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Background
This very brief description is not intended to provide fundamental instruction
in phsyical oceanography; as with all OceanTeacher materials, we leave basic
marine education to the colleges and universities. This article merely provides
a conceptual framework and terminology for data managers who may have a
slightly different specific background, but who have marine data
responsibilities.
The following references can provide a broader foundation in the whole subject
area.
Introduction to Physical Oceanography, Robert H. Stewart, Department
of Oceanography, Texas A&M University, 19972005. Online textbook
Regional Oceanography: an Introduction 2nd Ed., Tomczak, Matthias &
J Stuart Godfrey, 2003 Online textbook
Introduction to Physical Oceanography, by Matthias Tomczak Lecture
notes
Shelf and Coastal Oceanography, by Matthias Tomczak Lecture notes
Principal Physical Measurements
The first three parameters listed here are classical hydrochemistry measurements used
by physical oceanographers historically for water mass identification and inferences
about largescale movements and mixing processes.
Temperature
Temperature has been measured with thermometers stuck in buckets of surface
water, and with very sensitive deep sea reversing thermometers. It can be
measured by thermal probes on CTD frames (see below), and by expendable
bathythermographs, called XBTs.
The ITS90 is the official standard for marine temperature measurements.
Wikipedia: International Temperature Scale of 1990
The Internet resource for the International Temperature Scale of 1990
There have been previous recognized scales, the most recent one being the
IPTS68.
IPTS68 = 1.00024 * ITS90
To complicate matters, although ITS90 is the official standard for
measurements, salinity, density, and sound velocity are still defined in terms of
IPTS68 temperature. This implies data storage according to one standard, but
necessary conversions to accomplish analytical work. Check all software for
builtin conversion capabilities.
SeaBird Application Note 42: ITS90 Temperature Scale
Salinity
Wikipedia: Salinity
Salinity was originally measured by weighing the dried salts from seawater,
later by titration of the halides (chlorine, bromine); the units used then were
partsperthousand (salt to seawater).
Salinity is now measured as the ratio of electrical conductivity of the sample to
a standard potassium chloride solution. As such, the salinity is a pure number
and there are no units. This "scale" for determining salinity is known as the
Practical Salinity Scale of 1978 (PSS), and the acronym PSS is often seen
(incorrectly) placed in data fields reserved for the reporting units
Background papers and supporting data on the Practical Salinity Scale, 1978.
UNESCOUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
Tech. Papers Mar. Sci 37
The International system of units (SI) in oceanography. UNESCOUnited
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Tech. Papers Mar.
Sci. 45
Salinity and density of seawater: tables for high salinities, 42 to 50.
UNESCOUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
Tech. Papers Mar. Sci. 62
Salinity in situ can be measured with a CTD (see below) or an expendable
CTD (XCTD) similar to an XBT.
SeaBird Application Note 14: 1978 Practical Salinity Scale
Oxygen
Oxygen, a gas, has a curious history of measurements, because the units used
to report it have changed greatly over the years. In the first half of the 20th
century it was always reported as volumepervolume, or ml/l to be exact. It
has also been reported as millimoles per liter and millimoles per kg seawater.
See History of Chemical Measurement Units for further information.
Oxygen measurements are most accurate when obtained with the Winkler
titration method, seen here on the right. Probes capable of measuring oxygen
at depth are available for deployment on CTD devices.
From NOAA Photograph Library
Density
Density is a derived quantity, calculated from salinity, temperature and depth,
according to the UNESCOUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization formula
Background papers and supporting data on the International Equation of State
of Seawater, 1980. UNESCOUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization Tech. Papers Mar. Sci. 38
Algorithms for computation of fundamental properties of seawater.
UNESCOUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
Technical Papers in Marine Science 44, UNESCOUnited Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1983. The original P. Fofonoff and R.C.
Millard reference
International Oceanographic Tables, Volume 3. UNESCOUnited Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Tech. Papers in Mar. Sci. 39,
UNESCOUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
1981 Replaces earlier volume 1
International Oceanographic Tables, Volume 4. UNESCOUnited Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Tech. Papers in Mar. Sci. 40,
UNESCOUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
1987 Provides further tables and calculation methods
CTD
Because salinity and temperature are measured so often, and are so important
in oceanography, from the early 1960's engineers began developing
submersible probes to measure them in the ocean water column. Naturally,
these instruments also needed pressure gauges to complete the three variables
needed to calculate density. These instruments are the workhorses of
hydrography today, universally called CTD's for Conductivity (the proxy
measurement for salinity), Temperature and Depth. CTD frames can
accomodate other probes, such as oxygen.
