
the embryo sac within the ovule.
4. In the embryo sac, the tube nucleus disintegrates and the tip of the pollen
tube bursts releasing two male nuclei
5. One male nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to make a zygote. This divides
by mitosis.
6. The other male nucleus fuses with two other nuclei called polar nuclei,
which is at the centre of the embryo sac. This produces a ell with a large
nucleus. This provides a large food store, called the endosperm.
7. So a double fertilisation has taken place.

Cell differentiation

Multicellular organisms are made up of many different type of cells. These cells are
all specialised to fit their function, such as liver cells, muscle cells. All these
specialised cells all originally came from stem cells. Stem cells are cells which are
unspecialised and they can develop into any type of cell. Stem cells divide by
mitosis to become specialised; the process of which cells become specialised is
called differentiation.

In humans stem cells can be found in embryos where they can become specialised
into any cell. Also in some human tissues where they can differentiate into
specialised cells. An example is bone marrow.

There are two types of stem cells: Totipotency which is when it has the ability to
produce all cell types including the specialised cells in an organism and extra-
embryonic cells. The second type of Pluripotency which has the ability to produce
all the specialised cells, but not extra-embryonic cells.

Totipotency cells are only available in very early stages of the embryo in humans.
When there are only 8 cells, this occurs after three divisions. Five days after
conception, a hollow ball of cells called the blastocyst forms. The outer cells of the
blastocyst form the placenta. The 50 or so cells inside this form the tissue of the
developing embryo, these are known as pluripotent embryonic stem cells.
Multipotent stem cells are those which still have the capacity to give rise to
different cell types, such as neural stem cells.

How stem cells work:

1. Stem cells all contain the same gene, but not all of them are expressed
because some are ‘switched’ off.
2. Under the right conditions some genes are activated and others inactive.
3. mRNA is only transcribed from the active gene.
4. The mRNA from the active genes is then translated into proteins.
5. These proteins modify the cell- they determine the cell structure and control
cell processes.
6. Changes to the cell produced by these proteins causes the cell to become
specialised. These changes are difficult to reverse.

Totipotency can be demonstrated by plant tissue culture

Plants also have stem cells, and are found in places where the plant is growing. All
of the cells are totipotent

1. A single cell is taken from a growing area on a plant.

2. The cell is placed in some growth medium that contains nutrients and growth
hormones. The growth medium is sterile, so microorganisms can’t grow and
compete with a plant cell.
3. The plant cell will grow and divide into a mass of unspecialised cells. If the
condition are suitable, the unspecialised cells will differentiate into
specialised cells.
4. Eventually the cell will grow and differentiate into an entire plant.
Stem cells in Medicine

Stem cells could be used to treat some diseases, as they can develop into any type
of cell; scientists think they could be used to create a range of tissues which can
replace damaged cells.

Some stem cell treatment already exists, such as treatment for leukaemia, where
bone marrow transplants are given. Scientists are researching treatments for
injuries such as: spinal cord injuries, and heart disease. The treatments can save
many lives, and also improve the quality of lives for many people.

There are two methods from where stem cells can come from, these are Adult stem
cells and embryonic stem cells.
Adult stem cells
 These are obtained from the body
tissue of an adult, such as bone
marrow.
 They can be obtained in a very
simple operation, with very little
risk involved. But there is quite a
lot of discomfort for the person.
 Adult stem cells aren’t as flexible
as embryonic stem cells are they
are pluripotent and can only
develop into a limited range of
cells.
Embryonic stem cells
 These are obtained from early
embryos
 Embryos are created in a
laboratory using IVF, and are
fertilised outside the womb.
 Once the embryo are 4-5 days
old, stem cells are moved and the
embryo is destroyed.
 Embryonic stem cells can develop
into all type of specialised cells.
 But there are ethical implications,
such as it is a genetically unique
person, so it has the right to have
a chance in this world.

How society makes decisions about the use of stem cells.

Society has to consider both the positive and negative effects of the people involved.
There are many for and against arguments. To help these arguments many
authorities have been set up. These include looking at the proposals of research to
see if it should be allowed. This ensures that any research involving embryos is
carried out for a good reason. The licensing and monitoring centres involved in
embryonic stem cell research. There are many guidelines which are involved. They
also provide evidence and advice to governmental officials. There are no ethical
objections to a person using multipotent stem cells derived from adults. In the UK
the HFEA regulates research on human embryos.

Different genes are switched on and off. Such as the b-galactosidase which is an
enzyme, it breaks down the carbohydrate lactose when it is presented in the
surroundings. When lactose is not present in the environment a lactose repressor
molecule binds to the DNA, this prevents the transcription of the b galactosidase
gene.

Eukaryotes: genes in uncoiled, accessible regions of the eukaryote DNA can be

transcribed into messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to the section
of DNA adjacent to the gene to be transcribed. This section is known as the
promoter region. Only once the enzyme has become attached to the DNA will the
transcription proceed. The gene remains switched off until the enzyme attaches to
the promoter region successfully. ``

Variance

There are two types of variation in phenotype; it can be continuous or

discontinuous. Continuous variation is when individuals in a population vary
within a range with no distinct categories; these can be things like height, mass or
skin colour. Discontinuous variation is when individuals are in a specific category,
and will fall into only one category, these can be things like sex, eye colour and
blood group.

These variation in phenotypes are influenced by variation in genotype (genes), such

have a different combination of alleles. Individuals of the same species have
different genotypes. Such as in humans there are six different combinations of
blood group alleles, which produce four different blood groups. Some
characteristics are controlled by only one gene, and are called monogenic, these
tend to show discontinuous variations. Most traits are polygenic which is when
they are controlled by a number of genes are different loci.

Some characteristics are only influenced by genotype such as blood group, but
some are influenced by the environment and genotype. Some of these include
Height, monoamine oxidase A, Cancer and animal hair colour.

Height

Since 1850 the human population has on average got 8cm taller. This can be due
to many reasons such as:

 Taller men have more children, resulting in a gradual change

 Greater movements of people have lead to less inbreeding
 Improved health, especially in protein
 The end of child labour has allowed more energy to be put into growth.

Hair colour

Differences in hair colour are largely genetically determined, but due to variation in
the amount and type of pigment in the hair contains. But the environment can
influences hair colour in some cases.

Melanin is the dark pigment in the skin. The cells where melanin is found is
activated by melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH); there are receptors for MSH
on the surface of these melanocyte cells. The melanocyte place the melanin into
organelles called melanosomes. These are transferred to places near the skin and
hair cells where they collect around the nucleus, this protects the DNA from
harmful UV light. In animals they make melanin using the enzyme Tyrosinase.
Which is the first step along a chemical pathway.

MAOA

monoamine oxidase A is an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of

neurotransmitters in the brain involved in the regulation of behaviour. It has been
found that in some individuals they have a rare mutation of the MAOA gene, where
no enzymes are produced, these people portray a very aggressive behabiour.
Adaptation and evolution

A niche is a role of specie within a habitat. A niche a specie occupies within a

habitat includes its interactions with other living organisms, and its interactions
with the non-living environment. Every specie has a unique niche, and a niche can
only be occupied by one specie, there is always a slight difference between the
niches.

There are three ways to which an organism can be adapted to their niche:

Behavioural adaptations Ways an organism acts that increases its chances of

Physiological adaptations
Anatomical adaptations
survival and reproduction.
Processes inside an organism that increases its
change of survival
Structural features of an organism’s body that
increase its change of survival

Useful adaptations become more common within a population of species because of

evolution by natural selection. Individuals within a population show variation in
their phenotype, predation, disease and competition create a struggle for survival,
so individuals with better adaptations will perform better and are more likely to
survive. This is an outline of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural
selection. An example is the peppered moths, which showed a variation in colour,
light and dark, with due to industrial revolution the populations of each varied.

Classification

Taxonomy is the science of classification. It

involves naming, and organising organisms
into groups based on their similarities and
differences. There are seven levels of groups
involved in taxonomy, they are called
taxonomic groups. Organisms are first
sorted into kingdoms, and then it starts to
break down into more subsections. As you
go down there are more groups but fewer
organisms in each group.

It ends with specie, which is where there is

only one organism in it. Specie can be
defined as: A group of similar organisms
able to reproduce to give off fertile offspring.
All species are given a unique scientific name, in latin, it is binominal word, first
with the genus and second with the specie.

There are five kingdoms, these are based on general features.