Currents
Wikipedia: Ocean current
Current measurements quantify the directional flow of ocean waters, whether
due to named large ocean current systems, transient wind events, tides or other
factors.
The earliest known ocean "data" were the results of ad hoc ocean current
drifter experiments by the ancient Greeks, known today as "Lagrangian
measurements".
For much of the modern history of oceanography instruments have been
available to place in the sea for recording instantaneous currents at one
location, known as "Eulerian measurements."
A large fraction of the total current can also be estimated from density
distribution by the "geostrophic approximation" formula
Currents were measured historically in units of "knots" which is onesixtieth of
a degree of geographic latitude in one hour, or one nautical mile per hour. One
knot is equal to approximately 51 cm/sec.
Current velocities, measured today in centimeters per second, range from very
slow "residual" (or average) currents on the order of a few cm per sec, up to
measured "gusts" of several hundred cm/sec.
Lagrangian versus Eulerian Tracers
Ocean Surface Currents Glossary
Ocean Surface Current Climatology in the Northern Gulf of Mexico The
largest known synthesis of both Lagrangian and Eulerian current data for one
region
Lagrangian Measurements
Historically, Lagrangian current data were obtained by casting marked objects
into the sea and awaiting either the return of the object or of an included postal
card, if they were found ashore by persons willing to assist in their return.
Many thousands of drift objects, worldwide, resulted in begin pointend point
type datasets that proved quite interesting prior to the age of satellite tracking.
Since the 1970's however, satellite tracking of the precise path of the drifting
object has been possible. The international System Argos has been a leader in
such services, where "smart tracking of dumb drifters" was needed. With the
advent of the GPS, "smart drifters" can now telemeter their own positions to
other systems as well. The major global Lagrangian activity today is the Global
Drifter Program, involving hundreds of surface drifters deployed by many
nations
Lagrangian data take the form of coordinate locations versus time, with
reporting intervals from minutes to days, depending on conditions, and
positional accuracy depending on the system involved (i.e. 100s of meters to
better than one meter)
Pointtopoint Lagrangian data can be used to calculate the mean surface drift
speed (typically as cm/s) and direction, thus yielding a current vector
conventionally assigned to the midpoint of the segment. Ensemble datasets of
many such surface current "instaneous" vectors have been used to create grids
of surface currents. Work is underway in many groups to find other ways to
use Lagrangian data more directly in ocean modeling.
Other measures of ocean energy, such as dispersion values, can be calculated.
System Argos The French satellite tracking system used to capture
Lagrangian trejectory data from many surface drifters
Global Drifter Program (GDP) Satellitetracked surface drifting buoy
program using drifters whose design has been shown to track surface water
particles extremely closely, due to the use of a "holey sock" drogue that
anchors the buoy to a surface water mass.
Argo Project "Argo is a global array of 3,000 freedrifting profiling floats that
measures the temperature and salinity of the upper 2000 m of the ocean. This
allows, for the first time, continuous monitoring of the temperature, salinity,
and velocity of the upper ocean, with all data being relayed and made publicly
available within hours after collection." [From the Argo website] The surface
trajectories are not as detailed as GDP, due to nearcontinuous submergence,
but the project complements GDP with closely related data.
Eulerian Measurements
Defined as currents measured at a single point in the sea
Over the past century numerous devices hae been invented to make Eulerian current
measurements, all collectively called "current meters." They range in complexity from
simple mechanical devices, lowered into the sea on hydrographic cable for short periods of
time, to complex, moored electronic devices that measure currents throughout the entire
water column for long periods of time. We present here a representative sampling of major
devices you will encounter in various databases.
Instrument
Operating Principle Image
Name
Ekman See Wikipedia: Ekman
Current Meter current meter
From [NOAA Photograph Library]
Impeller The impeller is a vaned
Current rotor, acting like an airplane
Meters propeller in reverse: it
derives its speed of rotation
from the current. Many
different designs have been
used. The model shown
here has a umbrellalike
guard of light bars to keep
trash away, and the impeller
rotor itself is just barely
visible at the top of the
missilelike electronic
housing. Typically these
units were directed into the
current by fins, as you see
her on the right. This unit is From NOAA Photograph Library
about to be deployed on a
mooring that is held upright
in the sea by the airfilled,
white steel sphere, above.