Kingdom Example Features

Prokaryoate Bacteria Prokaryotes, Unicellular, no
nucleus, less than 5um
Protoctisa Alga, protozoa Eukaryotic cells, usually lives in
water, single celled or simple
multicellular organism
Fungi Mould, Yeast, Mushrooms Eukaryotic, chitin cell wall,
saprotrophic (absorb substances)
from dead or decaying organisms
Plantae Mosses, Ferns, Flowering Eukaryotic, multicellular, cell walls
plants made of cellulose, can
photosynthesis, contain
chlorophyll, autotrophic
Animalia Molluscs, Insects, Reptiles, Eukaryotic, multicellular, no cell
Birds, Mammals walls, heterotrophic.

Organisms can be reclassified, if once they have been revaluated, scientists agree
with the new data, which shows the tentative natures of science.

There is also a three domain taxonomy being put forward. It is called molecular
phyologeny. It looks at the DNA and Proteins and sees how closely related they
area.

This new system suggests that the five kingdom should be changed to three, which
are Bacteria, Achaea, and Eukaryote, these are super kingdoms and go above the
kingdoms. The prokaryotic kingdom has been split into Achaea and bacteria when
the other four kingdoms are now all in Eukaryote.

All organisms are given a unique scientific name. this is to avoid confusion that can
arise when common names are used. There is a two part Latin name, which is
called binominal system. The first part of the name is genus, it is shared by all
closely related species, and the second part refers to the specific specie in the
genus.

Phylogenetic trees represent the evolutionary relationship based on the best

existing evidence, they are consistently being revised as new data becomes
available.
Plant cell structure and plant stems
Organelle Description
Cell wall A rigid structure that
surrounds plant cells.
Made mainly of cellulose
Middle Lamella The outermost layer of cells
Plasmodesmata Channels in the cell wall
that link adjacent cells
Pits Regions of the cell wall
where the wall is very thin,
they are arranged in pairs
Chloroplast A small, flattened
structure, it has a double
bound membrane, inside it
is the thylakoid membrane.
They are in stacks called
grana
Amyloplast A small organelle enclosed
by a membrane. They
contain starch granules
Vacuole and The vacuole is
tonoplast compartment surrounded
by a membrane called a
tonoplast
Different part of the plant stems have different functions there are two main things,
these are xylem vessels and the sclerenchyma fibres.
Xylem Vessels
 The function is to transport water
and minerals up the plant and
provide support
 They are very long, tube-like
structures formed from dead
cells, joined end to end. They are
found together in bundles
 The cells are longer than they are
wide, they have a hollow lumen
and no end walls.
 They are a uninterrupted tube,
allowing water and minerals to
pass up.
 The water and mineral ions move
in and out of the vessel via pits
where there is no lignin
Function
Supports plant cells
This layer acts as an adhesive
sticking adjacent plant cells
together
Allow transport of substances and
communication between cells
Allow transport of substances
between cells
The site of photosynthesis. Some
part happens in the grana, and
other happen in the stroma
Storage of starch grains. They also
convert starch back to glucose
The vacuole contains the cell sap,
which is made up of water,
enzymes minerals and waste
products. Vacuoles keep the cells
turgid, and stop the plant from
wilting. They also breakdown and
isolate unwanted chemicals
Sclerenchyma fibres
 The function of sclerenchyma
fibres is to provide support
 Like xylem vessels, they are also
made of bundles of dead cells
that run vertically up the cell.
 The cells are longer then they are
wide, and also have a hollow
lumen and no end walls
 Their cell walls are also thinned
with lignin. They have more
cellulose than other plant cells.
 They are found throughout the
stems of pants but are
particularly around the outer
edges.
 How water is transported

1. Water vapour diffuses out of the stoma down a diffusion gradient

2. Water evaporates from the surfaces of cell lining the substomatal cavity
3. Water repleaced by means of capillary action within the cell wall
4. Water is drawn out of the xylem
5. A continuous column of water is drawn up through the xylem.

Water moves up through the xylem due to the evaporation of water from the
surface of cells within the leafs. This is due to the cohesion and surface tension in
which water has between the molecules. This moves the water.

Water is transported through xylem vessels through diffusion gradients. When

water evaporates away it is called transpiration. The stream of water passing
through a plant is called the transpiration stream. The water movement through
the xylem provides a mass flow system for the transport of inorganic ions.

Starch, cellulose and fibres

Starch is the main energy storage material in plants, cells get energy from glucose.
Plants store excess glucose a starch.

Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides, these are Amylose which is a long

unbranching polysaccharide. It is a coiled structure, making it compact, so it is
good for storage. Amylopectin is the other, it is a long branched chain of a glucose.
It side branches allow for a quick release of glucose.

Cellulose is made of long unbranched cains of Beta-glucose and is joined by

glycosidic bonds. The glycosidic bonds are straight so cellulose molecules are
straight. Between 50-80 cellulose chains are linked together by a large number of
hydrogen bonds.

Plant fibres are made up of long tubes of plant cells, they are strong which makes
them good for rope, this is due to a number of reasons, the arrangement of
cellulose mircrofibrils in the cell wall, which is like an net arrangement. And also
the secondary thickening of the cell wall.

Measuring Tensile Strength

Sustainability and plant minerals
1. Attach the fibre to a clamp stand, and hang a weight from the other end.
Sustainable practice
2. Keep adding means
weights, that
one at youuntil
a time, don’tthedeplete resources, so they are there for
fibre breaks
future generations.
3. Record the massItneeded
is a way of meeting
to break the fibrethe demands of today without messing up
the4.resource
Repeat the experiment to add reliability to be sustainable they need to be
for the future. For resources
renewable; a renewable
5. The fibres resource
should be tested issame
at the one length
which can be used indefinitely without
running out. Such as planting a tree after logging is an example of sustainable
6. Other variables should be kept consistent
practices.
7. Need to take into measure safety measures.
Plant fibres and starch can be used to control sustainability. Plant fibres can be
used to make rope, and fabrics. These used to be made from oil which is not a
renewable source. Plant fibres are renewable due to them being able to be planted
and re-grown, this will maintain supply. Also materials made from plant fibres are
biodegradable, as they can be broken down by microbes, but most oil products
can’t! Plants are also easier to grow and process.

Starch is found in all plants, such as potatoes and corn, materials which are
usually made from plastics can be made from starch, these are called bio plastics.
This makes the product more sustainable. You can also make vehicle fuel from
starch, called bio ethanol.

Plants need water and inorganic ions, they need these for a number of different
functions. They are absorbed through the roots and travel up the plant xylem. If
there isn’t enough water or inorganic ions then the plants will show deficiency
symptoms.

Water Needed for photosynthesis, to maintain structural rigidty,

transport minerals and regulate temperature
Magnesium ions Are needed for the production of chlorophyll
Nitrate ions Are needed for the production of DNA, proteins and
chlorophyll. They are required for plant growth, fruit
production and seed production
Calcium ions Are a important component in plant cell walls.

Investigate plant mineral deficiency

1. Take 30 seedlings of the same plant, and plant them in separate pots.
2. Make up three nutrient broths containing all the essential minerals but vary the
concentration of calcium ions.
3. Split the plants into three groups; each one should be given only one of the three broths
4. Record the heights of the plants after seven weeks, and calculate the average height.
5. During the experiment it is important to keep all variables consistent.

Results: The greater the concentration of calcium ions then the more the plant grew.

Drug testing and drugs from plants

Before drugs become available to the general public they need to be tested to make
sure they work, and don’t have any horrible side effects. We know this through the
past, experiments such as William withering digitalis soup, he discovered that
extracts from foxgloves could be used to treat dropsy. Withering made a chance
observation, a patient suffering with dropsy made a good recovery after being
treated with it, he knew foxgloves were poisonous so he used patients to find out
the correct concentration of it.

Nowadays drug protocols are a lot more strict and controlled. Before using it on any
live subjects computers are used to look for any side effects . Tests are then carried
out on human tissue in a lab and then live animals before clinical trials can be
carried out.

There are three phase to the clinical trials

1. Phase one involves testing a new drug on a snall number of healthy

individuals, it is done to find out a safe dosage and look for side effects.
2. Phase two is to be tested on a larger group of patients, to see how well the
drug works
3. Phase three is when it is compared to existing treatments. It involves
hundreds, or even thousands of patients. They are split into two groups, one
with the new treatment, and one who receives the existing treatment.

Placebos and double blind studies are used to make clinical trials more reliable.

Placebos Double blind study

In phase 2 they are split into two Are in phase 2 or three and is when
groups, one receives the placebo. This is neither the doctor nor patient knows
an inactive substance. To see If the drug who has been given the new drug or
actually works placebo.