The cable disappearing into
the water has a substantial
anchor at the bottom to hold
the mooring in place; used
railroad wheels are often
used, due to their
availability and cheap cost.
"Winged housing is turned
in the direction of the flow
and swept away from the
vertical by the water
Niskin
current; a measurement of
Winged
the magnitude and direction
Current Meter
of the tilt provides speed
and direction of the
current." From General
Oceanics website.
From General Oceanics website
Electromagnet "Electromagnetic Current
ic Current Meter measures the voltage
Meters resulting from the motion of
a conductor (water flow
velocity) through a
magnetic field according to
Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. From InterOcean Systems, Inc website
Simply stated, Faraday's
law defines the voltage
produced in a conductor as
the product of the speed of
the conductor (water flow
velocity) times the
magnitude of the magnetic
field times the length of the
conductor....Two orthogonal
pairs of electrodes and an
internal flux gate compass
provide the current vector."
From InterOcean Systems,
Inc. website.
See Wikipedia:
Acoustic Doppler
Current Profiler
Acoustic
See NOAA Ocean
Doppler
Explorer: ADCP
Current
Meters See RDI Instruments
Online Training for
ADCP
From NOAA Photograph Library
Sea Surface Height
Sea surface height (SSH) is defined as the height of the instantaneous (i.e.
synoptic) sea surface compared to the long term average surface level.
Components of SSH
Very longterm changes associated with earth gravity
Longterm changes associated with changes in seawater density (i.e.
temperature rise due to global warming). Amounts to a few millimeters rise per
year.
Mediumterm changes associated with ocean circulation (i.e. density
distribution due to currents). Amounts to a total "signal" as large as
approximately 20 cm (+/) with fluctuations on the order of days to seasons.
Shortterm changes associated with storm surges. Amounts to 1 to fewday
perturbations on the order of meters, along a storm track up to a few hundred
kilometers in width.
Shortterm changes associated with tides. Amounts to cm to mscale cyclic
changes over neardaily periods.
Very shortterm changes associated with a tsunami. Amounts to rapid sea
leavel rise of up to a few meters, over minutes to hours, affecting entire ocean
basin coasts in the worst cases; at sea, tsunami perturbations are only tens of
centimeters high.
Measuring SSH
Tide gauges Devices have been in place for decades in some locations, and
data accuracies on the order of mm are routinely obtained
Satellite altimeters Several satellite platforms are providing altimeter data
today, with accuracies on the order of 2 cm globally
Ocean Topography/Currents For background information on satellite
altimeters
Waves
Wikipedia: Ocean surface waves
Wikipedia: Significant wave height
Wikipedia: Swell (ocean)
Measured quantities:
Wave height (from trough to crest) Measured in meters; the average of
the highest third of the waves is called the significant wave height, and
this is often the reported value; values over 10 m can occur
Wavelength (from crest to crest) Measured in meters
Period (time interval between arrival of consecutive crests at a stationary
point) Measured in seconds
Wave propagation direction (with respect to north) Degrees true
Physical Parameter Lists
There are many lists of physical measurements in oceanography. By far, the most
comprehensive list is that developed by the BODC (below).
See Parameter Name Standards for Marine Data for the current status of
discussions to adopt a standard parameter list
Resources on the UK NERC Data Grid Vocabulary Server The Vocabulary
Server is a Web Service API implemented both as SOAP and pseudorestful
HTTPPOX interfaces, containing many vocabularies gathered by UK
scientists
BODC Use Metadata Parameters List List P011 contains all
measurement terms, including physical measurements. This list is
enormous (~19,000 terms), so should not normally be downloaded. The
surprising number is due to the fact that the BODC register includes both
parameters and methods to measure the parameters. Chemical, biological
and geological parameters are included, so a simple count of physical
parameters is impossible, but it is probably the largest category of
parameters.[Similarly named lists contain working datasets, and should
not be consulted]
BODC Discovery Metadata Parameters List List P021 contains all
measurement terms, including physical measurements. This list is
relatively manageable in size, because the terms are more generalized
than the use metadata link above. [Similarly named lists contain working
datasets, and should not be consulted]
Additional Resources
Wikipedia: Physical oceanography