Antibacterial properties

1. Take extracts from the required plants, to do this dry and grind them up, then soak in
ethanol.
2. Filter off the liquid bit, and ethanol so it has no effect on the bacteria
3. You need to spread bacteria evenly on a agar plate
4. Dip discs of absorbent paper in the extracts, the discs should all be the same size.
5. Need a control disc which is just put in distilled water.
6. Incubate the plate allowing the bacteria to grow
7. Where the bacteria hasn’t grown is the inhibition zone.
8. The size of the inhibition zone is the antibacterial plant.

Biodiversity and Endemism

Biodiversity is the variety of all living organisms in an area. It includes species

diversity (the number of different species, and abundance of each species in a area)
and genetic diversity (the variety of alleles within a specie). Conservation is needed
to help maintain biodiversity. Endemism is when an specie is unique to a single
place, such as the giant tortoise.
Species diversity can be measured, and compared to different habitats. The
number of different species in an area is species richness, the higher the number of
species, the greater the specie richness. But it gives no indication of abundance of
each species. Count the number of species and the abundance of each species,
then use the biodiversity index to calculate the species diversity.

This is easily, Choose an area to sample, to avoid bias do it randomly. For plants
use a quadrant, insects use a sweep net, for ground insects use a pitfall trap, and
aquatic animals use a net.

Diversity within a specie is the variety shown by an individual of the species.

Individuals of the same species vary because they have different alleles. Genetic
diversity is the variety of alleles in the same gene pool of a population. The greater
the variety the greater the genetic diversity.

To measure it looks at two things, Phenotype and genotype. For phenotype look at
the characteristics of the organism. Such as there is a greater genetic diversity in
eye colour in northern Europe. To measure genotype you need a sample of the
organisms DNA.

Conservation of Biodiversity

Zoos and seed banks help to conserve endangered species. The extinction of a
specie or the loss of genetic diversity can cause a reduction in global biodiversity.
Some species such as the Dodo have already became extinct, and many and
endangered.

Seedbanks is a store of lots of seeds from different plant species. This is to help
conserve the biodiversity by storing the seeds of endangered plants. So if plants
have became extinct in the wild, then they can be re-grown via the seed. The also
keep a range of the same seed but with a different genes, so that have a good
genetic biodiversity. It involves keeping the seeds in a dry, cool condition, so the
seeds can be stored for a long time. Testing the viability of the seeds. Seeds are
planted, grown and new seeds are harvested to keep stocks up. An example of this
is the millennium seed bank (MSB)

Advantages
 It is cheap to store seeds rather
than fully grown plants
 Large number of seeds can be
stored in a small space
 Less labour is required to look
after seeds.
 Seeds can be stored anywhere as
long as it is cool and dry
 Seeds are less likely to be
damaged by disease
Disadvantages
 Testing the seeds for viability can
be expensive and time consuming
 It would be to expensive to store
all types of seed and regularly test
them all
 It may be difficult to collect seeds
from some plants, as some
naturally grow remotely.
Zoos have captive breeding programs to help endangered species. These are in
controlled environments. Species which are endangered or which are already
extinct in the wild can be bred together in zoos to help increase their numbers.
Such as Pandas. But there are some problems with it, animals can have problems
breeding outside their natural habitats, and some people think it is cruel.

These animals or plants can be reintroduced into the wild, this is to bring them
back from the brink of extinction, and to boost their numbers. An example is the
Californian condor, which only 22 were left in the wild, but this number is now
around 300 due to captive breeding.

But reintroducing them to the wild can bring new diseases to the habitat, which
can harm other organisms there. The animals may also not behave naturally, as
they have been raised in different environments.

They also contribute to scientific research, so they can study how species can
successfully grown and developed, which can help in the wild, Seedbanks can be
used to grow endangered plants for use in medical research so we don’t have to
remove them from the environment. But this can lead to interbred populations and
a lack of genetic diversity.

In zoos there will be an increased knowledge about the behaviour, physiology and
nutritional needs of the animals, this can be used for in-situ conservation. Zoos
cannot carry out the needed research on some animals in the wild. Captive
breeding can cause animals to act different to they would in their natural
environment.

Measuring biodiversity

Specie richness is the simplest way to measure biodiversity, this involves counting
all the species present in a given habitat.

Specie evenness is when you use specie richness but you take into account the
population size of each of the species.

Usually in an ecosystem there is a dominant organism. This is the most common

specie in the habitat. In English woods it is often the Oak tree.